Masoretic Text - Knowledge (XXG)

1810:

reading is doubtful; still others contend that they are merely a mnemonic device to indicate homiletic explanations which the ancients had connected with those words; finally, some maintain that the dots were designed to guard against the omission by copyists of text-elements which, at first glance or after comparison with parallel passages, seemed to be superfluous. Instead of dots some manuscripts exhibit strokes, vertical or else horizontal. The first two explanations are unacceptable for the reason that such faulty readings would belong to Qere and Ketiv, which, in case of doubt, the majority of manuscripts would decide. The last two theories have equal probability.

1235:, the most eminent representative of the Babylonian school of criticism, ben Asher's codex became recognized as the standard text of the Hebrew Bible. Notwithstanding all this, for reasons unknown neither the printed text nor any manuscript which has been preserved is based entirely on Ben Asher: they are all eclectic. Aside from Ben Asher and Ben Naphtali, the names of several other Masorites have come down; but, perhaps with the exception of one—Phinehas, the head of the academy, who is supposed by modern scholars to have lived about 750—neither their time, their place, nor their connection with the various schools is known. 2106:) included the Five Books of Moses, Haftarot, and Megillot. It had many differences from earlier editions in vowels, notes and lay-out, based on a comparison with old manuscripts and a correction of misprints based on analysis of grammatical principles. There were extensive textual notes justifying all these alterations. Heidenheim also divided each weekly Sabbath reading into seven sections (seven people should be called up each Sabbath), as there had been considerable variation in practice about where to make the divisions, and his divisions are now accepted by nearly all Ashkenazi communities. 31: 66: 1321: 1228:

different schools. Like the Ben Ashers there seem to have been several Ben Naftalis. The Masoretic lists often do not agree on the precise nature of the differences between the two rival authorities; it is, therefore, impossible to define with exactness their differences in every case; and it is probably due to this fact that the received text does not follow uniformly the system of either Ben Asher or Ben Naphtali.

709: 1771:. In the geonic schools, the first term was taken to signify certain vowel-changes which were made in words in pause or after the article; the second, the cancellation in a few passages of the "vav" conjunctive, where it had been wrongly read by some. The objection to such an explanation is that the first changes would fall under the general head of fixation of pronunciation, and the second under the head of 961: 1897:, 1524–1525). Besides introducing the Masorah into the margin, he compiled at the close of his Bible a concordance of the Masoretic glosses for which he could not find room in a marginal form, and added an elaborate introduction – the first treatise on the Masorah ever produced. Due to its wide distribution, and in spite of its many errors, this work is frequently considered as the 1714:) has been understood by different scholars in various ways. Some regard it as a correction of biblical language authorized by the Soferim for homiletical purposes. Others take it to mean a mental change made by the original writers or redactors of Scripture; i.e. the latter shrank from putting in writing a thought which some of the readers might expect them to express. 1043:

differences in the Septuagint are no longer considered the result of a poor or tendentious attempt to translate the Hebrew into the Greek; rather they testify to a different pre-Christian form of the Hebrew text". On the other hand, some of the fragments conforming most accurately to the Masoretic Text were found in Cave 4.

2325:: "the publisher of the Koren Bible – who laid no claim to expertise in masoretic issues ... sought the help of three scholars, all of whom suffered from the same lack of Masoretic expertise ... Basically, the Koren edition is hardly an edition like that of Dotan, but another rehash of the material prepared by ben Hayim." 1500:

comprises all the longer rubrics for which space could not be found in the margin of the text, and is arranged alphabetically in the form of a concordance. The quantity of notes the marginal Masorah contains is conditioned by the amount of vacant space on each page. In the manuscripts it varies also with the rate at which the

