196:
585:. A child's thinking is dominated by perceptions of physical features, meaning that if the child is told that a family pet has "gone away to a farm" when it has in fact died, then the child will have difficulty comprehending the transformation of the dog not being around anymore. Magical thinking would be evident here, since the child may believe that the family pet being gone is just temporary. Their young minds in this stage do not understand the finality of death and magical thinking may bridge the gap.
520:". He says that the members of both cultures use the same practical common-sense, and that both science and magic are ways beyond basic logic by which people formulate theories to explain whatever occurs. However, non-Western cultures use the idiom of magic and have community spiritual figures, and therefore non-Westerners turn to magical practices or to a specialist in that idiom. Horton sees the same logic and common-sense in all cultures, but notes that their contrasting
566:'s Theory of Cognitive Development, magical thinking is most prominent in children between ages 2 and 7. Due to examinations of grieving children, it is said that during this age, children strongly believe that their personal thoughts have a direct effect on the rest of the world. It is posited that their minds will create a reason to feel responsible if they experience something tragic that they do not understand, e.g. a death. Jean Piaget, a
601:", believing that what they feel and experience is the same as everyone else's feelings and experiences. Also at this age, there is often a lack of ability to understand that there may be other explanations for events outside of the realm of things they have already comprehended. What happens outside their understanding needs to be explained using what they already know, because of an inability to fully comprehend abstract concepts.
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ramifications of the event. A child may feel that they are responsible for what has happened, simply because they were upset with the person who died, or perhaps played with the pet too roughly. There may also be the idea that if the child wishes it hard enough, or performs just the right act, the person or pet may choose to come back, and not be dead any longer.
220:
becomes less important than the actions used to achieve the goal, with the implication that magic rituals can persist without efficacy because the intent is lost within the act. Alternatively, some cases of harmless "rituals" may have positive effects in bolstering intent, as may be the case with certain pre-game exercises in sports.
621:" describes "cases in which people act as if they erroneously believe that their action influences the outcome, even though they do not really hold that belief". People may realize that a superstitious intuition is logically false, but act as if it were true because they do not exert an effort to correct the intuition.
187:, in which the act of saying something makes it true, such as in an inaugural or marital rite. Other theories propose that magic is effective because symbols are able to affect internal psycho-physical states. They claim that the act of expressing a certain anxiety or desire can be reparative in itself.
593:
It was discovered that children often feel that they are responsible for an event or events occurring or are capable of reversing an event simply by thinking about it and wishing for a change: namely, "magical thinking". Make-believe and fantasy are an integral part of life at this age and are often
524:
idioms lead to cultural practices which seem illogical to observers whose own culture has correspondingly contrasting norms. He explains, "he layman's grounds for accepting the models propounded by the scientist are often no different from the young
African villager's ground for accepting the models
504:
suggested that magical procedures are relatively effective in exerting control over the environment. This outlook has generated alternative theories of magical thinking, such as the symbolic and psychological approaches, and softened the contrast between "educated" and "primitive" thinking: "Magical
260:
Another phenomenological model is that of
Gilbert Lewis, who argues that "habit is unthinking". He believes that those practicing magic do not think of an explanatory theory behind their actions any more than the average person tries to grasp the pharmaceutical workings of aspirin. When the average
1004:
Fonseca-Pedrero E, Ortuno J, Debbané M, Chan E, Cicero D, Zhang L, Brenner C, Barkus E, Linscott E, Kwapil T, Barrantes-Vidal N, Cohen A, Raine A, Compton M, Tone E, Suhr J, Inchausti F, Bobes J, Fumero A, Giakoumaki S, Tsaousis I, Preti A, Chmielewski M, Laloyaux J, Mechri A, Lahmar M, Wuthrich V,
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When considering their own illness or impending death, some children may feel that they are being punished for doing something wrong, or not doing something they should have, and therefore have become ill. If a child's ideas about an event are incorrect because of their magical thinking, there is a
77:, magical thinking is the belief that one's thoughts by themselves can bring about effects in the world or that thinking something corresponds with doing it. These beliefs can cause a person to experience an irrational fear of performing certain acts or having certain thoughts because of an assumed
219:
rituals — a possible clinical model for certain forms of magical thinking — focus shifts to the lowest level of gestures, resulting in goal demotion. For example, an obsessive-compulsive cleaning ritual may overemphasize the order, direction, and number of wipes used to clean the surface. The goal
532:
of Peru see magic as a type of technology, no more supernatural than their physical tools. Brown says that the
Aguaruna utilize magic in an empirical manner; for example, they discard any magical stones which they have found to be ineffective. To Brown—as to Horton—magical and scientific thinking
481:
