Grammatical gender - Knowledge (XXG)

744: 4104: 4542:

Feminine nouns include female animates, three types of fish, some plants, the sun and other heavenly objects, some body parts and skin diseases, the soul, and some religious items. Words for part of a whole, as well as most other nouns that do not fall into any of the aforementioned classes, are neuter. The gender assignment of non-sex-differentiable things is complex. In general, those of no importance to the Kets are feminine, whereas objects of importance (e.g. fish, wood) are masculine. Mythology is again a significant factor.

5140:(bucket) and so forth. Many of the words where it is possible to choose gender are inanimate objects that one might suspect would be conjugated with the neuter gender. Nouns conjugated with the neuter gender cannot normally be conjugated as feminine or masculine in Norwegian. There is also a slight tendency towards using the masculine indefinite article even when choosing the feminine conjugation of a noun in many eastern Norwegian dialects. For instance, the word for "girl" is declined: 3301: 3273: 3313: 915:) is masculine. Hence, if a neuter relative pronoun is used, the relative clause refers to "flowerbed", and if a masculine pronoun is used, the relative clause refers to "garden". Because of this, languages with gender distinction can often use pronouns where in English a noun would have to be repeated in order to avoid confusion. It does not, however, help in cases where the words are of the same grammatical gender. 2694: 51: 1267:

by women, natural, round, or light" and male gender to objects "used by men, artificial, angular, or heavy." Apparent failures to reproduce the effect for German speakers has also led to a proposal that the effect is restricted to languages with a two-gender system, possibly because such languages are inclined towards a greater correspondence between grammatical and natural gender.

5294: 1397:

be used for long thin objects, another for flat objects, another for people, another for abstracts, etc.), although sometimes a noun is associated with a particular classifier more by convention than for any obvious reason. However it is also possible for a given noun to be usable with any of several classifiers; for example, the

4158:: Brunhild, Kriemhild and Hroswith became Brunhilde, Kriemhilde and Hroswitha. Slavic feminine given names: Olga (Russian), Małgorzata (Polish), Tetiana (Ukrainian), Oksana (Belarusian), Eliška (Czech), Bronislava (Slovak), Milica (Serbian), Darina (Bulgarian), Lucja (Croatian), Lamija (Bosnian) and Zala (Slovenian). 1192:. This makes some obviously feminine noun phrases like "a cute girl", "the well milking cow" or "the pregnant mares" sound strange to most Norwegian ears when spoken by Danes and people from Bergen since they are inflected in a way that sounds like the masculine declensions in South-Eastern Norwegian dialects. 1396:

Classifiers can be considered similar to genders or noun classes, in that a language which uses classifiers normally has a number of different ones, used with different sets of nouns. These sets depend largely on properties of the things that the nouns denote (for example, a particular classifier may

1262:

It has been shown that grammatical gender causes a number of cognitive effects. For example, when native speakers of gendered languages are asked to imagine an inanimate object speaking, whether its voice is male or female tends to correspond to the grammatical gender of the object in their language.

1020:

This is similar to systems with a masculine–feminine contrast, except that there is a third available gender, so nouns with sexless or unspecified-sex referents may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter. There are also certain exceptional nouns whose gender does not follow the denoted sex, such as

6641:

Polish might be said to distinguish five genders: personal masculine (referring to male humans), animate non-personal masculine, inanimate masculine, feminine, and neuter. The animate–inanimate opposition for the masculine gender applies in the singular, and the personal–impersonal opposition, which

4955:

It is possible for a noun to have more than one gender. Such gender shifts are sometimes correlated with meaning shifts, and sometimes yield doublets with no difference in meaning. Moreover, gender shifts sometimes crosscuts number contrasts, such that the singular form of a noun has one gender, and

987:

Nouns that denote specifically male persons (or animals) are normally of masculine gender; those that denote specifically female persons (or animals) are normally of feminine gender; and nouns that denote something that does not have any sex, or do not specify the sex of their referent, have come to

6625:

In Russian, the different treatment of animate nouns involves their accusative case (and that of adjectives qualifying them) being formed identically to the genitive rather than to the nominative. In the singular that applies to masculine nouns only, but in the plural it applies in all genders. See

5365:

Related languages need not assign the same gender to a noun: this shows that gender can vary across related languages. Conversely, unrelated languages that are in contact can impact how a borrowed noun is assigned gender, with either the borrowing or the donor language determining the gender of the

1708:

match those of related words. Gender is one of the categories which frequently require agreement. In this case, nouns may be considered the "triggers" of the process, because they have an inherent gender, whereas related words that change their form to match the gender of the noun can be considered

1266:

Caveats of this research include the possibility of subjects' "using grammatical gender as a strategy for performing the task", and the fact that even for inanimate objects the gender of nouns is not always random. For example, in Spanish, female gender is often attributed to objects that are "used

3374:

In many languages, nouns are assigned to gender largely without any semantic basis—that is, not based on any feature (such as animacy or sex) of the person or thing that a noun represents. In such languages there may be a correlation, to a greater or lesser degree, between gender and the form of a

802:

division is only partially valid, and many nouns may belong to a gender category that contrasts with their meaning, e.g. the word for "manliness" could be of feminine gender, as it is in French with "la masculinité" and "la virilité". In such a case, the gender assignment can also be influenced by

778:

In a few languages, the assignment of any particular noun (i.e., nominal lexeme, that set of noun forms inflectable from a common lemma) to one grammatical gender is solely determined by that noun's meaning, or attributes, like biological sex, humanness, or animacy. However, the existence of words

6646:

In the singular, masculine animates (in the standard declension) have an accusative form identical to the genitive, and masculine inanimates have accusative identical to the nominative. The same applies to adjectives qualifying these nouns, the same as in Russian and Czech. Also, Polish masculine

6633:

A similar system applies in Czech, but the situation is somewhat different in the plural: Only masculine nouns are affected, and the distinctive feature is a distinct inflective ending for masculine animate nouns in the nominative plural and for adjectives and verbs agreeing with those nouns. See

6411:

However, these are relatively insignificant features compared with a typical language with full grammatical gender. English nouns are not generally considered to belong to gender classes in the way that French, German or Russian nouns are. There is no gender agreement in English between nouns and

4541:

has three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and most gender assignment is based on semantics, but there are many inanimate nouns outside the neuter class. Masculine nouns include male animates, most fish, trees, the moon, large wooden objects, most living beings and some religious items.

4534:

has four genders: male human, female human, animal, and inanimate. However, there are about 80 nouns representing inanimate entities which are nonetheless animate in gender: heavenly objects (moon, rainbow), metal objects (hammer, ring), edible plants (sweet potato, pea), and non-metallic objects

3256:("animal, one head of cattle") are neuter, but most species names are masculine or feminine. When the sex of an animal is known, it will normally be referred to using gendered pronouns consistent with its sex; otherwise the pronouns will correspond to the gender of the noun denoting its species. 2969:

When a noun with conflicting natural and grammatical gender is the antecedent of a pronoun, it may not be clear which gender of pronoun to choose. There is a certain tendency to keep the grammatical gender when a close back-reference is made, but to switch to natural gender when the reference is

5374:

Nouns which have the same meanings in different languages need not have the same gender. This is particularly so in the case of things with no natural gender, such as sexless objects. For example, there is, by all appearances, nothing about a table that should cause it to be associated with any

4086:

Although gender inflection may be used to construct nouns and names for people of different sexes in languages that have grammatical gender, this alone does not constitute grammatical gender. Distinct words and names for men and women are also common in languages which do not have a grammatical

5093:

In Norwegian, many nouns can be either feminine or masculine according to the dialect, level of formality or whim of the speaker/writer. Even the two written forms of the language have many nouns whose gender is optional. Choosing the masculine gender will often seem more formal than using the

4907:) that they are no longer recognizable. Many German nouns, for example, do not indicate their gender through either meaning or form. In such cases a noun's gender must simply be memorized, and gender can be regarded as an integral part of each noun when considered as an entry in the speaker's 1093:

things (humans and animals) generally belong to one gender, and those that denote inanimate things to another (although there may be some deviation from that principle). Examples include earlier forms of Proto-Indo-European and the earliest family known to have split off from it, the extinct

4526:

In some languages, the gender of nouns can mostly be determined by physical (semantic) attributes, although there remain some nouns whose gender is not assigned in this way (Corbett calls this "semantic residue"). The world view (e.g. mythology) of the speakers may influence the division of

4548:

has two genders, masculine and feminine. However, the masculine also includes things which are tall or long and slender, or narrow (e.g. fish, snakes, arrows and slender trees), whereas the feminine gender has things which are short, squat or wide (e.g. turtles, houses, shields and squat

3224:

As regards the pronouns used to refer to animals, these generally agree in gender with the nouns denoting those animals, rather than the animals' sex (natural gender). In a language like English, which does not assign grammatical gender to nouns, the pronoun used for referring to objects

1207:

and most spoken dialects retain masculine, feminine and neuter even if their Scandinavian neighbors have lost one of the genders. As shown, the merger of masculine and feminine in these languages and dialects can be considered a reversal of the original split in Proto-Indo-European (see

1763:, a language with two gender categories: "natural" vs "grammatical". "Natural" gender can be masculine or feminine, while "grammatical" gender can be masculine, feminine, or neuter. This third, or "neuter" gender is reserved for abstract concepts derived from adjectives: such as 6733:). Such endings also appear on adjectives and past tense verbs. The two features are analogous to features of Russian and Czech respectively, except that those languages make an animate/inanimate distinction rather than personal/impersonal) . Examples of the Polish system: 1320:, such as sex, animacy, shape, although in some instances a noun can be placed in a particular class based purely on its grammatical behavior. Some authors use the term "grammatical gender" as a synonym of "noun class", but others use different definitions for each. 2550:

When a language has gendered pronouns, the use of a particular word as a dummy pronoun may involve the selection of a particular gender, even though there is no noun to agree with. In languages with a neuter gender, a neuter pronoun is usually used, as in German

6428:, a spelling convention borrowed from French). Gender agreement applies in effect only to pronouns, with the choice of pronoun determined through semantics and/or pragmatics rather than on any conventional assignment of particular nouns to particular genders. 5102:

in the late 19th century, Norwegians wrote in Danish, which has lost the feminine gender, thus usage of the masculine gender (corresponding exactly to Danish common gender in conjugation in Norwegian Bokmål) is more formal sounding to modern Norwegians.

5693:

Ibrahim identifies several processes by which a language assigns a gender to a newly borrowed word; these processes follow patterns by which even children, through their subconscious recognition of patterns, can often correctly predict a noun's gender.

782:

In other languages, the division into genders usually correlates to some degree, at least for a certain set of nouns, such as those denoting humans, with some property or properties of the things that particular nouns denote. Such properties include

1775:("that which is good/bad"). Natural gender refers to the biological sex of most animals and people, while grammatical gender refers to certain phonetic characteristics (the sounds at the end, or beginning) of a noun. Among other lexical items, the 6142:. According to the theory, the animate gender, which (unlike the inanimate) had independent vocative and accusative forms, later split into masculine and feminine, thus originating the three-way classification into masculine, feminine and neuter. 4776:

That the masculine is seen in Icelandic as the most generic or 'unmarked' of the three genders can also be seen in the fact that the nouns for most professions are masculine. Even feminine job descriptions historically filled by women, like

5757:

argues that the cross-lingual retention of grammatical gender can change not only the lexis of the target language but also its morphology. For example, gender can indirectly influence the productivity of noun-patterns in what he calls the

4623:, the neuter is often used for indeterminate gender reference, particularly when the things referred to are not people. In some cases this may even apply when referring to people, particularly children. For example, in English, one may use 2324:

are used depending on whether the referent is male, female, or inanimate or non-human; this is in spite of the fact that English does not generally have grammatical gender). A parallel example is provided by the object suffixes of verbs in

697:

system, where nouns are assigned to gender categories that are often not related to the real-world qualities of the entities denoted by those nouns. In languages with grammatical gender, most or all nouns inherently carry one value of the

3044:(deprecative "creature") is feminine but can be used to refer to both man (masculine gender), woman (feminine gender), child (neuter gender) or even animate nouns (e.g. a dog being masculine). Similarly with other deprecatory nouns as 3088:

In the case of languages which have masculine and feminine genders, the relation between biological sex and grammatical gender tends to be less exact in the case of animals than in the case of people. In Spanish, for instance, a

2606:, where the referent is generally unknown. In this case the question is usually not which pronoun to use, but which gender to assign a given pronoun to (for such purposes as adjective agreement). For example, the French pronouns 4890:

is an example of such a language, with a division (in the plural) between masculine animate, masculine inanimate, feminine, and neuter. The rules for gender and number of coordinated phrases in that language are summarized at

872:. Gender class may be marked on the noun itself, but will also always be marked on other constituents in a noun phrase or sentence. If the noun is explicitly marked, both trigger and target may feature similar alternations. 4695:

However, when referring to previously unmentioned groups of people or when referring to people in a generic way, especially when using an indefinite pronoun like 'some' or 'all', the masculine plural is used. For example:

894:

In literature, gender can be used to "animate and personify inanimate nouns". Languages with gender distinction generally have fewer cases of ambiguity concerning, for example, pronominal reference. In the English phrase

1274:

asks people to describe a noun, and attempts to measure whether it takes on gender-specific connotations depending on the speaker's native language. For example, one study found that German speakers describing a bridge

4573:

In languages with masculine and feminine gender, the masculine is usually employed by default to refer to persons of unknown gender and to groups of people of mixed gender. Thus, in French the feminine plural pronoun

6642:

classes animals along with inanimate objects, applies in the plural. (A few nouns denoting inanimate things are treated grammatically as animate and vice versa.) The manifestations of the differences are as follows:

1756:. Gender class may be marked on the noun itself, but can also be marked on other constituents in a noun phrase or sentence. If the noun is explicitly marked, both trigger and target may feature similar alternations. 713:

Whereas some authors use the term "grammatical gender" as a synonym of "noun class", others use different definitions for each. Many authors prefer "noun classes" when none of the inflections in a language relate to

2655:

of a noun, pronoun or noun phrase is a gender to which it would be expected to belong based on relevant attributes of its referent. Although grammatical gender can coincide with natural gender, it does not need to.

6818:, nouns are classified primarily on the basis of their semantic properties. The highest-level classification of nouns is often described as being between "rational" and "nonrational". Nouns representing humans and 4970:

in Spanish, which may be either masculine or feminine, depending on whether it refers to a male or a female. It may also correspond to some other difference in the meaning of the word. For example, the German word

5944:

Grammatical gender is a common phenomenon in the world's languages. A typological survey of 174 languages revealed that over one fourth of them had grammatical gender. Gender systems rarely overlap with numerical

3308:, countries can have masculine (blue), feminine (red) or neuter (yellow) names. Countries with plural non-masculine names are green. There are no country names in Polish with plural masculine personal gender. 2522:

The two sentences above mean literally "much obliged"; the adjective agrees with the natural gender of the speaker, that is, with the gender of the first person pronoun which does not appear explicitly here.

4552:

In French, the distinction between the gender of a noun and the gender of the object it refers to is clear when nouns of different genders can be used for the same object, for example vélo (m.) = bicyclette

903:) refers to the whole garden or just the flowerbed. In German, in cases where the objects in question have different grammatical gender, gender distinction prevents such ambiguity. The word for "flowerbed" ( 4471:

In some languages, the gender of a noun is directly determined by its physical attributes (sex, animacy, etc.), and there are few or no exceptions to this rule. There are relatively few such languages. The

4135:"water") and this was reflected in feminine names originating in that period, like Emilia. Romance languages preserved this characteristic. For example, in Spanish, approximately 89% of nouns that end in 1429:

Grammatical gender can be realized as inflection and can be conditioned by other types of inflection, especially number inflection, where the singular-plural contrast can interact with gender inflection.

5729:

Rarely, the word retains the gender it had in the donor language. This tends to happen more frequently in more formal language such as scientific terms, where some knowledge of the donor language can be

6379:(neuter gender, mainly for objects, abstractions and animals). (There are also distinct personal and non-personal forms but no differentiation by natural gender in the case of certain interrogative and 1476:

affected by gender agreement, the circumstances in which it occurs, and the way words are marked for gender vary between languages. Gender inflection may interact with other grammatical categories like

6580:

mostly continue the Proto-Indo-European system of three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter. Gender correlates largely with noun endings (masculine nouns typically end in a consonant, feminines in

3340:: masculine/feminine/neuter. Standard Dutch has a three-gender structure, which fell in disuse in the North of the Netherlands but remains very much alive in Flanders and the South of the Netherlands. 4634:(which preserves a masculine–feminine–neuter distinction in both singular and plural), the neuter plural can be used for groups of people of mixed gender, when specific people are meant. For example: 2297:). Sometimes, however, there is no antecedent—the referent of the pronoun is deduced indirectly from the context: this is found with personal pronouns, as well as with indefinite and dummy pronouns. 923:

to merge, thereby making etymologically distinct words sound alike. In languages with gender distinction, however, these word pairs may still be distinguishable by their gender. For example, French

6822:

are considered rational, and other nouns (those representing animals and objects) are treated as nonrational. Within the rational class there are further subdivisions into masculine, feminine and

4114:

Given names are proper nouns and they follow the same gender grammatical rules as common nouns. In most Indo-European languages female grammatical gender is created using an "a" or an "e" ending.

3449:

such as Italian and French, generally follow the gender of the Latin words from which they are derived. When nouns deviate from the rules for gender, there is usually an etymological explanation:

4166:

In some languages, nouns with human references have two forms, a male and a female one. This includes not only proper names, but also names for occupations and nationalities. Examples include:

6721:

In the plural, masculine personal nouns (but not other animate nouns) take accusatives that are identical to the genitives; they also typically take different endings in the nominative (e.g.