1484:; (b) in the form of notes written in the margins and at the end of codices. In rare cases, the notes are written between the lines. The first word of each biblical book is also as a rule surrounded by notes. The latter are called the Initial Masorah; the notes on the side margins or between the columns are called the Small ( 1538:(lines of verse). As the prose books of the Bible were hardly ever written in stichs, the copyists, in order to estimate the amount of work, had to count the letters. According to some this was (also) to ensure accuracy in the transmission of the text with the production of subsequent copies that were done by hand. 1181:(called "Babylonia"). According to Menachem Cohen, these schools developed such prestige for the accuracy and error-control of their copying techniques that their texts established an authority beyond all others. Differences remained, sometimes bolstered by systematic local differences in pronunciation and 1633:

Since no additions were allowed to be made to the official text of the Bible, the early Masoretes adopted other methods: e.g., they marked the various divisions by spacing, and gave indications of halakic and haggadic teachings by full or defective spelling, abnormal forms of letters, dots, and other

1508:

There was accordingly an independent Babylonian Masora which differed from the Palestinian in terminology and to some extent in order. The Masora is concise in style with a profusion of abbreviations, requiring a considerable amount of knowledge for their full understanding. It was quite natural that

1042:

noted the following regarding the findings at Qumran Cave 4 in particular: "Such ancient recensional forms of Old Testament books bear witness to an unsuspected textual diversity that once existed; these texts merit far greater study and attention than they have been accorded till now. Thus, the

2143:. The 1866 edition, however, was carefully checked against old manuscripts and early printed editions, and has a very legible typeface. It is probably the most widely reproduced text of the Hebrew Bible in history, with many dozens of authorised reprints and many more pirated and unacknowledged ones. 1809:

In fifteen passages within the Bible, some words are stigmatized; i.e., dots appear above the letters. The significance of the dots is disputed. Some hold them to be marks of erasure; others believe them to indicate that in some collated manuscripts the stigmatized words were missing, hence that the

2177:

was very close to the second Bomberg edition, but with variants added from a number of manuscripts and all of the earliest printed editions, collated with far more care than the work of Kennicott; he did all the work himself. The second edition diverged slightly more from Bomberg, and collated more

1862:

The history of the Masorah may be divided into three periods: (1) creative period, from its beginning to the introduction of vowel-signs; (2) reproductive period, from the introduction of vowel-signs to the printing of the Masorah (1525); (3) critical period, from 1525 to the present

1558:

consists of word-use statistics, similar documentation for expressions or certain phraseology, observations on full or defective writing, references to the Kethiv-Qere readings and more. These observations are also the result of a passionate zeal to safeguard the accurate transmission of the sacred

1850:

considered the Torah known to us as composed of seven volumes in the Gemara "The seven pillars with which Wisdom built her house (Prov. 9:1) are the seven Books of Moses". Genesis, Exodus and Leviticus and Deuteronomy as we know them but Numbers was really three separate volumes: Numbers 1:1–10:35

1988:

and the text they deciphered is completely identical with the consonantal framework of the Masoretic Text. The En-Gedi scroll is the first biblical scroll to have been discovered in the holy ark of an ancient synagogue, where it would have been stored for prayers, and not in desert caves like the

1830:

by the masoretes. In some earlier printed editions, they are shown as the standard nun upside down or rotated, because the printer did not want to bother to design a character to be used only nine times. The recent scholarly editions of the Masoretic Text show the reversed nun as described by the

1843:

demonstrated that similar markings can be found in ancient Greek texts where they are also used to denote 'short texts'. During the Medieval period, the inverted nuns were actually inserted into the text of the early Rabbinic Bibles published by Bomberg in the early 16th century. The talmud

1201:

as against that at Tiberias, which in later times increasingly became the chief seat of learning. In this period living tradition ceased, and the Masoretes in preparing their codices usually followed one school or the other, examining, however, standard codices of other schools and noting their

1499:

The Small Masorah consists of brief notes with reference to marginal readings, to statistics showing the number of times a particular form is found in Scripture, to full and defective spelling, and to abnormally written letters. The Large Masorah is more copious in its notes. The Final Masorah

1227:

The differences between Ben Naphtali and Ben Asher number about 875, nine-tenths of which refer to the placing of the accents, while the rest relate to vowels and consonantal spelling. The differences between the two Masoretes do not represent solely personal opinions; the two rivals represent

1651:

Early rabbinic sources, from around 200 CE, mention several passages of Scripture in which the conclusion is inevitable that the ancient reading must have differed from that of the present text. The explanation of this phenomenon is given in the expression "Scripture has used euphemistic

2060:

edition of 1667; but at the end it has variants taken from a number of printed editions. It has been much prized because of its excellent and clear type; but no manuscripts were used in its preparation. Nearly all 18th and 19th century Hebrew Bibles were almost exact reprints of this

1025:

The text of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Peshitta read somewhat in-between the Masoretic Text and the old Greek. However, despite these variations, most of the Qumran fragments can be classified as being closer to the Masoretic Text than to any other text group that has survived. According to

1612:

in the outside margins of BHS. Given that the Masoretes would not alter the sacred consonantal text, the Kethiv-Qere notes were a way of "correcting" or commenting on the text for any number of reasons (grammatical, theological, aesthetic, etc.) deemed important by the copyist.

1600:

inclusive) between the teacher of tradition and the Masorete, both frequently being united in one person, accounts for the Exegetical Masorah. Finally, the invention and introduction of a graphic system of vocalization and accentuation gave rise to the Grammatical Masorah.

1509:

a later generation of scribes would no longer understand the notes of the Masoretes and consider them unimportant; by the late medieval period they were reduced to mere ornamentation of the manuscripts. It was Jacob ben Chayyim who restored clarity and order to them.

1621:

The earliest tasks of the Masoretes included a standard division of the text into books, sections, paragraphs, verses, and clauses; fixing of the orthography, pronunciation, and cantillation; introduction or final adoption of the square characters with the five

1369:

These notes were added because the Masoretes recognized the possibility of human error in copying the Hebrew Bible. The Masoretes were not working with the original Hebrew manuscripts of the Bible and corruptions had already crept into the versions they copied.

1022:, both as against the later Masoretic Text, and between each other. It is also evident from the notings of corrections and of variant alternatives that scribes felt free to choose according to their personal taste and discretion between different readings. 1224:) embodying his opinions. Ben Naphtali likely did as well, though it has not survived. However, the differences between the two are found in more or less complete Masoretic lists and in quotations in David Ḳimḥi, Norzi, and other medieval writers. 1133:

and what we now know as the Masoretic Text are minimal. Relatively small variations between different Hebrew texts in use still clearly existed though, as witnessed by differences between the present-day Masoretic Text and versions mentioned in the

1838:

The primary set of inverted nuns is found surrounding the text of Numbers 10:35–36. The Mishna notes that this text is 85 letters long and dotted. This demarcation of this text leads to the later use of the inverted nun markings.

1586:

The final Masorah is located at the end of biblical books or after certain sections of the text, such as at the end of the Torah. It contains information and statistics regarding the number of words in a book or section, etc. Thus,

1965:, differ substantially, indicating that the Masoretic Text was but one of a diverse set of biblical writings (Lane Fox 1991:99–106; Tov 1992:115). Among the books rejected by both the Judaic and Catholic canons were found the 1541:

Hence the Masoretes contributed the Numerical Masorah. These notes are traditionally categorized into two main groups, the marginal Masorah and the final Masorah. The category of marginal Masorah is further divided into the

3525: 3499: 1081:

narrative relates that three Torah scrolls were found in the Temple court, at variance with each other. The differences between the three were resolved by majority decision. This may describe a previous period, although

1018:, the Dead Sea scrolls showed that "there was indeed a Hebrew text-type on which the Septuagint-translation was based and which differed substantially from the received MT." The scrolls show numerous small variations in 1591:

8:23 is the middle verse in the Pentateuch. The collation of manuscripts and the noting of their differences furnished material for the Text-Critical Masorah. The close relation which existed in earlier times (from the