style of thought. He asserts that in these representations, "primitive" people's "mental activity is too little differentiated for it to be possible to consider ideas or images of objects by themselves apart from the emotions and passions which evoke those ideas or are evoked by them". Lévy-Bruhl
417:
theorists identified associative thinking (a common feature of practitioners of magic) as a characteristic form of irrationality. As with all forms of magical thinking, association-based and similarities-based notions of causality are not always said to be the practice of magic by a magician. For
207:
According to theories of anxiety relief and control, people turn to magical beliefs when there exists a sense of uncertainty and potential danger, and with little access to logical or scientific responses to such danger. Magic is used to restore a sense of control over circumstance. In support of
239:
suggests that engaging in magical practices surrounding healing can relieve anxiety, which could have a significant positive physical effect. In the absence of advanced health care, such effects would play a relatively major role, thereby helping to explain the persistence and popularity of such
604:
Magical thinking is found particularly in children's explanations of experiences about death, whether the death of a family member or pet, or their own illness or impending death. These experiences are often new for a young child, who at that point has no experience to give understanding of the
553:
of any scientific hypothesis. He notes that for native peoples "there is no developed awareness of alternatives to the established body of theoretical texts." He notes that all further differences between traditional and
Western thought can be understood as a result of this factor. He says that
445:
tribe believe that rubbing crocodile teeth on banana plants can invoke a fruitful crop. Because crocodile teeth are curved (like bananas) and grow back if they fall out, the Azande observe this similarity and want to impart this capacity of regeneration to their bananas. To them, the rubbing
256:
based level. Glucklich seeks to describe the attitude that magical practitioners feel what he calls "magical consciousness" or the "magical experience". He explains that it is based upon "the awareness of the interrelatedness of all things in the world by means of simple but refined sense
436:
coined the term "associative thinking", characterizing it as pre-logical, in which the "magician's folly" is in mistaking an imagined connection with a real one. The magician believes that thematically linked items can influence one another by virtue of their similarity. For example, in
37:
effects. Examples include the idea that personal thoughts can influence the external world without acting on them, or that objects must be causally connected if they resemble each other or have come into contact with each other in the past. Magical thinking is a type of
540:
One theory of substantive difference is that of the open versus closed society. Horton describes this as one of the key dissimilarities between traditional thought and
Western science. He suggests that the scientific worldview is distinguished from a magical one by the
133:
instead of certain words, or the belief that to know the "true name" of something gives one power over it; or that certain chants, prayers, or mystical phrases will bring about physical changes in the world. More generally, it is magical thinking to take a
465:
operate upon the premise that "like affects like", or that one can impart characteristics of one object to a similar object. Frazer believed that some individuals think the entire world functions according to these mimetic, or homeopathic, principles.
261:
person takes an aspirin, he does not know how the medicine chemically functions. He takes the pill with the premise that there is proof of efficacy. Similarly, many who avail themselves of magic do so without feeling the need to understand a
168:, believe that magic is meant to be expressive, rather than instrumental. As opposed to the direct, mimetic thinking of Frazer, Tambiah asserts that magic utilizes abstract analogies to express a desired state, along the lines of
195:
460:
or contact, in which two things that were once connected retain this link and have the ability to affect their supposedly related objects, such as harming a person by harming a lock of his hair. Sympathetic magic and
491:, in which people observe that x is followed by y, and conclude that x has caused y. He believes that this fallacy is institutionalized in native culture and is committed regularly and repeatedly.
211:
Another potential reason for the persistence of magic rituals is that the rituals prompt their own use by creating a feeling of insecurity and then proposing themselves as precautions.
708:
practice of curing epilepsy by eating the burnt skull of a red bush monkey, based on the apparent similarity of epileptic movements and those of the monkeys, was discussed in
422:
held that similarities between plant parts and body parts indicated their efficacy in treating diseases of those body parts, and was a part of
Western medicine during the
289:
2172:
537:, and focus on the similarities in magical, technical, and spiritual practices. Brown even ironically writes that he is tempted to disclaim the existence of 'magic.'
208:
this theory, research indicates that superstitious behavior is invoked more often in high stress situations, especially by people with a greater desire for control.
152:
factors. He described practitioners of magic as projecting their mental states onto the world around them, similar to a common phase in child development. From
125:(1954) discusses another type of magical thinking, in which words and sounds are thought to have the ability to directly affect the world. This type of
33:, is the belief that unrelated events are causally connected despite the absence of any plausible causal link between them, particularly as a result of
609:
possibility that the conclusions the child makes could result in long-term beliefs and behaviours that create difficulty for the child as they mature.