4506:, has three genders: one for all male humans, one for all female humans, and a third for all the remaining nouns. Gender is only marked in personal pronouns. Standard English pronouns (see 1557:, where the first consonant of a word changes into another in certain conditions. Gender is one of the factors that can cause one form of mutation (soft mutation). For instance, the word 3017:), it is common in speech. With one or more intervening sentences, the second form becomes even more likely. However, a switch to the natural gender is never possible with articles and 1165:), though not in pronouns that can operate under natural gender. Thus nouns denoting people are usually of common gender, whereas other nouns may be of either gender. Examples include 1297:), used 'big', 'dangerous', 'strong', and 'sturdy' more often. However, studies of this kind have been criticized on various grounds and yield an unclear pattern of results overall. 6888: 1161:

Here a masculine–feminine–neuter system previously existed, but the distinction between masculine and feminine genders has been lost in nouns (they have merged into what is called

5420:

nouns in closely related languages are likely to have the same gender, because they tend to inherit the gender of the original word in the parent language. For instance, in the

5340: 5705:, morphemic adaptations of English words into American Italian or British Italian are abundant with such cases. For example, the feminine gender of the British Italian word 4597:

does not have gendered forms. In the singular, however, the issue frequently arises when a person of unspecified or unknown gender is being referred to. In this case it the

1791:(feminine). Thus, in "natural gender", nouns referring to sexed beings who are male beings carry the masculine article, and female beings the feminine article (agreement). 4518:) are used for domestic animals if the sex of the animal is known, and sometimes for certain objects such as ships, e.g. "What happened to the Titanic? She (or it) sank." 1438:

The grammatical gender of a noun manifests itself in two principal ways: in the modifications that the noun itself undergoes, and in modifications of other related words (

775:

Depending on the language and the word, this assignment might bear some relationship with the meaning of the noun (e.g. "woman" is usually feminine), or may be arbitrary.

2571:

neuter gender.) In languages with only masculine and feminine genders, the dummy pronoun may be the masculine third person singular, as in the French for "it's raining":

2459:

In some cases the gender of a pronoun is not marked in the form of the pronoun itself, but is marked on other words by way of agreement. Thus the French word for "I" is

5939: 960: 672: 1188:

also uses common gender and neuter exclusively. The common gender in Bergen and in Danish is inflected with the same articles and suffixes as the masculine gender in

1516:

has a number of different declension patterns, and which pattern a particular noun follows may be highly correlated with its gender. For some instances of this, see

4593:

In English, the problem of gender determination does not arise in the plural, because gender in that language is reflected only in pronouns, and the plural pronoun

4586:

may refer to a group of males or masculine nouns, to a mixed group, or to a group of people of unknown genders. In such cases, one says that the feminine gender is

8466:

Di Garbo F, Olsson B, Wälchli B (eds.). 2019. Grammatical gender and linguistic complexity I: General issues and specific studies. Berlin: Language Science Press.

2465:, regardless of who is speaking; but this word becomes feminine or masculine depending on the sex of the speaker, as may be reflected through adjective agreement: 5497:

Some more examples of the above phenomena are given below. (These come mostly from the Slavic languages, where gender largely correlates with the noun ending.)

8488:

Di Garbo F, Olsson B, Wälchli B (eds.). 2019. Grammatical gender and linguistic complexity II: World-wide comparative studies. Berlin: Language Science Press.

2766: 6138:, the earliest attested Indo-European language. The classification of nouns based on animacy and inanimacy and the lack of gender are today characteristic of 2738: 2445:. Issues may arise in languages with gender-specific pronouns in cases when the gender of the referent is unknown or not specified; this is discussed under 6545:

above). In the past and to some degree still in the present, the masculine has been used as the "default" gender in English. The use of the plural pronoun

5172:("organ" as musical instrument), all of which are masculine in the singular but feminine in the plural. These anomalies may have a historical explanation ( 4725:

An example contrasting the two ways to refer to groups is the following, taken from advertisements of Christian congregations announcing their meetings:

3229:) is often used for animals also. However, if the sex of the animal is known, and particularly in the case of companion animals, the gendered pronouns ( 2745: 4562:

There are certain situations where the assignment of gender to a noun, pronoun or noun phrase may not be straightforward. This includes in particular:

2970:

further away. For example, in German, the sentences "The girl has come home from school. She is now doing her homework" can be translated in two ways:

6883: 1232:, for example, within the masculine and sometimes feminine and neuter genders, there is a further division between animate and inanimate nouns—and in 2141:, these languages neutralize the gender opposition in the plural, itself a marked category. So adjectives and pronouns have three forms in singular ( 2378:

Not all languages have gendered pronouns. In languages that never had grammatical gender, there is normally just one word for "he" and "she", like

759:

change their form depending on the noun to which they refer. Spanish nouns have two genders: masculine and feminine, represented here by the nouns

4463:

In some languages, gender is determined by strictly semantic criteria, but in other languages, semantic criteria only partially determine gender.

3366:

In most languages that have grammatical gender, a combination of these three types of criteria is found, although one type may be more prevalent.

2752: 7058:

suggests a neuter noun, but there is no way to cross-check it and there are indeed a few masculine nouns using the same ending in their plural (

6490:

comes down to whether the pronoun is intended to designate a woman, a man, or someone or something else. There are certain exceptions, however:

2259:, allow doubly marked forms both for number and gender. In these languages, each noun has a definite gender no matter the number. For example, 1381:, where it is common for all nouns to require a classifier when being quantified—for example, the equivalent of "three people" is often "three 1369:

to be applied to the noun. They are not regularly used in English or other European languages, although they parallel the use of words such as

988:

belong to one or other of the genders, in a way that may appear arbitrary. Examples of languages with such a system include most of the modern

6467:(of French provenance), but this is seldom used today, surviving mostly in either historical contexts or with disparaging or humorous intent. 8530: 8493: 8471: 8393: 7644: 7574: 6470:

The gender of an English pronoun typically coincides with the natural gender of its referent, rather than with the grammatical gender of its

5258:

of their final consonant can change gender in their plural form, as a palatalized final consonant is often a marker of a feminine noun, e.g.

2734: 665: 7324: 1287:) more often used the words 'beautiful', 'elegant', 'pretty', and 'slender', while Spanish speakers, whose word for bridge is masculine ( 6334:, Modern English has a much less pervasive gender system, primarily based on natural gender and reflected essentially in pronouns only. 4882:

In languages which preserve a three-way gender division in the plural, the rules for determining the gender (and sometimes number) of a

2715: 743: 68: 5396:. (Even within a given language, nouns that denote the same concept may differ in gender—for example, of three German words for "car", 8339: 6893: 6553:

may be used for a baby but not normally for an older child or adult. (Other genderless pronouns exist, such as the impersonal pronoun

5789:(each ⌂ represents a slot where a radical is inserted) because of the feminine gender of the matched words for "brush" such as Arabic 5720:

If the borrowed word happens to have a suffix that the borrowing language uses as a gender marker, the suffix tends to dictate gender.

4580:

always designates an all-female group of people (or stands for a group of nouns all of feminine gender), but the masculine equivalent

2543:, such as English (because in pro-drop languages the position of the argument can be left empty). Examples in English are the uses of 8412: 8286: 8154: 8091: 7994: 7786: 7471: 4491:; the masculine encompasses all other nouns (e.g. man, boy, pot, broom...). In this language, feminine nouns are always marked with 2785: 134: 8350:

Noun classes and categorization: Proceedings of a symposium on categorization and noun classification, Eugene, Oregon, October 1983

3080:("mute") can be used deprecatively as described previously, and then can be used for verbs marked for the male and female genders. 4377:

To complicate matters, Greek often offers additional informal versions of these. The corresponding for English are the following:

1689:) of the noun, and sometimes a noun can be modified to produce (for example) masculine and feminine words of similar meaning. See 1140:

means 'apple wood'). So if one wants to refer to a certain table that is made of wood from an apple tree, one cannot use the word

1027:, meaning "girl", which is neuter. This is because it is actually a diminutive of "Magd" and all diminutive forms with the suffix 919:

Moreover, grammatical gender may serve to distinguish homophones. It is a quite common phenomenon in language development for two

7852: 115: 6622:

and inanimate nouns: Polish in the plural, and Russian in the accusative case, differentiate between human and non-human nouns.

6111:

makes use of gender in pronouns, which are generally marked for natural gender, but lacks a system of gender concord within the

4044:

are frequently constructed with affixes that identify the sex of the bearer. Common feminine suffixes used in English names are

2491:

expressions in other languages), such agreement may take place even though the pronoun does not in fact appear. For example, in

8444:

Iturrioz, J. L. (1986) "Structure, meaning and function: a functional analysis of gender and other classificatory techniques".

8015: 7985:

Grönberg, Anna Gunnarsdotter (2002). "Masculine generics in current Icelandic". In Hellinger, Marlis; Bußmann, Hamumod (eds.).

6051: 3398:

are mostly feminine, regardless of their meaning. Nouns that end in some other vowel are assigned a gender either according to

658: 87: 5375:

particular gender, and different languages' words for "table" are found to have various genders: feminine, as with the French

2759: 8583: 8261: 7815: 7106:

is the regular ending for masculine and feminine nouns, both are in fact used to form plurals of nouns of all three genders (

6184:

However, many languages reduced the number of genders to two. Some lost the neuter, leaving masculine and feminine like most

2885: 2719: 72: 5222:, which have the endings of the feminine singular, but have feminine plural agreement. (This is related to the forms of the 779:

that denote male and female, such as the difference between "aunt" and "uncle" is not enough to constitute a gender system.

4487:, which has two asymmetrical genders. The feminine includes all living beings of female sex (e.g. woman, girl, cow...) and 3989:

nouns; for example, to produce nouns with a similar meaning but referring to someone of a different sex. Thus, in Spanish,

6047: 94: 8451:

Mercier, Adele (2002) "L'homme et la factrice: sur la logique du genre en français". "Dialogue", Volume 41, Issue 3, 2002

7687: 1492:

The gender of a noun may affect the modifications that the noun itself undergoes, particularly the way in which the noun

8077: 7878: 6222: 6177:(two Romance language exceptions). In them, there is a high but not absolute correlation between grammatical gender and 6131: 3276:

In the French language, countries can have masculine (green) or feminine (purple) names. Except for certain islands and

2624:("something") are all treated as masculine—this is in spite of the fact that the last two correspond to feminine nouns ( 2539:) is nonexistent, but when a reference to the argument is nevertheless syntactically required. They occur mostly in non- 1174: 1034: 799: 7378: 7241:, 8. edition, p. 152f.) for example states that all German pluralia tantum have a gender, but it can not be determined. 2583:

means "he", or "it" when referring to masculine nouns); although some languages use the feminine, as in the equivalent

8578: 8539: 8277: 4977:

meaning "lake" is masculine, whereas the identical word meaning "sea" is feminine. The meanings of the Norwegian noun

3723: 2680:("man") is masculine; these attributions occur solely due to the semantically inherent gender character of each noun. 634: 4824:(which has an overall common–neuter gender system), masculinity may be argued to be a marked feature, because in the 2704: 817:

Gender is considered an inherent quality of nouns, and it affects the forms of other related words, a process called

715: 5662:

can be masculine or feminine, depending on the dialect. All these words mean "sea" and are descended from the Latin

4103: 821:. Nouns may be considered the "triggers" of the process, whereas other words will be the "target" of these changes. 369: 101: 8361: 7836: 6456: 5255: 5042:) which are etymologically unrelated. One is masculine and means "finger"; the other is feminine and means "soil". 4883: 3715: 3402:, by analogy, or by some other convention. These rules may override semantics in some cases: for example, the noun 730:

Languages with grammatical gender usually have two to four different genders, but some are attested with up to 20.

6063: 2723: 2708: 61: 30:

This article is about grammatical rules of agreement with nouns. For uses of language associated with gender, see

7682: 6898: 6357: 6102: 5983: 3708: 2310: 419: 306: 286: 6541:

Problems arise when selecting a personal pronoun to refer to someone of unspecified or unknown gender (see also

2149: 2137:

In some languages the gender is distinguished only in singular number but not in plural. In terms of linguistic

884:

In a language with explicit inflections for gender, it is easy to express gender distinctions in animate beings.

6380: 6342: 5965:, these characteristics correlate positively with the presence of grammatical gender in the world's languages: 5319: 4627:

to refer to a child, particularly when speaking generically rather than about a particular child of known sex.

3982: 3792: 3349: 2921: 1725: 837: 804: 502: 445: 440: 258: 206: 83: 8562: 7594: 7560: 7450:

Janhunen, Juha (1999). "Grammatical gender from east to west". In Unterbeck, Barbara; Rissanen, Matti (eds.).

4875:, where a gender-like distinction is made in the plural between "masculine personal" and all other cases (see 4797:), have been replaced with masculine ones as men have started becoming more represented in these professions: 2416:

to differentiate between people and inanimate objects, but even this distinction is often absent. (In written

2309:

of the referent. Indeed, in most European languages, personal pronouns are gendered; for example English (the

1323:

Many authors prefer "noun classes" when none of the inflections in a language relate to sex, such as when an

722:. According to one definition: "Genders are classes of nouns reflected in the behavior of associated words." 8083: 7566: 6908: 6878: 6558: 6226: 6124: 5991: 5900:, also feminine. The result of this neologism might have been, more generally, the strengthening of Israeli 4922: 4904: 4609: 2446: 2290: 1701: 1439: 1178: 818: 814:

Usually each noun is assigned to one of the genders, and few or no nouns can occur in more than one gender.

612: 497: 450: 339: 39: 35: 6233:, have nearly completely lost grammatical gender (retaining only some traces, such as the English pronouns 5656:

is generally masculine (except in some poetic contexts and among sea workers), whereas the Catalan cognate

3455:("problem") is masculine in Spanish because it was derived from a Greek noun of the neuter gender, whereas 3264:

There are multiple theoretical approaches to the position and structure of gender in syntactic structures.

6094: 6090: 6059: 5954: 5336: 4850:

would normally be the default for a person of unknown gender, although in practice the indefinite pronoun

2326: 1704:, or concord, is a grammatical process in which certain words change their form so that values of certain 936: 617: 589: 550: 530: 485: 480: 349: 7487: 8459: 7709: 7602: 6873: 6027: 3986: 3791:, which might be confused for a feminine singular noun. Gender may also be predictable from the type of 3468: 3427: 2484: 1721: 1271: 1257: 1199:

common gender, as the declensions follow a different pattern from both the Norwegian written languages.

1009: 833: 490: 253: 8421:

Greenberg, J. H. (1978) "How does a language acquire gender markers?" In J. H. Greenberg et al. (eds.)

8073: 5754: 5702: 6431:

Only a relatively small number of English nouns have distinct male and female forms; many of them are

887:

Grammatical gender "can be a valuable tool of disambiguation", rendering clarity about antecedents or

8211: 7297: 6471: 6460: 5154:

Sometimes a noun's gender can change between its plural and singular forms, as with the French words

3721: 3713: 2442: 2294: 1705: 1386: 1378: 1103: 1078: 1001: 699: 424: 414: 150: 6181:

class. Many linguists believe that to be true of the middle and late stages of Proto-Indo-European.

6066:

also have extensive systems of noun classes, which can be grouped into several grammatical genders.

1685:

Additionally, in many languages, gender is often closely correlated with the basic unmodified form (

1377:

in phrases like "three pieces of paper" or "thirty head of cattle". They are a prominent feature of

8120: 6903: 6839: 6815: 6202: 6043: 5119: 5099: 4964:

Gender shift may be associated with a difference in the sex of the referent, as with nouns such as

4929:, in conjunction with each noun—for example, a learner of French may learn the word for "chair" as 4473: 3379: 2910: 2492: 2389: 1241: 1204: 1189: 1095: 1066: 582: 510: 174: 31: 7488:"Male Animate Gender in Polish- definition (Męskożywotny – definicja, synonimy, przykłady użycia)" 6115:

which is one of the central elements of grammatical gender in most other Indo-European languages.

706:. The values present in a given language, of which there are usually two or three, are called the 7523: 6913: 6795: 6627: 6166: 6086: 6070: 5973: 5958: 5563: 5449: 5388: 5051: 4631: 4620: 3834:

tend to be feminine, whereas others tend to be masculine, but there are many exceptions to this (

3796: 2603: 2488: 2413: 2399: 2330: 2145: 1686: 1554: 1497: 1478: 1401: 1046: 374: 354: 299: 275: 8516: 7288: 7230:, 6. edition, 2008, p. 121) for example states that German pluralia tantum do not have a gender. 5517:", also meaning "month") is masculine. In Polish, another Slavic language, the word for moon is 4535:(whistle, ball). Many have a round shape or can be explained by the role they play in mythology. 1920:

are marked with "feminine" articles, while all others use the "generic" or "masculine" articles.

747:

The grammatical gender of a noun affects the form of other words related to it. For example, in

108: 3312: 1146:

with a feminine gender, and if one wants to refer to an apple tree in a garden, one cannot use

1134:

means 'apple tree'), but if it is masculine, it means that it is dead, no longer living (e.g.,

8556: 8489: 8467: 8408: 8389: 8335: 8282: 8230: 8160: 8150: 8087: 7990: 7811: 7782: 7778: 7640: 7630: 7570: 7467: 7455: 6799: 6530: 6436: 6413: 6375:(common gender, used for people or animals of unknown, irrelevant, or non-binary gender), and 6325: 6290: 6274: 6185: 6174: 6139: 6078: 6074: 6039: 6031: 6019: 5950: 5421: 5095: 4545: 4053: 3446: 3300: 3272: 2837:, and this suffix always makes the noun grammatically neuter. Hence the grammatical gender of 2829: 2540: 2536: 2267: 1200: 1062: 1058: 1054: 989: 853: 577: 570: 560: 525: 515: 455: 389: 329: 311: 199: 7969: 6557:, but they are not generally substitutable for a personal pronoun.) For more information see 5723:

If the borrowed word rhymes with one or more native words, the latter tend to dictate gender.