1049:

sources relate that a standard copy of the Hebrew Bible was kept in the court of the Second Temple for the benefit of copyists and that there were paid correctors of biblical books among the officers of the Temple. The

1513:

In most manuscripts, there are some discrepancies between the text and the masorah, suggesting that they were copied from different sources or that one of them has copying errors. The lack of such discrepancies in the

864:

is disputed, as is whether such a singular text ever existed. The Dead Sea Scrolls, dating to as early as the 3rd century BCE, contain versions of the text which have some differences with today's Hebrew Bible. The

1673:; Midrash Genesis Rabbah xlix. 7), assuming that the Scribes actually made the changes. This view was adopted by the later Midrash and by the majority of Masoretes. In Masoretic works these changes are ascribed to 1781:(i.e. "What is read" and "What is written"). Various explanations have, therefore, been offered by ancient as well as modern scholars without, however, succeeding in furnishing a completely satisfactory solution. 2304:. It includes a wide variety of variants from the Dead Sea Scrolls, Septuagint, early Rabbinic literature and selected early medieval manuscripts. So far, only Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel have been published. 1961:, are quite similar to the Masoretic Text, suggesting that an ancestor of the Masoretic Text was indeed extant as early as the 2nd century BCE. However, other texts, including many of those from 1250:

The two rival authorities, ben Asher and ben Naphtali, practically brought the Masorah to a close. Very few additions were made by the later Masoretes, styled in the 13th and 14th centuries

2081:

and a huge collection of variants from manuscripts and early printed editions; while this collection has many errors, it is still of some value. The collection of variants was corrected and extended by

392: 1806:). The origin of the other three is doubtful. According to some, they are due to mistaken majuscular letters; according to others, they are later insertions of originally omitted weak consonants. 1110:, and Jewish thought; and with it increasingly forceful strictures that a deviation in even a single letter would make a Torah scroll invalid. Very few manuscripts are said to have survived the 1826: ( נ ) written in some inverted fashion. The exact shape varies between different manuscripts and printed editions. In many manuscripts, a reversed nun is found referred to as a 1306:

made Masoretic compilations, or additions to the subject, which are all more or less frequently referred to in the marginal glosses of biblical codices and in the works of Hebrew grammarians.

1854:

The 85 letter text is also said to be denoted because it is the model for the fewest letters which constitute a 'text' which one would be required to save from fire due to its holiness.

3242: 4551: 833:

in manuscripts (and later printings) of the Tanakh which note textual details, usually about the precise spelling of words. It was primarily copied, edited, and distributed by a group of

2110:

used this text (omitting the textual notes) in his own commentary, and it became the standard text in Germany. It was frequently reprinted there, again without the textual notes, up to

1231:

Ben Asher was the last of a distinguished family of Masoretes extending back to the latter half of the 8th century. Despite the rivalry of ben Naphtali and the opposition of

1974: 3529: 3503: 1114:. This drastically reduced the number of variants in circulation and also gave a new urgency that the text must be preserved. Few manuscripts survive from this era, but a short 1942:, which still lies in the National Library at Paris unpublished. The study is indebted also to R. Meïr b. Todros ha-Levi (RaMaH), who, as early as the 13th century, wrote his 976:

The oldest manuscript fragments of the final Masoretic Text, including vocalications and the masorah, date from around the 9th century. The oldest-known complete copy, the

2559:

A 7th century fragment containing the "Song of the Sea" (Exodus 13:19–16:1) is one of the few surviving texts from the "silent era" of Hebrew biblical texts between the

2981: 5242: 987: 1102:(died 135 CE). The idea of a perfect text sanctified in its consonantal base quickly spread throughout the Jewish communities via supportive statements in 4236: 370: 1802:; rather than say that Moses's grandson became an idolatrous priest, a suspended letter nun ( נ ) was inserted to turn Mosheh into Menasheh ( 1634:

signs. Marginal notes were permitted only in private copies, and the first mention of such notes is found in the case of R. Meïr (c. 100–150 CE).