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or ritual, for example, is assumed to increase the probability that one will perform at a level so that one can achieve a desired goal or outcome.
1818:
Schoen, A.; Burgoyen, M.; Schoen, S. (2004). "Are the developmental needs of children in
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This work discusses how and why the magical thinking of childhood can carry into adulthood, causing various maladaptions and psychopathologies.
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Hamerman, Eric J.; Morewedge, Carey K. (2015-03-01). "Reliance on luck identifying which achievement goals elicit superstitious behavior".
47:
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to early school age, children will often link the outside world with their internal consciousness, e.g. "It is raining because I am sad."
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because there are no alternatives in societies based on magical thought, a theory does not need to be objectively judged to be valid.
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describes a similar notion of mystical, "collective representations". He too sees magical thinking as fundamentally different from a
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The precise definition of magical thinking may vary subtly when used by different theorists or among different fields of study. In
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An important question raised by this interpretation is how mere symbols could exert material effects. One possible answer lies in
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Risen, Jane L. (2016). "Believing what we do not believe: Acquiescence to superstitious beliefs and other powerful intuitions".
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Shweder, Richard A. (1977). "Likeness and likelihood in everyday thought: Magical thinking in judgments about personality".
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Researchers have identified two possible principles as the formal causes of the attribution of false causal relationships:
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thinking can result in the avoidance of talking about certain subjects ("Speak of the devil and he'll appear"), the use of
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Explaining obsessive-compulsive symptoms? A transcultural exploration of magical thinking and OCD in India and
Australia
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thinking is no less characteristic of our own mundane intellectual activity than it is of Zande curing practices."
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Ariel
Glucklich tries to understand magic from a subjective perspective, attempting to comprehend magic on a
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118:
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maintains that the difference between the thinking of
Western and of non-Western peoples is predominantly "
1332:(1967). "African traditional thought and western science: Part II. The 'closed' and 'open' predicaments".
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Another theory of magical thinking is the symbolic approach. Leading thinkers of this category, including
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Despite the view that magic is less than rational and entails an inferior concept of causality, in
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426:. This association-based thinking is a vivid example of the general human application of the
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452:(1854–1941) elaborated upon Tylor's principle by dividing magic into the categories of
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as prime examples of how our mental functions exert power over our bodies. Similarly,
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Along similar lines, Michael F. Brown argues that the
392:, and an expected benefit or recompense. The use of a
1887:
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887:
Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry
883:"Psychedelic drugs, magical thinking and psychosis"
2128:Believing in Magic: The Psychology of Superstition
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793:
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482:explains that the indigenous people commit the
148:believed that magical thinking was produced by
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352:, the posited causality is between religious
286:The examples and perspective in this section
57:, the posited causality is between religious
8:
1169:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
73:, and an expected benefit or recompense. In
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1202:Current Directions in Psychological Science
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667:Schizotypal personality disorder
570:, came up with a theory of four
454:sympathetic and contagious magic
277:
99:schizotypal personality disorder
2104:The Tyranny of Magical Thinking
803:Critical Thinking in Psychology
662:Psychological theories of magic
647:Law of attraction (New Thought)
456:. The latter is based upon the
1488:Theories of Primitive Religion
1445:Nisbett, D.; Ross, L. (1980).
806:. Cambridge University Press.
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215:and Liénard propose that in
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441:'s account, members of the
300:, discuss the issue on the
223:Some scholars believe that
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2257:
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769:Carroll RT (12 Sep 2014).
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1181:10.1037/0022-3514.67.1.48
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244:Phenomenological approach
138:to be its referent or an
69:, or the observance of a
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150:cognitive developmental
2241:Psychology of religion
2231:Language and mysticism
1844:Schonfeld, D. (1993).
1502:Evans-Pritchard, E. E.
1484:Evans-Pritchard, E. E.
1011:Schizophrenia Bulletin
657:Psychology of religion
619:Quasi-magical thinking
420:doctrine of signatures
204:
199:A healing ritual (the
31:superstitious thinking
2126:Vyse, Stuart (1997).
1668:Piaget, Jean (1929).
1023:10.1093/schbul/sby044
439:E. E. Evans-Pritchard
233:psychosomatic disease
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2067:Abridged version of
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1922:Cognitive Psychology
1572:Current Anthropology
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1095:Thinking About Magic
1054:Barkataki B (2019).