2620: 1365:

used in some languages together with a noun, principally to enable numbers and certain other

8496: 8475: 8220: 7989:. Vol. 2. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 163–186. 7861: 7636: 7459: 6635: 6603: 6577: 6534: 6309: 6282: 6278: 6210: 6206: 6193: 6170: 6146: 6135: 6098: 6082: 6055: 6035: 6023: 6015: 6011: 6003: 5995: 5734:

Sometimes the gender of a word switches with time. For example, the Russian modern loanword

5223: 4926: 4892: 4821: 4616: 4001:

means "girl". This paradigm can be exploited for making new words: from the masculine nouns

3505: 3383: 3169:

for the male and the female of a species are more frequent for common pets or farm animals,

2932: 2665: 2409: 1776: 1760: 1568: 1517: 1513: 1501: 1482: 1398: 1229: 1196: 1170: 1115: 1070: 1050: 997: 993: 748: 520: 384: 169: 6209:. Others merged feminine and masculine into a common gender but retained the neuter, as in 5250:.) In other cases, the anomaly can be explained by the form of the noun, as is the case in 4604:

has been traditional. Since the 18th century it has been prescribed to use the masculine (

2843:

is neuter, although its natural gender is feminine (because it refers to a female person).

2664:

This usually means masculine or feminine, depending on the referent's sex. For example, in

2608: 8265: 8079:

Revivalistics: From the Genesis of Israeli to Language Reclamation in Australia and Beyond

7678: 6823: 6615: 6611: 6298: 6214: 6162: 6007: 5999: 5962: 5946: 5562:("thousand") is masculine, whereas the cognate in Russian, тысяча, is feminine, while the 5251: 4872: 4825: 4503: 4072: 3825: 3703: 3549: 3439:"communist" is masculine when it refers or could refer to a man, even though it ends with 3305: 3241: 2943: 2867: 2819: 2803: 2563:

is the neuter third person singular pronoun. (English behaves similarly, because the word

2417: 2197: 1509: 1473: 1348: 1276: 1166: 1107: 565: 434: 396: 236: 218: 194: 189: 1327:–inanimate distinction is made. Note, however, that the word "gender" derives from Latin 1122:), the same word can have two genders according to the context. For example, if the word 7668:

Sera et al. (2002) and Vigliocco et al. (2005), cited in Pavlidou & Alvanoudi (2013)

6788:

A few nouns have both personal and impersonal forms, depending on meaning (for example,

6598:) but there are many exceptions, particularly in the case of nouns whose stems end in a 5701:

The borrowed word tends to take the gender of the native word it replaces. According to

5050:

In other cases, a word may be usable in multiple genders indifferently. For example, in

4087:

gender system for nouns in general. English, for example, has feminine suffixes such as

3046: 8374: 7220: 6846:

words used when addressing a relative often specify the speaker's gender. For example,

6607: 6599: 6286: 6218: 6158: 6108: 4887: 4531: 4049: 3903:

preceded by double consonants. Certain suffixes are quite reliable indicators, such as

3666: 3362:

according to arbitrary convention (lexical, possibly rooted in the language's history).

2954: 2893: 2584: 2385: 2256: 1749: 1550: 1233: 1090: 1074: 905: 865: 629: 460: 379: 263: 184: 4903:

In some languages, any gender markers have been so eroded over time (possibly through

4844:, "my little brother"). In spite of this, the third-person singular masculine pronoun 2860: 2808: 2802:

of a noun does not always coincide with its natural gender. An example of this is the

2639:

For other situations in which such a "default" gender assignment may be required, see

8572: 8454: 7771: 6843: 6827: 6562: 6369: 6294: 5759: 5345: 5309: 4879:), a group is treated as masculine personal if it contains at least one male person. 4598: 4484: 4041: 3760: 2602:

A similar, apparently arbitrary gender assignment may need to be made in the case of

2532: 2450: 2201:

nouns (lacking a singular form) cannot be assigned a gender. Example with Bulgarian:

1390: 344: 8524: 6798:

in the computing sense). For more information on the above inflection patterns, see

5853:), matches the feminine gender of the parallel pre-existent European words: Yiddish 5746:) "whisky" was originally feminine, then masculine, and today it has become neuter. 5178:

used to be feminine in the singular too) or result from slightly different notions (

4095:), and also distinguishes male and female personal names, as in the above examples. 3344:

There are three main ways by which natural languages categorize nouns into genders:

3058: 1779:

changes its form according to this categorization. In the singular, the article is:

8207:"Gender assignment and gender agreement: Evidence from pronominal gender languages" 6529:), particularly countries and ships, and sometimes other vehicles or machines. See 6498:

is usually used, but when the sex of the animal is known, it may be referred to as

6189: 5430:, whereas the words for "moon" are feminine, being derived from the Latin feminine 5329: 5195: 5185: 4538: 3756: 3568:(meaning "little, young") are always neuter, even if they refer to people, as with 3070: 3040: 2614: 1354: 1339:) which originally meant "kind", so it does not necessarily have a sexual meaning. 1311: 594: 429: 243: 211: 179: 8258: 5912:) as a productive feminine locative suffix (combined with the influence of Polish 3064: 2875:(neuter), meaning "woman" (the word is now pejorative and generally replaced with 1263:

This has been observed for speakers of Spanish, French, and German, among others.

8383: 7100:

do not make any such indications because they are ambiguous themselves: although

6506:(particularly when expressing an emotional connection with the animal, as with a 5424:, the words for "sun" are masculine, being derived from the Latin masculine noun 3076: 1236:, also sometimes between nouns denoting humans and non-humans. (For details, see 1128:(meaning 'wood' or 'tree') is feminine, it means that it is a living tree (e.g., 718:. According to one estimate, gender is used in approximately half of the world's 8107: 7807: 7524:"What Are the 4 Genders? 7 Other Types, Gender Identity & 7 Sexuality Types" 6331: 6302: 6263: 6112: 5514: 3426:("person") is always feminine, even when it refers to a boy or a man, a kind of 2850: 2693: 2676: 2568: 2329:, which correspond to object pronouns, and which also inflect for gender in the 686: 50: 6537:; it is also in decline, and advised against by most journalistic style guides. 6455:, for instance, derive directly or indirectly from Latin). English has no live 5270:("small boys"), with the adjective showing agreement for both feminine gender ( 2422: 1240:.) A human–non-human (or "rational–non-rational") distinction is also found in 911: 8369:

Corbett, Greville G. (1994). "Gender and gender systems". In Asher, R. (ed.).

8225: 8206: 7463: 7452:

Trends in Linguistics, Studies and Monographs: Gender in Grammar and Cognition

6507: 6417: 6178: 4912: 4587: 4488: 3591: 3553: 3414:("member") is always masculine, even when it refers to a girl or a woman, and 3166: 2854: 2670: 2305:

With personal pronouns, the gender of the pronoun is likely to agree with the

2138: 1753: 1737: 1729: 1713: 1493: 1486: 1451: 1366: 1225: 869: 849: 841: 825: 752: 694: 644: 639: 624: 555: 364: 270: 226: 17: 8234: 5210:("arm"). These are masculine in the singular, but form the irregular plurals 4143:

are classified as feminine; the same is true for 98% of given names with the

3524:(friend) can be masculine or feminine according to the person they refer to. 3052: 2632: 2394: 2380: 2167: 1577:"son" remains unchanged. Adjectives are affected by gender in a similar way. 1489:

pattern followed by the noun itself will be different for different genders.

1316:

A noun may belong to a given class because of characteristic features of its

8504: 8483: 8164: 7022:"the eagle"). This does not happen if the noun is preceded by an adjective ( 6421: 6330:

Although grammatical gender was a fully productive inflectional category in

6269: 6230: 4510:) are very similar in this respect, although the English gendered pronouns ( 3399: 3356: 3114: 2412:. These languages might only have different pronouns and inflections in the 1733: 1559: 1526:, which has two possible genders: when it is masculine (meaning "lake") its 1459: 1033:

are neuter. Examples of languages with such a system include later forms of

888: 845: 808: 334: 231: 8546: 8500: 8479: 5698:

If the noun is animate, natural gender tends to dictate grammatical gender.

5106:

The word for "sun" can be another example. One might decline it masculine:

2871: 2814: 1421:

is frequently used as an alternative to various more specific classifiers.

931: 8405:

Fossilized Second Language Grammars: The Acquisition of Grammatical Gender

6257: 6251: 6802:. For certain rules concerning the treatment of mixed-gender groups, see 6432: 6154: 5271: 5023: 4916: 4150:

In the Germanic languages the female names have been Latinized by adding

3732:) are of feminine gender, the only significant exceptions being the word 3509: 3038:

This phenomenon is quite popular in Slavic languages: for example Polish

1527: 1522: 1362: 1317: 1119: 1042: 925: 719: 359: 8247: 6511: 6145:

Many Indo-European languages retained the three genders, including most

3035:("this little girl" – with female demonstrative pronoun and adjective). 2428: 1787: 1781: 1573: 7865: 6619: 5417: 5027: 4908: 4772:

is more specific and emphasises the individuality of the group members.

3090: 3014: 2579: 2559: 2535:

is a type of pronoun used when a particular verb argument (such as the

2461: 1745: 1717: 1464: 1455: 1324: 920: 861: 829: 784: 756: 737: 164: 3375:

noun (such as the vowel or consonant or syllable with which it ends).

2595: 2404: 1450:

Grammatical gender manifests itself when words related to a noun like

8010: 6932:

The word for "manliness" has feminine grammatical gender in Spanish (

4935:(meaning "the chair"); this carries the information that the noun is 3744: 3545: 1185: 291: 7850:

Kramer, R. (2016). "The location of gender features in the syntax".

6312:

can be argued to have added new genders to the classical three (see

5030:

with one gender each. For example, Bulgarian has a pair of homonyms

3642:"coward"), always produces masculine nouns. And the German suffixes 3153:. To specify the sex of an animal, an adjective may be added, as in 736:

include masculine and feminine; masculine, feminine, and neuter; or

8259:

The Original Nominal System of Proto-Indoeuropean – Case and Gender

5841:

Similarly, argues Zuckermann, the Israeli neologism for "library",

5726:

The default assignment is the borrowing language's unmarked gender.

7659:

Boroditsky et al. (2003), cited in Pavlidou & Alvanoudi (2013)

7234: 6819: 6150: 5452:.) However, there are exceptions to this principle. For instance, 4810: 4740: 4732: 4711: 4703: 4684: 4657: 4117:

Classical Latin typically made a grammatical feminine gender with

4102: 4019:"doctor", it was straightforward to make the feminine equivalents 3729: 3311: 3299: 3271: 3100: 2293:

in gender with the noun or noun phrase to which they refer (their

2002: 1956: 1820: 1505: 1330: 1005: 788: 742: 5022:

It is a matter of analysis how to draw the line between a single

4814: 4794: 4790: 4688: 4680: 4676: 4661: 4653: 4649: 2097: 2055: 2051: 1960: 1870: 1866: 1824: 8382:

Foley, William A.; Van Valin, Robert D. Jr (13 September 1984).

6618:, also make certain additional grammatical distinctions between 4569:

references to people or things of unknown or unspecified gender.

3355:

according to logical or symbolic similarities in their meaning (

2599:, which means "she", or "it" when referring to feminine nouns). 1741: 1358: 857: 7879:

Namepedia Blog – Why Most European Names Ending in A Are Female

7256: 6864:

means female's father's sister or female's brother's daughter.

6345:

forms depending on the natural gender of the referent, such as

4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4744: 4736: 4715: 4707: 4672: 4668: 4645: 4641: 4296:

Greek nationality names have five possibilities for 'English'.

3392:

or a consonant are mostly masculine, whereas those that end in

3013:

Though the second sentence may appear grammatically incorrect (

2101: 2006: 8013:[Agreement of the predicate with a multiple subject]. 7720: 6201:

and Italian nouns with so-called "mobile gender"), as well as

5547:("tram") is masculine, whereas the cognate loanword in Czech, 5482:

is neuter. Likewise, the word for "boat" is neuter in German (

5287: 3110: 2951:(masculine), meaning "unpleasant (usually old and ugly) woman" 2687: 1416: 792: 44: 8176: 8174: 8032: 7433: 7431: 7429: 7427: 6368:(feminine gender, for women, girls, and female animals), the 5711:"bag" was induced by the feminine gender of the Italian word 5614:

is masculine. The Spanish form contrasts with the Portuguese

4893:

Czech declension § Gender and number of compound phrases

3109:(feminine), regardless of their biological sex. In Russian a 1553:, gender marking is mostly lost on nouns; however, Welsh has 7414: 7412: 7410: 7408: 7406: 7404: 6517:

Certain nonhuman things can be referred to with the pronoun

6337:

There are a few traces of gender marking in Modern English:

5949:

systems. Gender and noun class systems are usually found in

5888:, as well as of the pre-existent Arabic word for "library": 5090:) without any change in meaning and no preference in usage. 4449:) "England", while the less formal are derived from Italian 3021:

pronouns or adjectives. Thus it can never be correct to say

7379:"Glossary of Linguistic Terms: What is grammatical gender?" 6127:, but not English, provide examples of grammatical gender. 3936:

is part of the root of the word, it can be feminine, as in

1536:, but when it is feminine (meaning "sea"), the genitive is 811:

of the noun, or in some cases can be apparently arbitrary.

34:. For methods of minimizing the use of gendered forms, see 6549:

with singular reference is common in practice. The neuter

6512:§ Gender contrasts on human versus sentient referents 6364:(masculine gender, used for men, boys, and male animals), 6192:. A few traces of the neuter remain, such as the distinct 6069:

Conversely, grammatical gender is usually absent from the

5969:

location in an area with languages featuring noun classes;

5436:. (This contrasts with the genders found in German, where 4107:

Statistical data on the Spanish nouns and names ending in

3606:"piece of dough"), or personal nouns from abstract nouns ( 3292:, the gender depends on whether the country name ends in 8540:"The morphology of gender in Hebrew and Arabic numerals" 7939: 7937: 7924: 7922: 7740: 7738: 7593:

Pavlidou, Theodossia-Soula; Alvanoudi, Angeliki (2013).

6593: 6587: 6581: 4947:

is the feminine singular form of the definite article).

3966:

are almost all feminine, with a few exceptions, such as

880:

Three possible functions of grammatical gender include:

6803: 6542: 5677:

Borrowed words are assigned gender in one of two ways:

5150:

Some gender shifts are associated with number contrasts

5094:

feminine. This might be because before the creation of

5085: 5073: 5066:, "wilderness") may be either masculine (definite form 5061: 4925:

are often encouraged to memorize a modifier, usually a

4750:'All welcome' is understood to be more general whereas 4269:) "doctor" for both, but with informal female variants 3897:

are feminine), note the many masculine nouns ending in

2735:"grammatical gender" different from natural gender 2640: 2244: 2232: 2220: 2208: 1712:

These related words can be, depending on the language:

824:

These related words can be, depending on the language:

7768:

These examples are based on an example in French from

6889:

Gender neutrality in languages with grammatical gender

4721:'Some people have the habit of talking to themselves.' 3930:"cleaning") indicates a masculine noun; however, when 1690: 1410: 1404: 899:", only context tells us whether the relative clause ( 6969: 6794:

may behave as an impersonal noun when it refers to a

5925: 5865: 5802: 5275: 5265: 5259: 3216: 3202: 3130: 3118: 2924: 5907: 5895: 5848: 5790: 5769: 3816: 3805: 3786: 3774: 3738: 2359: 2339: 2272: 2260: 1520:. A concrete example is provided by the German word 8248:

How did genders and cases develop in Indo-European?

6984: 5957:languages, whereas classifiers are more typical of 4608:), but other solutions are now often preferred—see 4444: 4432: 4420: 4408: 4396: 4384: 4366: 4351: 4336: 4321: 4306: 4288: 4276: 4264: 4252: 4237: 4225: 3467:("broadcast signal") are feminine because they are 3445:. Nouns in Spanish and Portuguese, as in the other 3433:In other cases, meaning takes precedence: the noun 3084:

Gender contrasts on human versus sentient referents

75:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 8407:. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 299. 7770: 6998:Exception: Feminine nouns beginning with stressed 6463:. An example of such a marker might be the suffix 6360:(and their possessive forms) are gender specific: 5681:via criteria determined by the borrowing language; 5274:of initial consonant) and plural number (suffixed 4886:noun phrase ("... and ...") may be quite complex. 3981:Nouns can sometimes vary their form to enable the 3492:are feminine. They derive from Latin feminines in 3483:respectively, both grammatically feminine nouns. 2441:For more on these different types of pronoun, see 1542:, because feminine nouns do not take the genitive 5581:("origin") is masculine, but its close relatives 5335:for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate 5194:usually refers to the collection of columns in a 1571:. This only occurs with feminine singular nouns: 1468:) according to the gender of noun they refer to ( 8068: 8066: 8064: 8018:of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic 6859: 6853: 6847: 6229:). Finally, some languages, such as English and 6134:had two genders (animate and inanimate), as did 5940:List of languages by type of grammatical genders 5621: 5615: 5582: 5465: 5458:("milk") is masculine in Italian (as are French 4956:plural form of the noun has a different gender. 4257:) "actor" for both male and female in Greek and 3415: 3403: 2966:Normally, such exceptions are a small minority. 2913: 2684:Grammatical gender need not match natural gender 2511: 2500: 1902:In "grammatical" gender, most words that end in 1581:Soft initial mutation caused by gender in Welsh 1549:Gender is sometimes reflected in other ways. In 1434:Grammatical gender can be realized as inflection 1216:Other types of division or subdivision of gender 961:List of languages by type of grammatical genders 8563:The Exceptions: European Male Names Ending in A 7683:"How does our language shape the way we think?" 7629:Chi-Yue Chiu; Ying-yi Hong (16 December 2013). 7624: 7622: 7620: 7194: 7188: 7182: 7173: 7164: 7155: 7149: 7143: 7137: 7128: 7119: 7110: 7101: 7095: 7089: 7083: 7077: 7068: 7059: 7050: 7044: 6130:Research indicates that the earliest stages of 5934:Distribution of gender in the world's languages 5567: 5391: 5141: 5135: 5129: 5123: 5122:. The same goes for a lot of common words like 5113: 5107: 5079: 5067: 5055: 5037: 5031: 5014: 5008: 5002: 4996: 4990: 4984: 4978: 4804: 4798: 4784: 4778: 4751: 4729: 4700: 4638: 3548:often carry a specific gender. For example, in 3028:("a girl" – with female indefinite article) or 2238: 2226: 2214: 2202: 2184: 2154: 8438:Grammatical gender: Its Origin and Development 8132: 5684:via criteria determined by the donor language. 5635:("ape") is feminine, whereas the Spanish word 5594: 5588: 5477: 4915:, which typically indicate the gender of noun 2285:Grammatical gender can be realized on pronouns 7773:Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage 7325:"Masculine or Feminine? (And Why It Matters)" 7029: 7023: 7017: 7011: 7005: 6999: 6963: 6933: 6776:("good cheeses"; nominative and accusative); 6653:, whereas in the case of inanimates some use 6196: 5919: 5796: 5741: 5735: 5712: 5706: 5673:How languages assign gender to borrowed words 5657: 5651: 5636: 5630: 5609: 5608:("team") is feminine, while the Spanish word 5576: 5533: 5527: 5508: 5502: 5489: 5471: 5453: 5254:. Masculine nouns which form their plural by 5233: 5217: 5211: 5205: 5199: 4965: 4863: 4857: 4851: 4845: 4835: 4829: 4450: 4162:Differentiation of nouns with human referents 4032: 4026: 4020: 4014: 4008: 4002: 3996: 3990: 3536: 3528: 3519: 3513: 3487: 3478: 3472: 3462: 3456: 3450: 3440: 3434: 3421: 3409: 3393: 3387: 3209: 3195: 3188: 3182: 3160: 3154: 3141:) (feminine). In French, a giraffe is always 3136: 3124: 3104: 3094: 2935: 2438:is usually used for "he" and "she" as well.) 2433: 1915: 1909: 1903: 1770: 1764: 1288: 1147: 1141: 1135: 1129: 1123: 766: 760: 666: 8: 8526:Gender in English pronouns: Myth and reality 8371:The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics 8180: 8011:"Shoda přísudku s podmětem několikanásobným" 7437: 7418: 6957: 6951: 6939: 6789: 6777: 6771: 6762: 6756: 6747: 6741: 6728: 6722: 6709: 6708:("good cheese"; nominative and accusative); 6703: 6694: 6688: 6679: 6673: 6660: 6654: 6648: 6602:. However, some of the languages, including 6531:Gender in English § Metaphorical gender 5913: 5901: 5889: 5883: 5877: 5871: 5842: 5833: 5827: 5821: 5808: 5763: 5645: 5603: 5557: 5542: 5518: 5483: 5459: 5443: 5437: 5409: 5403: 5397: 5382: 5376: 5189: 5179: 5173: 5167: 5161: 5155: 4972: 4942: 4936: 4930: 4675:) had met in the forest when the old woman ( 4590:, whereas the masculine gender is unmarked. 4581: 4575: 3973: 3967: 3961: 3955: 3949: 3943: 3937: 3931: 3925: 3919: 3913: 3904: 3898: 3892: 3886: 3880: 3874: 3868: 3862: 3856: 3850: 3844: 3838: 3829: 3811: 3800: 3781: 3768: 3751: 3733: 3649: 3643: 3637: 3631: 3625: 3619: 3613: 3607: 3601: 3595: 3585: 3575: 3569: 3563: 3557: 3251: 3245: 3237:) may be used as they would be for a human. 3148: 3142: 3029: 3022: 2993: 2974: 2946: 2882: 2876: 2838: 2832: 2823: 2625: 2572: 2552: 2547:in "It's raining" and "It's nice to relax." 2475: 2466: 2369: 2349: 2190: 2178: 2172: 2160: 1537: 1531: 1385:people". A more general type of classifier ( 1252:How gender contrasts can influence cognition 1028: 1022: 946: 940: 7588: 7586: 7251: 7249: 6978: 6945: 5663: 5548: 5431: 5425: 5245: 5239: 5227: 5226:Latin neuter nouns from which they derive: 4615:In languages with a neuter gender, such as 4438: 4426: 4414: 4402: 4390: 4378: 4360: 4345: 4330: 4315: 4300: 4282: 4270: 4258: 4246: 4231: 4219: 4130: 4124: 4118: 3694: 3688: 3687:are always masculine, whereas those ending 3682: 3676: 3670: 3499: 3493: 2957: 2902: 2896: 2722:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2660:Grammatical gender can match natural gender 2588: 1664: 1650: 1640: 1625: 1615: 1602: 1328: 965:Common systems of gender contrast include: 8037:(in Spanish). Real Academia Española. 2005 7028:"the beautiful eagle"), or in the plural ( 6761:("good dogs"; nominative and accusative); 6533:. This usage is considered a metaphorical 5979:moderate to high morphological complexity; 5198:). Further examples are the Italian words 2881:, originally 'lady', feminine of obsolete 1697:Grammatical gender as agreement or concord 897:a flowerbed in the garden which I maintain 673: 659: 146: 8517:An overview of the grammar of Old English 8505:http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/237 8484:http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/223 8224: 7282: 7280: 7278: 7276: 7257:"WALS Online - Chapter Number of Genders" 7219:There are different views whether or not 6884:Gender neutrality in genderless languages 6874:Gender agreement in binomial nomenclature 6804:§ Contextual determination of gender 6543:§ Contextual determination of gender 6190:Vulgar Latin § Loss of neuter gender 5526:Russian also has two words for "potato": 5448:"moon" is masculine, as well as in other 4995:is "an assembly". (The parliament is the 4648:) höfðu hist í skóginum þegar kerlingin ( 3747:") and certain masculine personal names ( 3260:Syntactic structure of grammatical gender 2786:Learn how and when to remove this message 2641:§ Contextual determination of gender 2432:for "it", but in the colloquial language 1925:Example of grammatical gender in Spanish 1220:Some gender contrasts are referred to as 1184:The dialect of the old Norwegian capital 972:masculine–feminine–neuter gender contrast 135:Learn how and when to remove this message 27:Grammatical system of noun classification 8149:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 6424:, with the occasional exception such as 5370:Gender can vary across related languages 5026:word with multiple genders and a set of 3759:). However, many masculine nouns have a 3504:. The opposite is correct with Northern 1923: 1793: 1691:§ Form-based morphological criteria 1579: 909:) is neuter, whereas that for "garden" ( 8385:Functional Syntax and Universal Grammar 8298: 8192: 8055: 7955: 7943: 7928: 7913: 7901: 7889: 7756: 7744: 7546: 7510: 7395: 7353: 7351: 7349: 7347: 7345: 7310: 7212: 6925: 6647:animates always form their genitive in 5689:Borrowing language can determine gender 4834:) for naturally masculine nouns (as in 4437:). The formal forms come from the name 2918:(masculine), meaning "voluptuous woman" 2133:Gender inflection and number inflection 1425:The manifestation of grammatical gender 149: 8147:Linguistic diversity in space and time 4507: 3706:, nouns whose singular form ends in a 8531:Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg 7777:. Merriam-Webster Inc. 1994. p. 7373: 7371: 7369: 6313: 5650:is feminine, but the Spanish cognate 4876: 3948:. On the other hand, nouns ending in 2474:("I am strong", spoken by a female); 2035: 1940: 1795:Example of natural gender in Spanish 1593: 1590: 1587: 1446:Grammatical gender as noun inflection 1237: 733: 7: 8523:Wagner, Susanne (Winter 2002–2003). 5990:Grammatical gender is found in many 4710:) hafa þann sið að tala við sjálfa ( 4683:) was a young girl and the emperor ( 4057: 3662:in English) produce feminine nouns. 3268:Categorization of nouns into genders 2720:adding citations to reliable sources 2183:) but only one in plural (Bulgarian 73:adding citations to reliable sources 8557:doi: Grammatical Features Inventory 7559:McWhorter, John H. (1 April 2014). 7107: 6858:means opposite-gender sibling, and 5902: 5890: 5854: 5843: 5814: 5775: 5764: 5750:Donor language can determine gender 4941:, and that it is feminine (because 3835: 3812: 3801: 3782: 3769: 3752: 3748: 3734: 3581: 3170: 2370: 2350: 2253: 2142: 791:" or non-humanness, and biological 7595:"Grammatical Gender and Cognition" 6894:Gender-neutral language in English 5762:" language: the Israeli neologism 5325:for transliterated languages, and 5305:of its non-English content, using 5046:Some gender shifts are meaningless 4558:Contextual determination of gender 3780:("male professor") has the plural 2999:(n.) ist aus der Schule gekommen. 2980:(n.) ist aus der Schule gekommen. 2557:("it rains, it's raining"), where 2499:" very grateful", said by a male: 1209: 1099: 1038: 1016:Masculine–feminine–neuter contrast 969:masculine–feminine gender contrast 25: 8034:Diccionario panhispánico de dudas 7802:López-Arias, Julio (1996). "10". 5488:), but common gender in Swedish ( 4983:have diverged further: masculine 4960:Some gender shifts are meaningful 4099:Differentiation of personal names 3370:Form-based morphological criteria 1294: 1177:), and to some extent Dutch (see 975:animate–inanimate gender contrast 798:However, in most languages, this 8436:Ibrahim, Muhammad Hasan (1973). 8403:Franceschina, Florencia (2005). 7853:Language and Linguistics Compass 6935:hombría, virilidad, masculinidad 6746:("good customers"; nominative); 5292: 5143:En jente, jenta, jenter, jentene 3147:, whereas an elephant is always 2962:(neuter), meaning "a young girl" 2901:(masculine) meaning "girl", and 2692: 2449:, and in relation to English at 2357:"I love you", said to a female: 1284: 300:Singulative-Collective-Plurative 49: 8016:Institute of the Czech Language 7016:despite their feminine gender ( 7010:"eagle", also take the article 6826:. For further information, see 6678:("good customer"; nominative); 6052:Australian Aboriginal languages 4899:Arbitrary conventional criteria 4868:usually make this unnecessary. 4809:'nursery school teacher' (both 4789:'nursery school teacher' (both 4656:) var ung stúlka og keisarinn ( 4459:Meaning-based semantic criteria 2812:("girl"); this is derived from 2647:Grammatical vs. natural gender 2426:is used for "he" and "she" and 1709:the "target" of these changes. 1504:. For example, a language like 876:Functions of grammatical gender 693:system is a specific form of a 60:needs additional citations for 8430:A Course in Modern Linguistics 8388:. Cambridge University Press. 8281:, 15th edition, 2003, p. 356. 7804:Test Yourself: Spanish Grammar 7710:"Y Treigladau – The Mutations" 7290:A course in modern linguistics 7088:"horn"). However, the endings 6387:for persons, corresponding to 5507:("moon") is feminine, whereas 5341:multilingual support templates 4477: 3909:, which when added to a verb ( 3316:Gender in European languages: 3244:, a few general words such as 2674:("woman") is feminine whereas 2337:"I love you", said to a male: 1245: 264:Suffixaufnahme (case stacking) 1: 8463:, William Morrow and Company. 8356:Corbett, Greville G. (1991). 8332:Spanish: An Essential Grammar 8313:Wuvulu Grammar and Vocabulary 8205:Audring, Jenny (2008-10-01). 5626:, both of which are feminine. 5184:in the singular is usually a 5078:) or feminine (definite form 4989:is "a thing", whereas neuter 4476:use this system as described 2907:(feminine) meaning "stallion" 2527:Indefinite and dummy pronouns 2480:(the same spoken by a male). 978:common–neuter gender contrast 8423:Universals of Human Language 7831:L'Huillier, Monique (1999). 7632:Social Psychology of Culture 6223:Gender in Danish and Swedish 5381:; masculine, as with German 5109:En sol, solen, soler, solene 4828:there is a distinct ending ( 2929:(masculine), meaning "woman" 2864:(masculine), meaning "woman" 2593:(where the dummy pronoun is 2510:the same, said by a female: 1417: 1175:Gender in Danish and Swedish 8428:Hockett, Charles F. (1958) 8278:The Chicago Manual of Style 7362:. Lingua. pp. 105–111. 6985: 6970: 5926: 5908: 5896: 5866: 5849: 5803: 5791: 5770: 5742: 5599:from Galician are feminine. 5115:Ei sol, sola, soler, solene 5086: 5074: 5062: 4445: 4433: 4421: 4409: 4397: 4385: 4367: 4352: 4337: 4322: 4307: 4289: 4277: 4265: 4253: 4238: 4226: 4013:"member of parliament" and 3817: 3806: 3787: 3775: 3739: 3533:(His daughter is my friend) 3217: 3203: 3131: 3119: 2360: 2340: 2333:(though not in the first): 2245: 2233: 2221: 2209: 1759:As an example, we consider 1301:Related linguistic concepts 1195:The same does not apply to 1102:). Modern examples include 983:Masculine–feminine contrast 380:Lexical aspect (Aktionsart) 8600: 8559:at Surrey Morphology Group 8362:Cambridge University Press 8352:. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins. 8348:Craig, Colette G. (1986). 8133:Foley & Van Valin 1984 7971:The Morphosyntax of Gender 7837:Cambridge University Press 7043:The characteristic ending 6852:means 'sister of female', 6693:("good dog"; nominative); 6356:The third-person singular 6341:Some words take different 6323: 5937: 5238:, with nominative plurals 5019:are the regional courts.) 