5168: 5050: 417: 1492:

or Mm). The name "Large Masorah" is applied sometimes to the lexically arranged notes at the end of the printed Bible, usually called the Final Masorah, (

1366:

in the text, short annotations in the side margins, and longer more extensive notes in the upper and lower margins and collected at the end of each book.

1984:

was found in 1970 but had not had its contents reconstructed until 2016. Researchers were able to recover 35 complete and partial lines of text from the

5237: 3902: 2890:

Ulrich, E.; Cross, F. M.; Davila, J. R.; Jastram, N.; Sanderson, J. E.; Tov, E.; Strugnell, J. (1994). "Qumran Cave 4, VII, Genesis to Numbers".

1831:

masoretes. In some manuscripts, however, other symbols are occasionally found instead. These are sometimes referred to in rabbinical literature as

5127: 1255:, who revised the works of the copyists, added the vowels and accents (generally in fainter ink and with a finer pen) and frequently the Masorah. 1030:, 60% can be classed as being of proto-Masoretic type, and a further 20% Qumran style with a basis in proto-Masoretic texts, compared to 5% proto- 737: 533: 439: 3932: 5035: 5030: 1866:

The materials for the history of the first period are scattered remarks in Talmudic and Midrashic literature, in the post-Talmudical treatises

1198: 339: 220: 215: 4161: 3204: 2275:

with the system found in Sephardi manuscripts, thereby creating accentuation patterns found nowhere else in any manuscript or printed edition.

5045: 3787: 3759: 3734: 3695: 3483: 3456: 3429: 3402: 3281: 3226: 2859: 2727: 2321:

The text was derived by comparing a number of printed Bibles, and following the majority when there were discrepancies. It was criticised by

806: 207: 4736: 3101: 2752: 1844:

records that the markings surrounding Numbers 10:35-36 were thought to denote that this 85 letter text was not in its proper place.

1450:

by extended meaning ("transmission" became "transmitted sign") and referred to the symbols used in vocalizing and punctuating the text.

4842: 468: 3551: 2419:; fascicles published as of 2016 are: Five Megilloth, Ezra and Nehemiah, Deuteronomy, Proverbs, Twelve Minor Prophets, Judges, Genesis. 5163: 4837: 4698: 2697: 1721:

Removal of unseemly expressions used in reference to God; e.g., the substitution of ("to bless") for ("to curse") in certain passages.

243: 238: 2833:

Cohen, Menachem (1979). "The idea of the sanctity of the biblical text and the science of textual criticism". In Simon, Uriel (ed.).

4805: 4088: 4066: 4044: 3992: 2247: 2131: 386: 251: 3729:(5th ed.). Kulmus Publishing. pp. 28-33 including references to Shabbat 115b and 116a (also Ba'al Haturim and Chizkuni). 1122:, carbon-dated to the 3rd or 4th century CE, is completely identical to the consonantal Masoretic Text preserved today. 5247: 4923: 4800: 4651: 4229: 2451: 662: 143: 2193:

Virtually identical to the second Bomberg edition, but with variants from Hebrew sources and early translations in the footnotes

5183: 2280: 1186: 990:, dates from the 10th century. However, codification of the base consonants appears to have begun earlier, perhaps even in the 702: 572: 334: 4181: 2713: 2415: 2343: 1957:

The Dead Sea Scrolls have shed new light on the history of the Masoretic Text. Many texts found there, especially those from

1579: 411: 5216: 4114: 2178:

manuscripts; he did most of the work himself, but failing health forced him to rely partly on his wife and other assistants.

5137: 2029: 2005: 1886: 538: 3807: 1980:

In a recent finding, a scroll fragment was found to be identical to the Masoretic Text. The approximately 1,700-year-old

1462:"thing which is counted", referring to the Masoretic counts of the letters, words, and verses in the Bible, discussed in 881:

translation made in the second century CE) occasionally present notable differences from the Masoretic Text, as does the

5132: 4146: 1697:. All these ascriptions mean one and the same thing: that the changes were assumed to have been made by the Men of the 4646: 4222: 3031: 1803: 1630:

below); enumeration of letters, words, verses, etc., and the substitution of some words for others in public reading.