746:Logically Fallacious
710:Evans-Pritchard 1937
579:preoperational stage
572:developmental stages
509:Cultural differences
434:Edward Burnett Tylor
298:improve this section
217:obsessive-compulsive
119:Bronisław Malinowski
19:For other uses, see
2185:(6). Archived from
2085:Hudson Street Press
1578:(4): 637–58 (637).
1251:Scientific American
642:Illusion of control
502:Claude Lévi-Strauss
160:Symbolic approaches
2178:Skeptical Inquirer
2158:"Magical thinking"
1977:10.1037/rev0000017
1541:Lévy-Bruhl, Lucien
1246:"Why Rituals Work"
879:Carhart-Harris, R.
771:"Magical thinking"
742:"Magical Thinking"
652:Mythopoeic thought
265:theory behind it.
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201:laying on of hands
166:Stanley J. Tambiah
2236:Thought disorders
1777:10.2190/om.63.3.e
1545:How Natives Think
1389:The Look of Magic
990:978-1-4511-0047-1
965:978-0-89042-554-1
813:978-0-521-60834-3
677:Tinkerbell effect
543:scientific method
475:Lucien Lévy-Bruhl
471:How Natives Think
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329:
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44:causal inferences
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2226:Cognitive biases
2216:Causal fallacies
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549:, requiring the
458:law of contagion
450:Sir James Frazer
325:
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250:phenomenological
227:. They cite the
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185:performativity
183:'s concept of
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2191:. Retrieved
2187:the original
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2108:E. P. Dutton
2106:. New York:
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774:
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514:Robin Horton
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333:Anthropology
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55:anthropology
52:
35:supernatural
30:
26:
25:
2049:Rationality
2011:Hood, Bruce
1646:, p. 2
564:Jean Piaget
558:In children
522:ontological
424:Middle Ages
394:lucky charm
382:benediction
374:incantation
310:August 2024
240:practices.
154:toddlerhood
79:correlation
2205:Categories
2193:2010-09-22
1644:Brown 1993
1508:. Oxford:
1257:2015-12-17
720:References
599:egocentric
547:skepticism
463:homeopathy
413:Prominent
362:meditation
131:euphemisms
83:psychiatry
75:psychology
40:fallacious
2221:Cognition
2023:HarperOne
1907:146429165
1829:EBSCOhost
1806:Webb 2010
1362:245911255
1316:145507695
1232:145218875
1210:CiteSeerX
1154:145223253
909:0022-3050
893:(9): e1.
849:0004-8674
518:idiomatic
415:Victorian
370:sacrifice
302:talk page
67:sacrifice
2043:(1970).
2013:(2009).
1993:14384232
1985:26479707
1950:29570235
1832:13719052
1826:: 143–8.
1793:37763796
1785:21928600
1705:22198004
1600:29780746
1543:(1925).
1504:(1937).
1486:(1977).
1424:25617118
1041:29684178
948:655, 824
940:(2013).
881:(2013).
865:25440192
857:20932201
625:See also
530:Aguaruna
500:(1966),
473:(1925),
339:religion
296:You may
174:metaphor
170:metonymy
2053:131–171
1942:1473331
1872:8106926
1592:2741505
1432:1160061
1354:1158253
1308:1157195
1032:6188518
545:and by
489:fallacy
479:Western
366:trances
350:beliefs
140:analogy
87:beliefs
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962:
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780:20 May
751:20 May
706:Azande
443:Azande
378:curses
358:prayer
354:ritual
345:, and
269:Social
263:causal
191:Causes
136:symbol
91:events
63:prayer
59:ritual
1989:S2CID
1946:S2CID
1903:S2CID
1789:S2CID
1765:Omega
1596:S2CID
1588:JSTOR
1428:S2CID
1358:S2CID
1350:JSTOR
1312:S2CID
1304:JSTOR
1228:S2CID
1150:S2CID
861:S2CID
692:Notes
637:Faith
589:Grief
390:taboo
213:Boyer
109:Types
71:taboo
29:, or
2136:ISBN
2112:ISBN
2089:ISBN
2071:and
2057:ISBN
2027:ISBN
1981:PMID
1938:PMID
1868:PMID
1781:PMID
1701:PMID
1470:32–3
1420:PMID
1037:PMID
985:ISBN
960:ISBN
905:ISSN
853:PMID
845:ISSN
808:ISBN
782:2020
753:2020
704:The
403:the
231:and
101:and
1973:doi
1969:123
1930:doi
1895:doi
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1580:doi
1412:doi
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1177:doi
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