4826:weak adjectival declension 4502:Another African language, 3630:"convict") or adjectives ( 1585: 1411: 1405: 1346: 1309: 1255: 1085:Animate–inanimate contrast 958: 939:, but disagree in gender: 29: 8425:, Vol. 4, pp. 47–82. 8226:10.1007/s11525-009-9124-y 8145:Nichols, Johanna (1992). 7464:10.1515/9783110802603.689 7287:Hockett, Charles (1958). 7195: 7189: 7183: 7174: 7165: 7156: 7150: 7144: 7138: 7129: 7120: 7111: 7102: 7096: 7090: 7084: 7078: 7076:are plurals of masculine 7069: 7060: 7051: 7045: 6979: 6964: 6899:Gender-specific job title 6752:(accusative and genitive) 6699:(accusative and genitive) 6684:(accusative and genitive) 5933: 5920: 5736: 5534: 5528: 5509: 5503: 5476:is feminine and Romanian 5080: 5068: 5056: 5032: 4439: 4427: 4415: 4403: 4391: 4379: 4361: 4346: 4331: 4316: 4301: 4283: 4271: 4259: 4247: 4232: 4220: 4194:English occupation names 3584:). Similarly, the suffix 3512:. For example, the words 3348:according to their form ( 3210: 3196: 3159:("a female cheetah"), or 3137: 3125: 2239: 2227: 2215: 2203: 2185: 2161: 2155: 2148: 2084: 2038: 1989: 1943: 1935: 1932: 1929: 1853: 1807: 1802: 1799: 1636: 1598: 1224:; for some examples, see 7228:Grammatisches Kompendium 6308:On the other hand, some 5532:which is masculine, and 4923:Second-language learners 4911:. (This is reflected in 4862:or its possessive forms 4522:Mostly semantic criteria 4467:Strict semantic criteria 4213:for both male and female 4189:for both male and female 3985:of differently gendered 3924:; nettoyer "to clean" → 3910: 3821:) are always masculine. 3594:from uncountable nouns ( 2940:(neuter), meaning "girl" 2846:Other examples include: 1485:. In some languages the 1152:with a masculine gender. 935:("skin") are homophones 503:Serial verb construction 8330:Bradley, Peter (2004). 8084:Oxford University Press 7987:Gender across languages 7833:Advanced French Grammar 7567:Oxford University Press 6953:Männlichkeit, Virilität 6909:Grammatical conjugation 6879:Gender-neutral language 6860: 6854: 6848: 6594: 6588: 6582: 6559:Gender-neutral language 6305:have lost it entirely. 6227:Gender in Dutch grammar 6125:Indo-European languages 5992:Indo-European languages 5541:In Polish the loanword 5442:"sun" is feminine, and 5284:Gender across languages 4610:Gender-neutral language 4566:groups of mixed gender; 4483:Another example is the 4245:Greek occupation names 2859: 2853: 2447:Gender-neutral language 2265:"children" is feminine 1844:the.MASC.SG grandfather 1591:After definite article 1179:Gender in Dutch grammar 1089:Here nouns that denote 734:Common gender divisions 441:Honorifics (politeness) 40:Gender (disambiguation) 36:Gender-neutral language 8501:10.5281/zenodo.3446230 8480:10.5281/zenodo.3446224 7358:Dixon, Robert (1968). 7223:always have a gender: 7030: 7024: 7018: 7012: 7006: 7000: 6958: 6952: 6946: 6940: 6934: 6790: 6778: 6772: 6763: 6757: 6748: 6742: 6729: 6723: 6710: 6704: 6695: 6689: 6680: 6674: 6661: 6655: 6649: 6268: 6262: 6256: 6250: 6217:(and, to some extent, 6197: 6038:, etc.), and in other 5914: 5884: 5878: 5872: 5834: 5828: 5822: 5809: 5797: 5713: 5707: 5664: 5658: 5652: 5646: 5637: 5631: 5622: 5616: 5610: 5604: 5595: 5589: 5583: 5577: 5568: 5558: 5549: 5543: 5519: 5490: 5484: 5478: 5472: 5466: 5460: 5454: 5444: 5438: 5432: 5426: 5410: 5404: 5398: 5392: 5383: 5377: 5276: 5266: 5260: 5246: 5240: 5234: 5228: 5218: 5212: 5206: 5200: 5190: 5180: 5174: 5168: 5162: 5156: 5142: 5136: 5130: 5124: 5114: 5108: 5038: 5015: 5009: 5003: 4997: 4991: 4985: 4979: 4973: 4966: 4943: 4937: 4931: 4864: 4858: 4852: 4846: 4836: 4830: 4805: 4799: 4785: 4779: 4752: 4730: 4701: 4639: 4582: 4576: 4451: 4170:English proper names: 4131: 4125: 4119: 4111: 4033: 4027: 4021: 4015: 4009: 4003: 3997: 3991: 3974: 3968: 3962: 3956: 3950: 3944: 3938: 3932: 3926: 3920: 3914: 3905: 3899: 3893: 3887: 3881: 3875: 3869: 3863: 3857: 3851: 3845: 3839: 3830: 3695: 3689: 3683: 3677: 3671: 3650: 3644: 3638: 3632: 3626: 3620: 3614: 3608: 3602: 3596: 3586: 3576: 3570: 3564: 3558: 3541:(His son is my friend) 3538:Kurrê wî hevalê min e. 3537: 3529: 3520: 3514: 3500: 3494: 3488: 3486:Most Spanish nouns in 3479: 3473: 3463: 3457: 3451: 3441: 3435: 3422: 3416: 3410: 3404: 3394: 3388: 3341: 3330:: masculine/feminine. 3309: 3297: 3252: 3246: 3189: 3183: 3161: 3155: 3149: 3143: 3105: 3095: 3075: 3069: 3063: 3057: 3051: 3045: 3039: 3031: 3024: 2994: 2975: 2958: 2947: 2936: 2925: 2914: 2903: 2897: 2883: 2877: 2870: 2839: 2833: 2824: 2813: 2807: 2675: 2669: 2631: 2630:meaning "person", and 2626: 2619: 2613: 2607: 2594: 2589: 2578: 2573: 2558: 2553: 2512: 2501: 2485:null-subject languages 2476: 2467: 2460: 2434: 2427: 2421: 2403: 2393: 2379: 2273: 2261: 2191: 2179: 2173: 2166: 2107: 2090: 2061: 2044: 2012: 1995: 1966: 1949: 1916: 1910: 1904: 1890:the.FEM.SG grandmother 1876: 1859: 1830: 1813: 1786: 1780: 1771: 1765: 1706:grammatical categories 1665: 1651: 1641: 1626: 1616: 1603: 1572: 1558: 1538: 1532: 1521: 1329: 1289: 1280: 1157:Common–neuter contrast 1148: 1142: 1136: 1130: 1124: 1029: 1023: 947: 941: 930: 924: 910: 904: 772: 767: 761: 618:Polypersonal agreement 38:. For other uses, see 8584:Linguistic morphology 8460:The Language Instinct 8377:. pp. 1347–1353. 7603:James Cook University 6941:masculinité, virilité 6474:. The choice between 6157:, Ancient and Modern 6064:Niger–Congo languages 6050:, as well as several 6028:Afroasiatic languages 5961:. Thus, according to 5818: painting brush 5781:) is fitted into the 5523:, which is masculine. 5402:is masculine whereas 5387:; or neuter, as with 5188:, whereas the plural 4691:) was only a prince.' 4106: 3699:are always feminine. 3580:("young woman") (see 3530:Keça wî hevala min e. 3428:form-meaning mismatch 3335:: animate/inanimate. 3315: 3303: 3275: 3015:constructio ad sensum 2195:) . As a consequence 1387:classifier handshapes 1258:Linguistic relativity 1010:Afroasiatic languages 746: 254:Genitive construction 8106:In a translation of 7723:. 2002. pp. 1–2 7298:Macmillan Publishers 7226:Wilfried Kürschner ( 7142:"factory", feminine 6838:In the Austronesian 6030:(which includes the 5976:-marking morphology; 5593:(from Asturian) and 5339:. Knowledge (XXG)'s 5303:specify the language 5301:This section should 3795:: for instance, the 3761:"broken" plural form 3386:, nouns that end in 3320:: no gender system. 3032:diese kleine Mädchen 2716:improve this section 2443:Third-person pronoun 1930:"Grammatical" gender 1563:"girl" changes into 1379:East Asian languages 1104:Algonquian languages 1002:Indo-Aryan languages 700:grammatical category 507:Traditional grammar 475:Syntax relationships 151:Grammatical features 84:"Grammatical gender" 69:improve this article 8121:Alexander Vertinsky 8074:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 7323:Jackson, Steven B. 7148:"woman" and neuter 6904:Generic antecedents 6840:Wuvulu-Aua language 6816:Dravidian languages 6395:, and the singular 6132:Proto-Indo-European 6105:language families. 6048:Northeast Caucasian 5959:isolating languages 5668:, which was neuter. 5587:(from Portuguese), 5470:), whereas Spanish 5264:("small boy"), but 4919:where applicable.) 4588:semantically marked 4474:Dravidian languages 4218:Greek proper names 2604:indefinite pronouns 1926: 1796: 1736:, past and passive 1599:Masculine singular 1582: 1462:change their form ( 1242:Dravidian languages 1096:Anatolian languages 1035:Proto-Indo-European 848:, past and passive 425:Comparison (degree) 175:Dative construction 32:Language and gender 8579:Grammatical gender 8311:Hafford, James A. 8264:2013-10-30 at the 7866:10.1111/lnc3.12226 7193:"hand" and neuter 6914:Polarity of gender 6628:Russian declension 6437:Germanic languages 6373:they/them/their(s) 5755:Ghil'ad Zuckermann 5703:Ghil'ad Zuckermann 5538:which is feminine. 5450:Germanic languages 4856:and the reflexive 4800:hjúkrunarfræðingur 4664:) óbreyttur prins. 4621:Germanic languages 4112: 3828:, nouns ending in 3669:, nouns ending in 3556:with the suffixes 3342: 3310: 3298: 3165:("a male zebra"). 3156:un guepardo hembra 3099:(masculine) and a 3007:(f.) Hausaufgaben. 2988:(n.) Hausaufgaben. 2800:grammatical gender 2636:meaning "thing"). 2590:mae hi'n bwrw glaw 2541:pro-drop languages 2026:the.MASC.PL dishes 1924: 1794: 1637:Feminine singular 1580: 1402:Chinese classifier 1389:) can be found in 1335:(also the root of 1047:Germanic languages 773: 755:, adjectives, and 710:of that language. 691:grammatical gender 375:Grammatical aspect 8565:at NamepediA Blog 8494:978-3-96110-181-8 8472:978-3-96110-179-5 8395:978-0-521-26904-9 8181:Franceschina 2005 7646:978-1-317-71018-9 7576:978-0-19-936160-1 7562:The Language Hoax 7549:, pp. 20–21. 7513:, pp. 27–28. 7456:Mouton de Gruyter 7454:. Vol. 124. 7438:Franceschina 2005 7419:Franceschina 2005 7398:, p. 27, 52. 7187:"king", feminine 6800:Polish morphology 6447:in words such as 6412:their modifiers ( 6403:corresponding to 6381:relative pronouns 6358:personal pronouns 6326:Gender in English 6320:Germanic: English 6186:Romance languages 6040:language families 5629:The Italian word 5575:The Spanish word 5501:The Russian word 5422:Romance languages 5363: 5362: 5343:may also be used. 5224:second declension 5096:Norwegian Nynorsk 4040:In the same way, 3995:means "boy", and 3867:are masculine as 3818:faʿʿala, yufaʿʿil 3799:of Stem II (e.g. 3712:(traditionally a 3654:(comparable with 3447:Romance languages 3325:: common/neuter. 3074:("wuss, klutz"); 3003:(f.) macht jetzt 2984:(n.) macht jetzt 2890:, meaning 'lord') 2830:diminutive suffix 2796: 2795: 2788: 2770: 2311:personal pronouns 2301:Personal pronouns 2277:"door" is neuter 2268:singularia tantum 2252:Other languages, 2237:, "spectacles"), 2130: 2129: 2121:the.FEM.PL guitar 2075:the.FEM.SG guitar 1899: 1898: 1893:"the grandmother" 1847:"the grandfather" 1785:(masculine), and 1683: 1682: 1530:singular form is 1353:A classifier, or 1228:. In some of the 1201:Norwegian Nynorsk 1055:Romance languages 990:Romance languages 683: 682: 578:Topic and Comment 561:Thematic relation 456:Reflexive pronoun 370:Tense–aspect–mood 330:Associated motion 312:Universal grinder 145: 144: 137: 119: 16:(Redirected from 8591: 8553: 8551: 8545:. Archived from 8544: 8534: 8441: 8418: 8399: 8378: 8365: 8345: 8317: 8316: 8308: 8302: 8301:, pp. 8–11. 8296: 8290: 8274: 8268: 8256: 8250: 8245: 8239: 8238: 8228: 8202: 8196: 8190: 8184: 8178: 8169: 8168: 8142: 8136: 8130: 8124: 8123:, 1920s or 1930s 8117: 8111: 8104: 8098: 8097: 8070: 8059: 8053: 8047: 8046: 8044: 8042: 8028: 8022: 8021: 8007: 8001: 8000: 7982: 7976: 7975: 7965: 7959: 7953: 7947: 7941: 7932: 7926: 7917: 7911: 7905: 7899: 7893: 7887: 7881: 7876: 7870: 7869: 7847: 7841: 7840: 7828: 7822: 7821: 7799: 7793: 7792: 7776: 7766: 7760: 7754: 7748: 7742: 7733: 7732: 7730: 7728: 7714: 7706: 7700: 7699: 7697: 7695: 7679:Boroditsky, Lera 7675: 7669: 7666: 7660: 7657: 7651: 7650: 7637:Psychology Press 7626: 7615: 7614: 7612: 7610: 7599: 7590: 7581: 7580: 7556: 7550: 7544: 7538: 7537: 7535: 7534: 7520: 7514: 7508: 7502: 7501: 7499: 7498: 7484: 7478: 7477: 7447: 7441: 7435: 7422: 7416: 7399: 7393: 7387: 7386: 7375: 7364: 7363: 7355: 7340: 7339: 7337: 7335: 7329:Psychology Today 7320: 7314: 7308: 7302: 7301: 7295: 7284: 7271: 7270: 7268: 7267: 7253: 7244: 7217: 7200: 7198: 7197: 7192: 7191: 7186: 7185: 7180: 7179: 7171: 7170: 7162: 7161: 7153: 7152: 7147: 7146: 7141: 7140: 7135: 7134: 7126: 7125: 7117: 7116: 7109: 7105: 7104: 7099: 7098: 7093: 7092: 7087: 7086: 7081: 7080: 7075: 7074: 7066: 7065: 7057: 7056: 7048: 7047: 7041: 7035: 7033: 7027: 7021: 7015: 7009: 7003: 6996: 6990: 6989:), among others. 6988: 6982: 6981: 6976: 6974: 6967: 6966: 6961: 6955: 6949: 6943: 6937: 6930: 6863: 6857: 6851: 6824:collective nouns 6793: 6781: 6775: 6766: 6760: 6751: 6749:dobrych klientów 6745: 6732: 6726: 6713: 6707: 6698: 6692: 6683: 6677: 6664: 6658: 6652: 6636:Czech declension 6597: 6591: 6585: 6578:Slavic languages 6572:Slavic languages 6535:figure of speech 6310:Slavic languages 6207:Celtic languages 6200: 6147:Slavic languages 6036:Berber languages 6026:, for example), 5929: 5923: 5922: 5917: 5911: 5905: 5904: 5899: 5893: 5892: 5887: 5881: 5875: 5869: 5863: 5862: biblioték 5859: 5856: 5852: 5846: 5845: 5838:, all feminine. 5837: 5831: 5825: 5819: 5816: 5812: 5806: 5800: 5794: 5780: 5777: 5773: 5767: 5766: 5745: 5739: 5738: 5716: 5710: 5667: 5661: 5655: 5649: 5644:The French word 5640: 5634: 5625: 5619: 5613: 5607: 5602:The French word 5598: 5592: 5586: 5580: 5571: 5561: 5556:The Polish word 5552: 5546: 5537: 5536: 5531: 5530: 5522: 5512: 5511: 5506: 5505: 5493: 5487: 5481: 5475: 5469: 5463: 5457: 5447: 5441: 5435: 5429: 5413: 5407: 5401: 5395: 5386: 5380: 5358: 5355: 5349: 5334: 5328: 5324: 5318: 5314: 5308: 5296: 5295: 5288: 5279: 5269: 5263: 5249: 5243: 5237: 5231: 5221: 5215: 5209: 5203: 5193: 5183: 5177: 5171: 5166:("delight") and 5165: 5159: 5145: 5139: 5133: 5127: 5120:Norwegian Bokmål 5117: 5111: 5100:Norwegian Bokmål 5089: 5083: 5082: 5077: 5071: 5070: 5065: 5059: 5058: 5041: 5035: 5034: 5018: 5012: 5006: 5000: 4994: 4988: 4982: 4976: 4969: 4946: 4940: 4934: 4927:definite article 4867: 4861: 4855: 4849: 4843: 4833: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4806:leikskólakennari 4802: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4782: 4771: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4749: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4720: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4585: 4579: 4454: 4448: 4442: 4441: 4436: 4430: 4429: 4424: 4418: 4417: 4412: 4406: 4405: 4400: 4394: 4393: 4388: 4382: 4381: 4370: 4364: 4363: 4355: 4349: 4348: 4340: 4334: 4333: 4325: 4319: 4318: 4310: 4304: 4303: 4292: 4286: 4285: 4280: 4274: 4273: 4268: 4262: 4261: 4256: 4250: 4249: 4241: 4235: 4234: 4229: 4223: 4222: 4134: 4128: 4122: 4059: 4036: 4030: 4024: 4018: 4012: 4006: 4000: 3994: 3977: 3971: 3965: 3959: 3953: 3947: 3941: 3935: 3929: 3923: 3917: 3912: 3908: 3902: 3896: 3890: 3884: 3878: 3872: 3866: 3860: 3854: 3848: 3842: 3837: 3833: 3820: 3815: 3814: 3809: 3804: 3803: 3790: 3785: 3784: 3778: 3772: 3771: 3755: 3754: 3750: 3742: 3737: 3736: 3727: 3719: 3698: 3692: 3686: 3680: 3674: 3653: 3647: 3641: 3635: 3629: 3623: 3617: 3611: 3605: 3599: 3589: 3579: 3573: 3567: 3561: 3540: 3532: 3523: 3517: 3506:Kurdish language 3503: 3497: 3491: 3482: 3476: 3466: 3460: 3454: 3444: 3438: 3425: 3419: 3413: 3407: 3397: 3391: 3378:For example, in 3255: 3249: 3220: 3213: 3212: 3206: 3199: 3198: 3193:"bull", Russian 3192: 3186: 3172: 3164: 3158: 3152: 3146: 3140: 3139: 3134: 3128: 3127: 3122: 3108: 3098: 3034: 3027: 3009: 2990: 2961: 2950: 2939: 2928: 2917: 2906: 2900: 2889: 2880: 2842: 2836: 2827: 2791: 2784: 2780: 2777: 2771: 2769: 2728: 2696: 2688: 2629: 2592: 2576: 2556: 2518: 2507: 2479: 2473: 2437: 2373: 2372: 2366: 2353: 2352: 2346: 2276: 2264: 2255: 2248: 2242: 2241: 2236: 2230: 2229: 2224: 2218: 2217: 2212: 2206: 2205: 2194: 2188: 2187: 2182: 2176: 2164: 2163: 2158: 2157: 2152: 2144: 2103: 2099: 2057: 2053: 2008: 2004: 1980:the.MASC.SG dish 1962: 1958: 1927: 1921: 1919: 1913: 1907: 1872: 1868: 1826: 1822: 1800:"Natural" gender 1797: 1777:definite article 1774: 1768: 1676: 1658: 1644: 1629: 1619: 1606: 1583: 1569:definite article 1555:initial mutation 1541: 1535: 1518:Latin declension 1420: 1414: 1413: 1408: 1407: 1343:Noun classifiers 1334: 1296: 1292: 1286: 1230:Slavic languages 1205:Norwegian Bokmål 1190:Norwegian Bokmål 1151: 1145: 1139: 1133: 1127: 1116:Kurdish language 1051:Slavic languages 1032: 1026: 998:Celtic languages 994:Baltic languages 955:Gender contrasts 950: 944: 938: 901:which I maintain 770: 764: 675: 668: 661: 409:General features 324:Related to verbs 159:Related to nouns 147: 140: 133: 129: 126: 120: 118: 77: 53: 45: 21: 8599: 8598: 8594: 8593: 8592: 8590: 8589: 8588: 8569: 8568: 8549: 8542: 8537: 8522: 8513: 8503:. Open Access. 