1299: 964:

The inter-relationship between various significant ancient manuscripts of the Old Testament (some identified by their

925: 730: 577: 4820: 2313: 2083: 1686: 1488:

or Mp) or Inner Masorah (Masora marginalis); and those on the lower and upper margins, the Large or Outer Masorah (

1125:

New Greek translations were also made. Unlike the Septuagint, large-scale deviations in sense between the Greek of

1111: 4852: 4831: 4825: 2579: 2255:

Snaith based it on Sephardi manuscripts such as British Museum Or. 2626-2628, and said that he had not relied on

1889:, having collated a vast number of manuscripts, systematized his material and arranged the Masorah in the second 1519: 1271: 1211: 929: 861: 657: 65: 5252: 4847: 4815: 4810: 4546: 3984: 2434: 2429: 2362: 2352: 2267:. Snaith's printer even went so far as to break printed vowels to match some accidentally broken characters in 2198: 2183: 2165: 1015: 921: 602: 423: 381: 225: 2399:

This is a revised version of Breuer, and is the official version used in inaugurating the President of Israel.

1185:. Every locality, following the tradition of its school, had a standard codex embodying its readings. In the 948:. Some Christian denominations instead prefer translations of the Septuagint as it matches quotations in the 5173: 5153: 5025: 4882: 4743: 4483: 2037: 1421:, by a direct conjugation of מסר "to transmit," and the synthesis of the two forms produced the modern word 1055: 933: 627: 612: 562: 397: 197: 185: 166: 5009: 4892: 4877: 4867: 4459: 4156: 4006: 3855:"From damage to discovery via virtual unwrapping: Reading the scroll from En-Gedi | Science Advances" 2405: 2322: 2289: 2025: 1927: 1478:

but partly Hebrew. The Masoretic annotations are found in various forms: (a) in separate works, e.g., the

768: 723: 686: 678: 622: 592: 429: 402: 130: 3766:

including references to Shabbat 115b (also Sifre Bamidbar B'ha'alotcha Piska 26 and Midrash Mishley)

3271: 1626:; some textual changes to guard against blasphemy (though these changes may pre-date the Masoretes – see 4958: 4897: 4887: 4795: 4151: 3217: 3078: 2476: 2107: 1439: 1315: 1059: 617: 607: 506: 1283: 1997:

There have been very many published editions of the Masoretic Text, some of the most important being:

1554:

is a set of statistics in the outer side margins of the text. Beyond simply counting the letters, the

5158: 5078: 4790: 4703: 4613: 4379: 4266: 3917: 2078: 1950:, who composed a treatise on the Masorah of the Pentateuch entitled "Or Torah"; and in particular to 1480: 1031: 991: 882: 857: 557: 543: 458: 365: 292: 2020:

served as the base for all future editions. This was the source text used by the translators of the

1583:(BHS) includes an apparatus referring the reader to the large Masorah, which is printed separately. 5100: 5065: 4862: 4541: 4324: 4294: 4162:

Searching for the Better Text: How errors crept into the Bible and what can be done to correct them

3953:

Bomberg] 1524–1525 Ben Chayyim edition that the KJV 1611 translators used — I personally made sure.