8482:. Open Access. 8435: 8415: 8402: 8396: 8381: 8368: 8355: 8342: 8329: 8326: 8321: 8320: 8310: 8309: 8305: 8297: 8293: 8275: 8271: 8266:Wayback Machine 8257: 8253: 8246: 8242: 8204: 8203: 8199: 8191: 8187: 8179: 8172: 8157: 8144: 8143: 8139: 8131: 8127: 8118: 8114: 8105: 8101: 8094: 8072: 8071: 8062: 8054: 8050: 8040: 8038: 8030: 8029: 8025: 8009: 8008: 8004: 7997: 7984: 7983: 7979: 7967: 7966: 7962: 7954: 7950: 7942: 7935: 7927: 7920: 7912: 7908: 7900: 7896: 7888: 7884: 7877: 7873: 7860:(11): 661–677. 7849: 7848: 7844: 7830: 7829: 7825: 7818: 7801: 7800: 7796: 7789: 7769: 7767: 7763: 7755: 7751: 7743: 7736: 7726: 7724: 7712: 7708: 7707: 7703: 7693: 7691: 7677: 7676: 7672: 7667: 7663: 7658: 7654: 7647: 7639:. p. 120. 7628: 7627: 7618: 7608: 7606: 7597: 7592: 7591: 7584: 7577: 7558: 7557: 7553: 7545: 7541: 7532: 7530: 7522: 7521: 7517: 7509: 7505: 7496: 7494: 7486: 7485: 7481: 7474: 7458:. p. 689. 7449: 7448: 7444: 7436: 7425: 7417: 7402: 7394: 7390: 7377: 7376: 7367: 7357: 7356: 7343: 7333: 7331: 7322: 7321: 7317: 7309: 7305: 7293: 7286: 7285: 7274: 7265: 7263: 7255: 7254: 7247: 7239:Duden Grammatik 7221:pluralia tantum 7218: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7203: 7181:from masculine 7136:from masculine 7042: 7038: 7025:la bella águila 6997: 6993: 6972: 6931: 6927: 6922: 6870: 6836: 6812: 6782:(genitive only) 6767:(genitive only) 6714:(genitive only) 6681:dobrego klienta 6586:and neuters in 6574: 6347:waiter/waitress 6328: 6322: 6194:Spanish pronoun 6121: 6103:Native American 5982:non-accusative 5972:preference for 5963:Johanna Nichols 5942: 5936: 5861: 5860: – transl. 5857: 5817: 5778: 5752: 5691: 5675: 5464:and Portuguese 5408:is neuter, and 5372: 5366:borrowed word. 5359: 5353: 5350: 5344: 5332: 5326: 5322: 5320:transliteration 5316: 5312: 5306: 5297: 5293: 5286: 5252:Scottish Gaelic 5152: 5112:, or feminine: 5048: 4962: 4953: 4901: 4560: 4524: 4469: 4461: 4164: 4101: 3618:"punishment" → 3592:countable nouns 3372: 3336: 3331: 3326: 3321: 3306:Polish language 3270: 3262: 3167:Different names 3162:una cebra macho 3086: 2922:Scottish Gaelic 2792: 2781: 2775: 2772: 2729: 2727: 2713: 2697: 2686: 2662: 2649: 2618:("no-one") and 2567:comes from the 2529: 2420:, for example, 2303: 2287: 2279:pluralia tantum 2198:pluralia tantum 2135: 2126: 2113: 2105: 2080: 2067: 2059: 2031: 2018: 2010: 1985: 1972: 1964: 1901: 1895: 1882: 1874: 1849: 1836: 1828: 1750:complementizers 1699: 1679:"the big girl" 1594:With adjective 1474:parts of speech 1448: 1436: 1427: 1351: 1349:Noun classifier 1345: 1314: 1308: 1303: 1260: 1254: 1218: 1159: 1087: 1018: 985: 963: 957: 878: 866:complementizers 787:or inanimacy, " 771:, respectively. 740:and inanimate. 728: 679: 650: 649: 608: 600: 599: 546: 538: 537: 476: 468: 467: 437:(verbal number) 435:Pluractionality 410: 402: 401: 325: 317: 316: 296: 237:Collective noun 219:Construct state 160: 141: 130: 124: 121: 78: 76: 66: 54: 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8597: 8595: 8587: 8586: 8581: 8571: 8570: 8567: 8566: 8560: 8554: 8552:on 2008-04-14. 8535: 8529:(PhD thesis). 8520: 8519:at ucalgary.ca 8512: 8511:External links 8509: 8508: 8507: 8486: 8464: 8455:Pinker, Steven 8452: 8449: 8442: 8433: 8426: 8419: 8413: 8400: 8394: 8379: 8375:Pergamon Press 8366: 8353: 8346: 8341:978-0415286435 8340: 8334:(1 ed.). 8325: 8322: 8319: 8318: 8303: 8291: 8269: 8251: 8240: 8197: 8185: 8170: 8155: 8137: 8135:, p. 326. 8125: 8112: 8099: 8092: 8060: 8048: 8023: 8002: 7995: 7977: 7974:. p. 144. 7968:Kramer, Ruth. 7960: 7948: 7933: 7918: 7906: 7894: 7882: 7871: 7842: 7839:. p. 401. 7823: 7816: 7810:. p. 85. 7806:(1 ed.). 7794: 7787: 7761: 7749: 7734: 7701: 7681:(2009-06-11). 7670: 7661: 7652: 7645: 7616: 7582: 7575: 7551: 7539: 7515: 7503: 7479: 7472: 7442: 7423: 7400: 7388: 7365: 7341: 7315: 7303: 7300:. p. 231. 7272: 7245: 7243: 7242: 7231: 7211: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7202: 7201: 7036: 7034:"the eagles"). 6991: 6971:muzhestvennost 6965:мужественность 6924: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6917: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6869: 6866: 6835: 6832: 6811: 6808: 6786: 6785: 6784: 6783: 6768: 6753: 6743:dobrzy klienci 6735: 6734: 6718: 6717: 6716: 6715: 6700: 6685: 6667: 6666: 6600:soft consonant 6573: 6570: 6539: 6538: 6515: 6494:With animals, 6439:(the suffixes 6409: 6408: 6354: 6324:Main article: 6321: 6318: 6120: 6117: 6109:Modern English 6060:Kalaw Lagaw Ya 5988: 5987: 5980: 5977: 5970: 5935: 5932: 5751: 5748: 5732: 5731: 5727: 5724: 5721: 5718: 5699: 5690: 5687: 5686: 5685: 5682: 5674: 5671: 5670: 5669: 5642: 5627: 5600: 5573: 5554: 5553:, is feminine. 5539: 5524: 5414:is feminine.) 5371: 5368: 5361: 5360: 5300: 5298: 5291: 5285: 5282: 5267:balaich bheaga 5256:palatalization 5151: 5148: 5047: 5044: 4961: 4958: 4952: 4949: 4900: 4897: 4774: 4773: 4723: 4722: 4693: 4692: 4571: 4570: 4567: 4559: 4556: 4555: 4554: 4550: 4543: 4536: 4523: 4520: 4468: 4465: 4460: 4457: 4375: 4374: 4373: 4372: 4357: 4342: 4327: 4312: 4294: 4243: 4216: 4215: 4214: 4207: 4201: 4192: 4191: 4190: 4183: 4177: 4163: 4160: 4100: 4097: 4042:personal names 3767:; for example 3624:"apprentice", 3590:, which makes 3543: 3542: 3534: 3461:("photo") and 3371: 3368: 3364: 3363: 3360: 3353: 3269: 3266: 3261: 3258: 3250:("animal") or 3085: 3082: 3011: 3010: 2991: 2964: 2963: 2952: 2941: 2930: 2919: 2908: 2891: 2865: 2794: 2793: 2700: 2698: 2691: 2685: 2682: 2661: 2658: 2653:natural gender 2648: 2645: 2528: 2525: 2520: 2519: 2508: 2376: 2375: 2355: 2307:natural gender 2302: 2299: 2286: 2283: 2257:Serbo-Croatian 2213:, "pincers"), 2134: 2131: 2128: 2127: 2106: 2089: 2088: 2086: 2082: 2081: 2060: 2043: 2042: 2040: 2037: 2033: 2032: 2011: 1994: 1993: 1991: 1987: 1986: 1965: 1948: 1947: 1945: 1942: 1938: 1937: 1934: 1931: 1897: 1896: 1875: 1858: 1857: 1855: 1851: 1850: 1829: 1812: 1811: 1809: 1805: 1804: 1801: 1698: 1695: 1681: 1680: 1677: 1662: 1659: 1648: 1645: 1638: 1634: 1633: 1632:"the big son" 1630: 1623: 1620: 1610: 1607: 1600: 1596: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1447: 1444: 1435: 1432: 1426: 1423: 1391:sign languages 1347:Main article: 1344: 1341: 1310:Main article: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1299: 1253: 1250: 1217: 1214: 1158: 1155: 1154: 1153: 1086: 1083: 1017: 1014: 984: 981: 980: 979: 976: 973: 970: 956: 953: 917: 916: 892: 885: 877: 874: 727: 724: 681: 680: 678: 677: 670: 663: 655: 652: 651: 648: 647: 642: 637: 632: 630:Empty category 627: 622: 621: 620: 609: 606: 605: 602: 601: 598: 597: 592: 587: 586: 585: 575: 574: 573: 568: 558: 553: 547: 544: 543: 540: 539: 536: 535: 534: 533: 528: 523: 518: 513: 505: 500: 495: 494: 493: 488: 477: 474: 473: 470: 469: 466: 465: 464: 463: 461:Reflexive verb 458: 448: 443: 438: 432: 427: 422: 417: 411: 408: 407: 404: 403: 400: 399: 394: 393: 392: 387: 382: 377: 367: 362: 357: 352: 347: 342: 337: 332: 326: 323: 322: 319: 318: 315: 314: 309: 304: 303: 302: 297: 295: 294: 289: 284: 280: 273: 268: 267: 266: 261: 251: 246: 241: 240: 239: 234: 229: 221: 216: 215: 214: 204: 203: 202: 197: 192: 187: 185:Quirky subject 182: 177: 167: 161: 158: 157: 154: 153: 143: 142: 57: 55: 48: 26: 24: 18:Masculine form 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8596: 8585: 8582: 8580: 8577: 8576: 8574: 8564: 8561: 8558: 8555: 8548: 8541: 8538:Horesh, Uri. 8536: 8532: 8528: 8527: 8521: 8518: 8515: 8514: 8510: 8506: 8502: 8498: 8495: 8491: 8487: 8485: 8481: 8477: 8473: 8469: 8465: 8462: 8461: 8456: 8453: 8450: 8447: 8443: 8439: 8434: 8431: 8427: 8424: 8420: 8416: 8414:90-272-5298-X 8410: 8406: 8401: 8397: 8391: 8387: 8386: 8380: 8376: 8372: 8367: 8363: 8359: 8354: 8351: 8347: 8343: 8337: 8333: 8328: 8327: 8323: 8315:. p. 63. 8314: 8307: 8304: 8300: 8295: 8292: 8288: 8287:0-226-10403-6 8284: 8280: 8279: 8273: 8270: 8267: 8263: 8260: 8255: 8252: 8249: 8244: 8241: 8236: 8232: 8227: 8222: 8219:(2): 93–116. 8218: 8214: 8213: 8208: 8201: 8198: 8194: 8189: 8186: 8183:, p. 77. 8182: 8177: 8175: 8171: 8166: 8162: 8158: 8156:0-226-58056-3 8152: 8148: 8141: 8138: 8134: 8129: 8126: 8122: 8119:In a song of 8116: 8113: 8110:stories, 1915 8109: 8103: 8100: 8095: 8093:9780199812790 8089: 8085: 8081: 8080: 8075: 8069: 8067: 8065: 8061: 8058:, p. 61. 8057: 8052: 8049: 8036: 8035: 8027: 8024: 8019: 8017: 8012: 8006: 8003: 7998: 7996:90-272-1842-0 7992: 7988: 7981: 7978: 7973: 7972: 7964: 7961: 7958:, p. 19. 7957: 7952: 7949: 7946:, p. 14. 7945: 7940: 7938: 7934: 7931:, p. 32. 7930: 7925: 7923: 7919: 7916:, p. 13. 7915: 7910: 7907: 7904:, p. 12. 7903: 7898: 7895: 7892:, p. 11. 7891: 7886: 7883: 7880: 7875: 7872: 7867: 7863: 7859: 7855: 7854: 7846: 7843: 7838: 7834: 7827: 7824: 7819: 7813: 7809: 7805: 7798: 7795: 7790: 7788:0-87779-132-5 7784: 7780: 7775: 7774: 7765: 7762: 7759:, p. 27. 7758: 7753: 7750: 7747:, p. 18. 7746: 7741: 7739: 7735: 7722: 7718: 7711: 7705: 7702: 7690: 7689: 7684: 7680: 7674: 7671: 7665: 7662: 7656: 7653: 7648: 7642: 7638: 7634: 7633: 7625: 7623: 7621: 7617: 7605: 7604: 7596: 7589: 7587: 7583: 7578: 7572: 7568: 7564: 7563: 7555: 7552: 7548: 7543: 7540: 7529: 7525: 7519: 7516: 7512: 7507: 7504: 7493: 7489: 7483: 7480: 7475: 7473:9783110802603 7469: 7465: 7461: 7457: 7453: 7446: 7443: 7440:, p. 78. 7439: 7434: 7432: 7430: 7428: 7424: 7421:, p. 72. 7420: 7415: 7413: 7411: 7409: 7407: 7405: 7401: 7397: 7392: 7389: 7384: 7380: 7374: 7372: 7370: 7366: 7361: 7354: 7352: 7350: 7348: 7346: 7342: 7330: 7326: 7319: 7316: 7312: 7307: 7304: 7299: 7292: 7291: 7283: 7281: 7279: 7277: 7273: 7262: 7258: 7252: 7250: 7246: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7229: 7225: 7224: 7222: 7216: 7213: 7206: 7178: 7169: 7160: 7133: 7124: 7115: 7073: 7064: 7055: 7040: 7037: 7032: 7026: 7020: 7014: 7008: 7002: 6995: 6992: 6987: 6977:) and Hindi ( 6975: 6960: 6954: 6948: 6942: 6936: 6929: 6926: 6919: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6871: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6856: 6850: 6845: 6841: 6833: 6831: 6829: 6828:Tamil grammar 6825: 6821: 6817: 6809: 6807: 6805: 6801: 6797: 6792: 6780: 6779:dobrych serów 6774: 6769: 6765: 6759: 6754: 6750: 6744: 6739: 6738: 6737: 6736: 6731: 6725: 6720: 6719: 6712: 6706: 6701: 6697: 6691: 6686: 6682: 6676: 6671: 6670: 6669: 6668: 6663: 6657: 6651: 6645: 6644: 6643: 6639: 6637: 6631: 6629: 6623: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6596: 6590: 6584: 6579: 6571: 6569: 6567: 6566: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6513: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6492: 6491: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6468: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6429: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6352: 6351:widow/widower 6348: 6344: 6340: 6339: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6327: 6319: 6317: 6315: 6311: 6306: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6271: 6266: 6265: 6260: 6259: 6254: 6253: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6187: 6182: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6143: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6128: 6126: 6119:Indo-European 6118: 6116: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6067: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5985: 5981: 5978: 5975: 5971: 5968: 5967: 5966: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5955:agglutinating 5952: 5948: 5941: 5931: 5928: 5916: 5910: 5898: 5886: 5880: 5874: 5868: 5851: 5839: 5836: 5830: 5824: 5811: 5805: 5799: 5793: 5788: 5785:noun-pattern 5784: 5772: 5761: 5756: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5728: 5725: 5722: 5719: 5715: 5709: 5704: 5700: 5697: 5696: 5695: 5688: 5683: 5680: 5679: 5678: 5672: 5666: 5660: 5654: 5648: 5643: 5641:is masculine. 5639: 5633: 5628: 5624: 5618: 5612: 5606: 5601: 5597: 5596:origem/ orixe 5591: 5585: 5579: 5574: 5570: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5551: 5545: 5540: 5525: 5521: 5516: 5515:crescent moon 5500: 5499: 5498: 5495: 5492: 5486: 5480: 5474: 5468: 5462: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5440: 5434: 5428: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5412: 5406: 5400: 5394: 5390: 5385: 5379: 5369: 5367: 5357: 5347: 5342: 5338: 5331: 5321: 5311: 5304: 5299: 5290: 5289: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5273: 5268: 5262: 5257: 5253: 5248: 5242: 5236: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5214: 5208: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5176: 5170: 5164: 5158: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5138: 5132: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5110: 5104: 5101: 5097: 5091: 5088: 5076: 5064: 5053: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5029: 5025: 5020: 5017: 5011: 5007:"; the other 5005: 5001:, "the Great 4999: 4993: 4987: 4981: 4975: 4968: 4959: 4957: 4951:Gender shifts 4950: 4948: 4945: 4939: 4933: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4898: 4896: 4894: 4889: 4885: 4880: 4878: 4874: 4869: 4866: 4865:sin/sitt/sina 4860: 4854: 4848: 4842: 4840: 4832: 4827: 4823: 4818: 4807: 4801: 4787: 4781: 4780:hjúkrunarkona 4770: 4748: 4739:) velkomnir ( 4728: 4727: 4726: 4719: 4699: 4698: 4697: 4665: 4637: 4636: 4635: 4633: 4628: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4613: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4602: 4596: 4591: 4589: 4584: 4578: 4568: 4565: 4564: 4563: 4557: 4551: 4547: 4544: 4540: 4537: 4533: 4530: 4529: 4528: 4521: 4519: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4500: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4485:Dizi language 4481: 4479: 4475: 4466: 4464: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4447: 4435: 4423: 4411: 4399: 4387: 4369: 4358: 4354: 4343: 4339: 4328: 4324: 4313: 4309: 4298: 4297: 4295: 4291: 4279: 4267: 4255: 4244: 4240: 4228: 4217: 4212: 4208: 4206: 4202: 4200: 4196: 4195: 4193: 4188: 4184: 4182: 4178: 4176: 4172: 4171: 4169: 4168: 4167: 4161: 4159: 4157: 4153: 4148: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4133: 4127: 4121: 4115: 4110: 4105: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4090: 4084: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4038: 4035: 4029: 4023: 4017: 4011: 4005: 3999: 3993: 3988: 3984: 3979: 3976: 3970: 3964: 3958: 3952: 3946: 3942:("beach") or 3940: 3934: 3928: 3922: 3916: 3907: 3901: 3895: 3889: 3883: 3877: 3871: 3865: 3859: 3853: 3847: 3841: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3819: 3808: 3798: 3794: 3789: 3779: 3777: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3746: 3741: 3731: 3725: 3717: 3711: 3710: 3705: 3700: 3697: 3691: 3685: 3679: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3661: 3657: 3652: 3646: 3640: 3636:"cowardly" → 3634: 3628: 3622: 3616: 3610: 3604: 3598: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3578: 3574:("girl") and 3572: 3566: 3560: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3526: 3525: 3522: 3518:(member) and 3516: 3511: 3507: 3502: 3498:, accusative 3496: 3490: 3484: 3481: 3480:radiodifusión 3475: 3470: 3465: 3459: 3453: 3448: 3443: 3437: 3431: 3429: 3424: 3418: 3412: 3406: 3401: 3396: 3390: 3385: 3381: 3376: 3369: 3367: 3361: 3358: 3354: 3351: 3350:morphological 3347: 3346: 3345: 3339: 3334: 3329: 3324: 3319: 3314: 3307: 3302: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3274: 3267: 3265: 3259: 3257: 3254: 3248: 3243: 3238: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3222: 3219: 3214: 3205: 3200: 3191: 3185: 3180: 3176: 3168: 3163: 3157: 3151: 3145: 3133: 3121: 3116: 3112: 3107: 3102: 3097: 3092: 3083: 3081: 3079: 3078: 3073: 3072: 3067: 3066: 3061: 3060: 3055: 3054: 3049: 3048: 3043: 3042: 3036: 3033: 3026: 3020: 3016: 3008: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2992: 2989: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2973: 2972: 2971: 2967: 2960: 2956: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2909: 2905: 2899: 2895: 2892: 2888: 2887: 2879: 2874: 2873: 2869: 2866: 2863: 2862: 2858:(neuter) and 2857: 2856: 2852: 2849: 2848: 2847: 2844: 2841: 2835: 2831: 2826: 2821: 2817: 2816: 2811: 2810: 2805: 2801: 2790: 2787: 2779: 2768: 2765: 2761: 2758: 2754: 2751: 2747: 2744: 2740: 2737: – 2736: 2732: 2731:Find sources: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2711: 2710: 2706: 2701:This section 2699: 2695: 2690: 2689: 2683: 2681: 2679: 2678: 2673: 2672: 2667: 2659: 2657: 2654: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2637: 2635: 2634: 2628: 2623: 2622: 2621:quelque chose 2617: 2616: 2612:("someone"), 2611: 2610: 2605: 2600: 2598: 2597: 2591: 2586: 2582: 2581: 2575: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2561: 2555: 2548: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2533:dummy pronoun 2526: 2524: 2517: 2516: 2513:muito obrigad 2509: 2506: 2505: 2502:muito obrigad 2498: 2497: 2496: 2494: 2490: 2487:(and in some 2486: 2481: 2478: 2472: 2471: 2464: 2463: 2457: 2455: 2454: 2448: 2444: 2439: 2436: 2431: 2430: 2425: 2424: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2406: 2401: 2397: 2396: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2382: 2367: 2365: 2364: 2356: 2347: 2345: 2344: 2336: 2335: 2334: 2332: 2331:second person 2328: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2312: 2308: 2300: 2298: 2296: 2292: 2289:Pronouns may 2284: 2282: 2280: 2275: 2270: 2269: 2263: 2258: 2250: 2249:, "gills"). 2247: 2235: 2223: 2211: 2200: 2199: 2193: 2181: 2175: 2170: 2169: 2151: 2147: 2140: 2132: 2125: 2124:"the guitars" 2122: 2119: 2117: 2112: 2109: 2104: 2094: 2093: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2071: 2066: 2063: 2058: 2048: 2047: 2041: 2034: 2030: 2027: 2024: 2022: 2017: 2014: 2009: 1999: 1998: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1981: 1978: 1976: 1971: 1968: 1963: 1953: 1952: 1946: 1939: 1928: 1922: 1918: 1912: 1906: 1894: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1881: 1878: 1873: 1863: 1862: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1835: 1832: 1827: 1817: 1816: 1810: 1806: 1798: 1792: 1790: 1789: 1784: 1783: 1778: 1773: 1767: 1762: 1757: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1710: 1707: 1703: 1696: 1694: 1692: 1688: 1678: 1675: 1673: 1669: 1663: 1660: 1657: 1655: 1649: 1646: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1628: 1624: 1621: 1618: 1614: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1584: 1578: 1576: 1575: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1561: 1556: 1552: 1547: 1545: 1540: 1534: 1529: 1525: 1524: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1490: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1466: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1445: 1443: 1441: 1433: 1431: 1424: 1422: 1419: 1403: 1400: 1394: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1350: 1342: 1340: 1338: 1333: 1332: 1326: 1321: 1319: 1313: 1305: 1300: 1298: 1291: 1282: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1264: 1259: 1251: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1215: 1213: 1211: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1193: 1191: 1187: 1182: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1163:common gender 1156: 1150: 1144: 1138: 1132: 1126: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1112: 1111: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1092: 1084: 1082: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1031: 1025: 1015: 1013: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 982: 977: 974: 971: 968: 967: 966: 962: 954: 952: 949: 943: 934: 933: 928: 927: 922: 914: 913: 908: 907: 902: 898: 893: 890: 886: 883: 882: 881: 875: 873: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 822: 820: 815: 812: 810: 806: 801: 796: 794: 790: 786: 780: 776: 769: 763: 758: 754: 750: 745: 741: 739: 735: 731: 725: 723: 721: 717: 716:sex or gender 711: 709: 705: 701: 696: 692: 688: 676: 671: 669: 664: 662: 657: 656: 654: 653: 646: 643: 641: 638: 636: 635:Incorporation 633: 631: 628: 626: 623: 619: 616: 615: 614: 611: 610: 604: 603: 596: 593: 591: 588: 584: 581: 580: 579: 576: 572: 569: 567: 564: 563: 562: 559: 557: 554: 552: 549: 548: 542: 541: 532: 529: 527: 524: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 508: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 492: 489: 487: 484: 483: 482: 479: 478: 472: 471: 462: 459: 457: 454: 453: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 412: 406: 405: 398: 395: 391: 388: 386: 383: 381: 378: 376: 373: 372: 371: 368: 366: 363: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 345:Evidentiality 343: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 327: 321: 320: 313: 310: 308: 305: 301: 298: 293: 290: 288: 285: 282: 281: 279: 278: 277: 274: 272: 269: 265: 262: 260: 257: 256: 255: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 224: 223:Countability 222: 220: 217: 213: 210: 209: 208: 205: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 188: 186: 183: 181: 178: 176: 173: 172: 171: 168: 166: 163: 162: 156: 155: 152: 148: 139: 136: 128: 117: 114: 110: 107: 103: 100: 96: 93: 89: 86: – 85: 81: 80:Find sources: 74: 70: 64: 63: 58:This article 56: 52: 47: 46: 41: 37: 33: 19: 8547:the original 8525: 8458: 8445: 8437: 8432:, Macmillan. 8429: 8422: 8404: 8384: 8370: 8357: 8349: 8331: 8324:Bibliography 8312: 8306: 8299:Corbett 1991 8294: 8276: 8272: 8254: 8243: 8216: 8210: 8200: 8195:, p. 2. 8193:Corbett 1991 8188: 8146: 8140: 8128: 8115: 8102: 8082:. New York: 8078: 8056:Ibrahim 1973 8051: 8039:. Retrieved 8033: 8026: 8014: 8005: 7986: 7980: 7970: 7963: 7956:Corbett 1991 7951: 7944:Corbett 1991 7929:Corbett 1991 7914:Corbett 1991 7909: 7902:Corbett 1991 7897: 7890:Corbett 1991 7885: 7874: 7857: 7851: 7845: 7832: 7826: 7803: 7797: 7772: 7764: 7757:Bradley 2004 7752: 7745:Bradley 2004 7725:. Retrieved 7716: 7704: 7692:. Retrieved 7686: 7673: 7664: 7655: 7631: 7607:. Retrieved 7601: 7561: 7554: 7547:Corbett 1991 7542: 7531:. Retrieved 7527: 7518: 7511:Ibrahim 1973 7506: 7495:. Retrieved 7491: 7482: 7451: 7445: 7396:Bradley 2004 7391: 7382: 7360:Noun Classes 7359: 7332:. Retrieved 7328: 7318: 7313:, p. 4. 7311:Corbett 1991 7306: 7289: 7264:. Retrieved 7260: 7238: 7227: 7215: 7176: 7167: 7158: 7154:"insect" or 7131: 7122: 7113: 7071: 7062: 7053: 7039: 6994: 6962:), Russian ( 6928: 6837: 6834:Austronesian 6813: 6787: 6770:impersonal: 6764:dobrych psów 6755:impersonal: 6727:rather than 6711:dobrego sera 6675:dobry klient 6640: 6632: 6624: 6575: 6564: 6554: 6550: 6546: 6540: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6510:). See also 6503: 6499: 6495: 6487: 6483: 6479: 6475: 6469: 6464: 6452: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6430: 6426:blond/blonde 6425: 6410: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6376: 6372: 6365: 6361: 6350: 6346: 6336: 6329: 6307: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6183: 6179:declensional 6144: 6129: 6122: 6107: 6095:Sino-Tibetan 6091:Austronesian 6068: 5989: 5943: 5918:and Russian 5885:bibliothèque 5840: 5786: 5782: 5779: brush 5753: 5733: 5692: 5676: 5496: 5416: 5373: 5364: 5351: 5337:ISO 639 code 5333:}} 5327:{{ 5323:}} 5317:{{ 5313:}} 5307:{{ 5302: 5204:("egg") and 5196:church organ 5186:barrel organ 5153: 5105: 5092: 5049: 5021: 4963: 4954: 4921: 4913:dictionaries 4902: 4881: 4870: 4838: 4819: 4803:'nurse' and 4783:'nurse' and 4775: 4761:) velkomin ( 4724: 4694: 4629: 4624: 4614: 4605: 4600: 4594: 4592: 4572: 4561: 4527:categories. 4525: 4515: 4511: 4501: 4496: 4492: 4482: 4470: 4462: 4376: 4227:Konstantinos 4221:Κωνσταντίνος 4210: 4204: 4198: 4186: 4180: 4174: 4165: 4155: 4151: 4149: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4116: 4113: 4108: 4092: 4088: 4085: 4080: 4076: 4075:origin (cf. 4068: 4064: 4060: 4045: 4039: 3980: 3918:"to park" → 3823: 3797:verbal nouns 3773: 3764: 3763:ending in a 3709:tāʾ marbūṭah 3707: 3701: 3664: 3659: 3655: 3612:"teaching", 3544: 3485: 3432: 3377: 3373: 3365: 3343: 3337: 3332: 3327: 3322: 3317: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3263: 3239: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3223: 3208: 3207:) "ram" and 3194: 3178: 3174: 3087: 3037: 3025:eine Mädchen 3018: 3012: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2968: 2965: 2845: 2818:("maiden"), 2799: 2797: 2782: 2773: 2763: 2756: 2749: 2742: 2730: 2714:Please help 2702: 2663: 2652: 2650: 2638: 2601: 2564: 2549: 2544: 2530: 2521: 2514: 2503: 2482: 2477:je suis fort 2469: 2468:je suis fort 2458: 2452: 2440: 2414:third person 2377: 2362: 2358: 2342: 2338: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2306: 2304: 2288: 2278: 2266: 2251: 2225:, "pants"), 2196: 2136: 2123: 2120: 2115: 2114: 2110: 2095: 2091: 2078:"the guitar" 2077: 2074: 2069: 2068: 2064: 2049: 2045: 2029:"the dishes" 2028: 2025: 2020: 2019: 2015: 2000: 1996: 1982: 1979: 1974: 1973: 1969: 1954: 1950: 1900: 1892: 1889: 1884: 1883: 1879: 1864: 1860: 1846: 1843: 1838: 1837: 1833: 1818: 1814: 1758: 1711: 1700: 1684: 1671: 1667: 1653: 1612: 1564: 1548: 1543: 1491: 1469: 1463: 1449: 1437: 1428: 1395: 1382: 1374: 1370: 1355:measure word 1352: 1336: 1322: 1315: 1312:Noun classes 1306:Noun classes 1272:kind of test 1269: 1265: 1261: 1221: 1219: 1194: 1183: 1162: 1160: 1114:In Northern 1088: 1019: 986: 964: 929:("pot") and 918: 900: 896: 879: 823: 816: 813: 797: 781: 777: 774: 732: 729: 712: 707: 703: 690: 684: 595:Veridicality 486:Transitivity 430:Egophoricity 248: 244:Definiteness 212:Measure word 200:Instrumental 180:Dative shift 131: 122: 112: 105: 98: 91: 79: 67:Please help 62:verification 59: 8108:Jack London 8020:(in Czech). 7808:McGraw-Hill 7717:Learn Welsh 7694:20 December 7609:20 December 7528:MedicineNet 7031:las aguilas 6956:), Polish ( 6950:), German ( 6938:), French ( 6702:inanimate: 6696:dobrego psa 6418:determiners 6332:Old English 6249:—Afrikaans 6113:noun phrase 5994:(including 5882:and French 5832:and French 5261:balach beag 4884:coordinated 4489:diminutives 4329:masculine: 4239:Konstantina 4233:Κωνσταντίνα 3813:فعّل، يفعّل 3765:tāʾ marbūṭa 3720:, becoming 3554:diminutives 3150:un éléphant 3117:are always 3096:un guepardo 3019:attributive 2926:boireannach 2851:Old English 2569:Old English 1880:grandmother 1834:grandfather 1754:adpositions 1738:participles 1730:possessives 1726:quantifiers 1714:determiners 1452:determiners 1367:determiners 1021:the German 1008:), and the 870:adpositions 850:participles 842:possessives 838:quantifiers 826:determiners 819:"agreement" 753:determiners 687:linguistics 531:Predicative 451:Reciprocity 420:Boundedness 340:Conjugation 307:Specificity 125:August 2021 8573:Categories 8373:. Oxford: 8212:Morphology 7817:0844223743 7533:2024-03-26 7497:2016-01-24 7492:sjp.pwn.pl 7266:2022-08-01 7207:References 7082:"leg" and 6944:), Latin ( 6773:dobre sery 6740:personal: 6690:dobry pies 6472:antecedent 6457:productive 6422:adjectives 6366:she/her(s) 6362:he/him/his 6203:Hindustani 5947:classifier 5938:See also: 5879:Bibliothek 5873:biblioteka 5867:bibliotéka 5864:, Russian 5801:, Russian 5795:, Yiddish 5572:is neuter. 5160:("love"), 5024:polysemous 5016:Borgarting 4410:englezikos 4404:εγγλέζικος 4344:feminine: 4129:"forest", 4007:"lawyer", 3983:derivation 3793:derivation 3600:"dough" → 3474:fotografía 3380:Portuguese 3318:Light blue 3282:Mozambique 3187:"cow" and 3181:, Spanish 3144:une girafe 3103:is always 3093:is always 2911:Portuguese 2746:newspapers 2587:sentence: 2493:Portuguese 2489:elliptical 2390:Indonesian 2295:antecedent 2165:or German 2139:markedness 1983:"the dish" 1941:Masculine 1808:Masculine 1734:adjectives 1661:"the girl" 1627:y mab mawr 1567:after the 1487:declension 1460:adjectives 1383:classifier 1256:See also: 1226:Noun class 1067:Neapolitan 959:See also: 906:Blumenbeet 889:homophones 846:adjectives 805:morphology 695:noun class 645:Markedness 640:Inflection 625:Declension 556:Mirativity 365:Mirativity 271:Noun class 259:Possession 227:Count noun 207:Classifier 195:Comitative 190:Nominative 95:newspapers 8440:. Mouton. 8235:1871-5621 7261:wals.info 7019:el águila 6986:mardânegi 6810:Dravidian 6758:dobre psy 6705:dobry ser 6687:animate: 6672:animate: 6659:and some 6563:Singular 6435:from non- 6433:loanwords 6231:Afrikaans 6167:Icelandic 6101:and most 6044:Dravidian 6010:—but not 5984:alignment 5876:, German 5870:, Polish 5858: yi 5826:, German 5807:, Polish 5771:mivréshet 5730:expected. 5564:Icelandic 5529:картофель 5389:Norwegian 5235:bracchium 5087:pustoshta 5081:пустошта̀ 5054:the word 5052:Bulgarian 4967:comunista 4932:la chaise 4917:headwords 4905:deflexion 4632:Icelandic 4599:Singular 4434:engleziko 4428:εγγλέζικο 4422:engleziki 4416:εγγλέζικη 4290:giatraina 4284:γιάτραινα 3927:nettoyage 3807:al-tafʿīl 3627:Sträfling 3469:clippings 3436:comunista 3400:etymology 3338:Dark blue 3221:) "ewe". 3115:butterfly 3106:una cebra 2933:Slovenian 2828:with the 2776:June 2023 2703:does not 2609:quelqu'un 2554:es regnet 2451:Singular 2400:Hungarian 2371:أُحِبُّكِ 2351:أُحِبُّكَ 2189:, German 2146:Bulgarian 2118:guitarras 2108:guitarras 2039:Singular 2036:Feminine 1944:Singular 1854:Feminine 1702:Agreement 1693:, below. 1622:"the son" 1470:agreement 1440:agreement 1137:darê sêvê 1131:dara sêvê 809:phonology 789:humanness 720:languages 613:Agreement 607:Phenomena 545:Semantics 511:Predicate 498:Branching 335:Clusivity 232:Mass noun 8262:Archived 8165:24907586 8076:(2020). 7727:15 March 7199:"knee"). 7151:насекомо 6980:मर्दानगी 6868:See also 6844:vocative 6453:waitress 6449:aviatrix 6416:, other 6414:articles 6385:who/whom 6370:singular 6275:Armenian 6205:and the 6175:Asturian 6171:Romanian 6155:Sanskrit 6140:Armenian 6087:Mongolic 6079:Tungusic 6071:Koreanic 6054:such as 6042:such as 6020:Armenian 5951:fusional 5823:szczotka 5804:shchëtka 5792:mábrasha 5787:mi⌂⌂é⌂et 5783:feminine 5566:cognate 5535:картошка 5485:das Boot 5354:May 2022 5272:lenition 5247:bracchia 5134:(doll), 5128:(book), 5075:pustoshə 5069:пу̀стоша 5028:homonyms 4998:Storting 4837:min lill 4546:Alamblak 4386:englezos 4380:εγγλέζος 4359:neuter: 4338:anglikos 4332:αγγλικός 4314:female: 4278:giatrina 4272:γιατρίνα 4254:ithopios 4248:ηθοποιός 4209:common: 4205:waitress 4203:female: 4185:common: 4179:female: 4147:ending. 4093:waitress 4056:origin ( 4028:diputada 4010:diputado 3788:asātidha 3740:khalīfah 3690:-óg/-eog 3639:Feigling 3621:Lehrling 3603:Teigling 3577:Fräulein 3546:Suffixes 3510:Kurmanci 3452:problema 3357:semantic 3290:Zimbabwe 3286:Cambodge 3173:English 3132:babochka 3071:niezdara 3047:pierdoła 3041:kreatura 2948:babsztyl 2915:mulherão 2878:die Frau 2820:umlauted 2627:personne 2615:personne 2574:il pleut 2072:guitarra 2062:guitarra 1766:lo bueno 1722:numerals 1718:pronouns 1588:Default 1528:genitive 1494:inflects 1456:pronouns 1399:Mandarin 1371:piece(s) 1363:morpheme 1318:referent 1270:Another 1120:Kurmanji 1106:such as 1063:Asturian 1059:Romanian 1053:, a few 1043:Sanskrit 921:phonemes 854:articles 834:numerals 830:pronouns 800:semantic 757:pronouns 726:Overview 590:Volition 551:Contrast 481:Argument 446:Polarity 360:Telicity 350:Modality 283:Singular 8457:(1994) 8448:1. 1–3. 8446:Función 8031:"mar". 7130:насеком 7004:, like 6959:męskość 6820:deities 6814:In the 6806:above. 6620:animate 6604:Russian 6461:markers 6459:gender 6343:derived 6303:Kalasha 6291:Ossetic 6283:Persian 6279:Bengali 6211:Swedish 6136:Hittite 6075:Japonic 6062:. Most 6056:Dyirbal 6032:Semitic 6024:Persian 6016:Bengali 6012:English 6004:Russian 5996:Spanish 5897:máktaba 5855:transl. 5815:transl. 5776:transl. 5760:Israeli 5632:scimmia 5550:tramvaj 5544:tramwaj 5520:księżyc 5418:Cognate 5346:See why 5219:braccia 5207:braccio 5063:pustosh 5057:пу̀стош 5013:s like 4992:et ting 4986:en ting 4909:lexicon 4822:Swedish 4731:Allir ( 4702:Sumir ( 4667:'They ( 4549:trees). 4452:inglese 4398:Engleza 4392:Εγγλέζα 4368:angliko 4362:αγγλικό 4353:angliki 4347:αγγλική 4323:Anglida 4317:Αγγλίδα 4266:giatros 4260:γιατρός 4091:(as in 4081:Justine 4067:); and 4065:Roberta 4054:Romance 4034:doctora 4022:abogada 4004:abogado 3987:cognate 3975:bastion 3876:chanson 3810:, from 3802:التفعيل 3757:ʾUsāmah 3571:Mädchen 3423:persona 3411:miembro 3384:Spanish 3304:In the 3278:Mexique 3247:zwierzę 3138:бабочка 3091:cheetah 3077:niemowa 2997:Mädchen 2978:Mädchen 2861:wīfmann 2840:Mädchen 2809:Mädchen 2760:scholar 2724:removed 2709:sources 2666:Spanish 2643:below. 2577:(where 2537:subject 2418:Finnish 2410:Turkish 2361:uḥibbuk 2341:uḥibbuk 2262:d(j)eca 2210:kleshti 2186:червени 2162:червено 2156:червена 2085:Plural 1990:Plural 1936:Phrase 1803:Phrase 1772:lo malo 1761:Spanish 1746:adverbs 1514:Russian 1472:). The 1465:inflect 1357:, is a 1325:animate 1244:. (See 1222:classes 1197:Swedish 1171:Swedish 1091:animate 1071:Marathi 1049:, most 1045:, some 1024:Mädchen 1004:(e.g., 1000:, some 948:la peau 862:adverbs 785:animacy 749:Spanish 738:animate 708:genders 702:called 571:Patient 526:Adjunct 516:Subject 491:Valency 165:Animacy 109:scholar 8492: 8470: 8411: 8392: 8358:Gender 8338: 8285: 8233: 8163: 8153: 8090: 8041:25 May 7993: 7814: 7785: 7643: 7573: 7470: 7334:2 July 7196:коляно 7007:águila 6947:virtūs 6796:client 6791:klient 6616:Polish 6612:Slovak 6514:above. 6486:, and 6399:; and 6377:it/its 6301:, and 6299:Khowar 6287:Sorani 6267:, and 6245:, and 6221:; see 6215:Danish 6163:German 6099:Uralic 6083:Turkic 6058:, and 6008:German 6006:, and 6000:French 5850:sifriá 5835:brosse 5829:Bürste 5820:) and 5798:barsht 5717:"bag". 5623:equipe 5617:equipa 5611:equipo 5605:équipe 5584:origem 5578:origen 5569:þúsund 5559:tysiąc 5491:en båt 5191:orgues 5163:délice 4938:chaise 4873:Polish 4786:fóstra 4718:) sig. 4617:Slavic 4504:Defaka 4446:Anglia 4440:Αγγλία 4308:Anglos 4302:Άγγλος 4299:male: 4281:) and 4230:) and 4211:doctor 4199:waiter 4197:male: 4181:Andrea 4175:Andrew 4173:male: 4077:Justin 4073:French 4061:Robert 4031:, and 4016:doctor 3969:cation 3963:-aison 3921:garage 3858:meuble 3826:French 3783:أساتذة 3776:ustādh 3745:caliph 3704:Arabic 3615:Strafe 3550:German 3501:-iōnem 3417:pessoa 3405:membro 3323:Yellow 3242:Polish 3129:) and 3113:and a 3059:łamaga 2944:Polish 2898:cailín 2868:German 2804:German 2762: 2755: 2748: 2741: 2733: 2677:hombre 2327:Arabic 2234:ochila 2222:gashti 2150:червен 2111:guitar 2065:guitar 2023:platos 2016:dishes 2013:platos 1933:Number 1887:abuela 1877:abuela 1841:abuelo 1831:abuelo 1752:, and 1647:"girl" 1510:German 1498:number 1479:number 1290:puente 1281:Brücke 1277:German 1234:Polish 1186:Bergen 1167:Danish 1108:Ojibwe 1077:, and 996:, the 992:, the 942:le pot 912:Garten 868:, and 704:gender 521:Object 415:Affect 355:Person 292:Plural 276:Number 249:Gender 111: 104: 97: 90: 82: 8550:(PDF) 8543:(PDF) 7713:(PDF) 7598:(PDF) 7294:(PDF) 7235:Duden 7175:колен 7139:завод 7112:завод 6973:' 6920:Notes 6608:Czech 6465:-ette 6445:-ress 6420:, or 6401:which 6314:below 6264:hulle 6219:Dutch 6188:(see 6159:Greek 6151:Latin 6123:Many 5891:مكتبة 5844:ספריה 5765:מברשת 5743:viski 5737:виски 5714:borsa 5708:bagga 5638:simio 5590:orixe 5510:месяц 5479:lapte 5473:leche 5467:leite 5455:latte 5439:Sonne 5411:Karre 5399:Wagen 5384:Tisch 5378:table 5181:orgue 5175:amour 5169:orgue 5157:amour 5137:bøtte 5131:dukke 5118:, in 5039:prəst 5033:пръст 4888:Czech 4877:below 4753:Öll ( 4640:þau ( 4577:elles 4553:(f.). 4532:Zande 4508:below 4478:below 4187:Chris 4126:silva 4071:, of 4050:Latin 4048:, of 3957:-sion 3951:-tion 3945:image 3939:plage 3915:garer 3870:façon 3864:nuage 3852:signe 3846:arbre 3840:cadre 3770:أستاذ 3753:أسامة 3735:خليفة 3730:pausa 3726:] 3722:[ 3718:] 3714:[ 3696:-lann 3678:-eoir 3667:Irish 3660:-ness 3656:-hood 3651:-keit 3645:-heit 3633:feige 3609:Lehre 3587:-ling 3582:below 3565:-lein 3559:-chen 3521:heval 3515:endam 3464:radio 3333:Green 3253:bydlę 3218:ovtsa 3204:baran 3197:баран 3126:крыса 3120:krysa 3101:zebra 3065:łajza 3053:ciapa 3030:* 3023:* 2986:seine 2959:děvče 2955:Czech 2937:dekle 2904:stail 2894:Irish 2834:-chen 2806:word 2767:JSTOR 2753:books 2671:mujer 2633:chose 2585:Welsh 2386:Malay 2291:agree 2274:vrata 2246:hrile 2240:хриле 2228:очила 2204:клещи 2180:rotes 2168:roter 1977:plato 1967:plato 1742:verbs 1687:lemma 1670:erch 1642:merch 1609:"son" 1565:ferch 1560:merch 1551:Welsh 1506:Latin 1337:genre 1331:genus 1246:below 1238:below 1210:below 1173:(see 1100:below 1098:(see 1079:Greek 1075:Latin 1039:below 1037:(see 1030:-chen 1006:Hindi 858:verbs 583:Focus 566:Agent 397:Voice 390:Tense 116:JSTOR 102:books 8490:ISBN 8468:ISBN 8409:ISBN 8390:ISBN 8336:ISBN 8283:ISBN 8231:ISSN 8161:OCLC 8151:ISBN 8088:ISBN 8043:2021 7991:ISBN 7812:ISBN 7783:ISBN 7729:2014 7696:2018 7688:Edge 7641:ISBN 7611:2018 7571:ISBN 7468:ISBN 7336:2015 7233:The 7190:ръка 7184:крал 7157:крал 7145:жена 7108:e.g. 7094:and 7079:крак 7067:and 7061:крак 7052:очил 6861:wane 6855:ʔari 6849:tafi 6614:and 6576:The 6565:they 6561:and 6547:they 6527:hers 6484:they 6451:and 6443:and 6441:-rix 6397:they 6349:and 6295:Odia 6243:they 6225:and 6213:and 6198:ello 6173:and 6046:and 6034:and 5974:head 5930:)). 5927:-iya 5810:kiść 5665:mare 5504:луна 5461:lait 5445:Mond 5433:luna 5405:Auto 5393:bord 5310:lang 5244:and 5232:and 5229:ovum 5216:and 5213:uova 5201:uovo 5098:and 5010:ting 5004:Ting 4980:ting 4841:bror 4619:and 4601:they 4595:they 4154:and 4139:or - 4132:aqua 4089:-ess 4079:and 4063:and 3998:niña 3992:niño 3960:and 3933:-age 3911:e.g. 3906:-age 3888:main 3882:voix 3836:e.g. 3749:e.g. 3681:and 3672:-óir 3658:and 3648:and 3597:Teig 3562:and 3489:-ión 3477:and 3458:foto 3382:and 3288:and 3233:and 3211:овца 3190:toro 3184:vaca 3179:bull 3177:and 3171:e.g. 3005:ihre 2995:Das 2976:Das 2884:der 2872:Weib 2825:Mäd- 2815:Magd 2798:The 2739:news 2707:any 2705:cite 2651:The 2453:they 2402:and 2388:and 2320:and 2271:and 2254:e.g. 2216:гащи 2192:rote 2174:rote 2143:e.g. 2096:the. 2050:the. 2003:MASC 2001:the. 1970:dish 1957:MASC 1955:the. 1914:and 1865:the. 1821:MASC 1819:the. 1656:erch 1533:Sees 1502:case 1500:and 1496:for 1483:case 1375:head 1373:and 1359:word 1181:). 1169:and 1065:and 945:vs. 937:/po/ 932:peau 803:the 768:gata 765:and 762:gato 689:, a 385:Mood 287:Dual 170:Case 88:news 8497:doi 8476:doi 8221:doi 7862:doi 7779:474 7721:BBC 7460:doi 7383:SIL 7166:ръц 7121:жен 7085:рог 7070:рог 7049:of 6592:or 6555:one 6523:her 6519:she 6508:pet 6504:she 6502:or 6476:she 6393:she 6316:). 6273:); 6270:dit 6239:she 6022:or 5953:or 5921:-ия 5915:-ja 5909:-iá 5903:יה- 5659:mar 5653:mar 5647:mer 5494:). 5427:sol 5330:IPA 5280:). 5241:ova 5125:bok 5060:, ( 4974:See 4871:In 4859:sig 4853:man 4847:han 4820:In 4817:). 4630:In 4583:ils 4539:Ket 4516:she 4497:-in 4495:or 4425:), 4413:), 4401:), 4389:), 4083:). 4058:cf. 4052:or 3894:eau 3824:In 3728:in 3702:In 3693:or 3684:-ín 3665:In 3508:or 3471:of 3430:. 3328:Red 3240:In 3235:she 3175:cow 3111:rat 3001:Sie 2886:Fro 2855:wīf 2822:to 2718:by 2483:In 2423:hän 2408:in 2398:in 2384:in 2381:dia 2318:she 2116:las 2098:FEM 2092:las 2052:FEM 2021:los 1997:los 1867:FEM 1674:awr 1617:mab 1604:mab 1574:mab 1539:See 1523:See 1512:or 1481:or 1458:or 1442:). 1361:or 1248:.) 1212:). 1149:dar 1143:dar 1125:dar 1069:), 1041:), 926:pot 807:or 793:sex 685:In 71:by 8575:: 8474:. 8360:. 8229:. 8217:18 8215:. 8209:. 8173:^ 8159:. 8086:. 8063:^ 7936:^ 7921:^ 7858:10 7856:. 7835:. 7781:. 7737:^ 7719:. 7715:. 7685:. 7635:. 7619:^ 7600:. 7585:^ 7569:. 7565:. 7526:. 7490:. 7466:. 7426:^ 7403:^ 7381:. 7368:^ 7344:^ 7327:. 7296:. 7275:^ 7259:. 7248:^ 7172:, 7163:, 7127:, 7118:, 7103:-и 7097:-е 7091:-и 7046:-а 7013:el 7001:a- 6983:, 6968:, 6842:, 6830:. 6730:-y 6724:-i 6662:-u 6656:-a 6650:-a 6638:. 6630:. 6610:, 6606:, 6595:-e 6589:-o 6583:-a 6568:. 6551:it 6525:, 6500:he 6496:it 6488:it 6482:, 6480:he 6478:, 6407:.) 6405:it 6391:, 6389:he 6383:: 6297:, 6293:, 6289:, 6285:, 6281:, 6277:, 6261:, 6258:sy 6255:, 6252:hy 6247:it 6241:, 6237:, 6235:he 6169:, 6165:, 6161:, 6153:, 6149:, 6097:, 6093:, 6089:, 6085:, 6081:, 6077:, 6073:, 6018:, 6014:, 6002:, 5998:, 5774:, 5513:(" 5315:, 5277:-a 5146:. 5084:, 5072:, 4944:la 4895:. 4831:-e 4815:SG 4795:SG 4767:PL 4759:PL 4745:PL 4737:PL 4716:PL 4708:PL 4689:SG 4681:SG 4673:PL 4662:SG 4654:SG 4646:PL 4625:it 4612:. 4606:he 4514:, 4512:he 4499:. 4493:-e 4480:. 4455:. 4156:-a 4152:-e 4145:-a 4137:-a 4120:-a 4069:-e 4046:-a 4037:. 4025:, 3978:. 3972:, 3954:, 3900:-e 3891:, 3885:, 3879:, 3873:, 3861:, 3855:, 3849:, 3843:, 3831:-e 3743:(" 3552:, 3495:-ō 3442:-a 3395:-a 3389:-o 3294:-e 3284:, 3280:, 3231:he 3227:it 3068:, 3062:, 3056:, 3050:, 2982:Es 2668:, 2596:hi 2580:il 2565:it 2560:es 2545:it 2531:A 2495:: 2462:je 2456:. 2435:se 2429:se 2392:, 2322:it 2316:, 2314:he 2281:. 2177:, 2171:, 2159:, 2153:, 2102:PL 2070:la 2056:SG 2046:la 2007:PL 1975:el 1961:SG 1951:el 1917:-z 1911:-d 1908:, 1905:-a 1885:la 1871:SG 1861:la 1839:el 1825:SG 1815:el 1788:la 1782:el 1769:, 1748:, 1744:, 1740:, 1732:, 1728:, 1724:, 1720:, 1716:, 1666:y 1652:y 1546:. 1544:-s 1508:, 1454:, 1418:gè 1415:) 1393:. 1295:m. 1293:, 1285:f. 1283:, 1279:: 1203:, 1110:. 1081:. 1073:, 1061:, 1012:. 951:. 864:, 860:, 856:, 852:, 844:, 840:, 836:, 832:, 828:, 795:. 751:, 8533:. 8499:: 8478:: 8417:. 8398:. 8364:. 8344:. 8289:. 8237:. 8223:: 8167:. 8096:. 8045:. 7999:. 7868:. 7864:: 7820:. 7791:. 7731:. 7698:. 7649:. 7613:. 7579:. 7536:. 7500:. 7476:. 7462:: 7385:. 7338:. 7269:. 7237:( 7177:е 7168:е 7159:е 7132:и 7123:и 7114:и 7072:а 7063:а 7054:а 6665:: 6521:( 6353:. 5986:. 5924:( 5906:( 5894:( 5847:( 5813:( 5768:( 5758:" 5740:( 5620:/ 5356:) 5352:( 5348:. 5036:( 4839:e 4813:. 4811:M 4793:. 4791:F 4769:) 4765:. 4763:N 4757:. 4755:N 4747:) 4743:. 4741:M 4735:. 4733:M 4714:. 4712:M 4706:. 4704:M 4687:. 4685:M 4679:. 4677:F 4671:. 4669:N 4660:. 4658:M 4652:. 4650:F 4644:. 4642:N 4443:( 4431:( 4419:( 4407:( 4395:( 4383:( 4371:) 4365:( 4356:) 4350:( 4341:) 4335:( 4326:) 4320:( 4311:) 4305:( 4293:) 4287:( 4275:( 4263:( 4251:( 4242:) 4236:( 4224:( 4141:á 4123:( 4109:a 3724:h 3716:t 3675:/ 3420:/ 3408:/ 3359:) 3352:) 3296:. 3225:( 3215:( 3201:( 3135:( 3123:( 2789:) 2783:( 2778:) 2774:( 2764:· 2757:· 2750:· 2743:· 2726:. 2712:. 2515:a 2504:o 2470:e 2405:o 2395:ő 2374:) 2368:( 2363:i 2354:) 2348:( 2343:a 2243:( 2231:( 2219:( 2207:( 2100:. 2054:. 2005:. 1959:. 1869:. 1823:. 1672:f 1668:f 1654:f 1613:y 1412:個 1409:( 1406:个 1275:( 1118:( 1057:( 895:" 891:. 674:e 667:t 660:v 138:) 132:( 127:) 123:( 113:· 106:· 99:· 92:· 65:. 42:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index