2481: 1363: 1351: 1182: 945: 814: 780: 587: 582: 567: 548: 483: 478: 271: 4670: 3949:, I can confidently assure you that the NKJV followed, as carefully as possible, the Bobmerg [ 2806: 4992: 4907: 4713: 4708: 4593: 4556: 4536: 4466: 3966: 3326: 3048: 2975: 2466: 2066: 2021: 1954:, whose "Minḥat Shai" contains valuable Masoretic notes based on a careful study of manuscripts. 1908: 1463: 1303: 1158: 1051: 1027: 941: 917: 691: 673: 632: 448: 267: 161: 151: 4076: 3185: 2636:" by Daniel S. Mynatt, which describes about 150 frequency errors found in the Torah alone. 2330: 2117: 1354:, protect against scribal errors, and annotate possible variants. The manuscripts thus include 5193: 5002: 4997: 4938: 4770: 4680: 4623: 4444: 4434: 4284: 4123: 4084: 4062: 4040: 3884: 3783: 3755: 3730: 3691: 3479: 3473: 3452: 3446: 3425: 3419: 3398: 3392: 3318: 3277: 3222: 3208: 2855: 2693: 2689: 2095: 1985: 1588: 1451: 1263: 1166: 1162: 894: 826: 524: 463: 230: 30: 1763:

Among the earliest technical terms used in connection with activities of the Scribes are the

1743:

Removal of application of the names of pagan gods, e.g. the change of the name "Ishbaal" to "

5178: 5073: 5055: 4987: 4975: 4933: 4872: 4857: 4748: 4636: 4429: 4374: 4354: 4334: 4203: 4175: 4105: 3874: 3866: 3310: 3040: 2965: 2788: 2560: 2509: 2486: 2370: 2263:, because while there are many differences, it has many of the same typographical errors as 1923: 1682: 1669:

Rabbi Simon ben Pazzi (3rd century) calls these readings "emendations of the Scribes" (

1659: 1593: 1475: 1291: 1267: 1126: 1003: 909: 890: 853: 802: 790: 434: 375: 353: 282: 202: 156: 3165: 856:

indicate that multiple versions of the Hebrew scriptures already existed by the end of the

4970: 4948: 4902: 4449: 4409: 4384: 4314: 4289: 4274: 4036: 2471: 2461: 2390: 2335: 2300: 2234: 2218: 2209: 2174: 2152: 2091: 2057: 2017: 1947: 1931: 1899: 1663: 1391: 1239: 1157:, schools of scribes and Torah scholars working between the 7th and 11th centuries in the 1083: 1039: 977: 878: 846: 786: 759: 38: 3918:"(DOC) This file is a letter I wrote to Mrs. Ripplinger in 1994 in response to her book, 2770: 1789:

There are four words having one of their letters suspended above the line. One of them,

1562:

Even though often cited as very exact, the Masoretic "frequency notes" in the margin of

1435:"fetter ", and the word was only later connected to מסר and translated as "tradition". 5257: 5206: 5188: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4731: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4507: 4502: 4478: 4439: 4389: 4369: 4339: 4319: 4304: 4299: 4279: 4245: 4142: 4028: 3879: 3854: 2259:. However, it has been shown that he must have prepared his copy by amending a copy of 2045: 2001: 1981: 1970: 1951: 1890: 1840: 1772: 1725: 1698: 1694: 1646: 1605: 1398: 1218:

who were the leading Masoretes of the time. Ben Asher wrote a standard codex (the

1119: 937: 597: 473: 78: 49: 2995: 1550:(large Masorah), traditionally located at the top and bottom margins of the text. The 1518:

is one of the reasons for its importance; the scribe who copied the notes, presumably

1153:

The current received text finally achieved predominance through the reputation of the

5231: 4953: 4762: 4631: 4497: 4424: 4419: 4414: 4394: 4364: 4262: 2682: 2243: 2148: 2053: 1966: 1904: 1623: 1428: 949: 913: 121: 116: 3448:

Greek for the Rest of Us: Mastering Bible Study Without Mastering Biblical Languages

1926:(1620) made Levita's researches more accessible to a Christian audience. The eighth 5211: 5111: 5040: 4942: 4404: 4399: 4359: 4329: 4309: 4257: 3212: 2565: 2456: 2379: 2294: 2228: 2126: 2112: 1823: 1819: 1326: 1320: 1295: 1279: 1220: 1215: 982: 794: 713: 329: 324: 313: 135: 90: 3987:, ed. (1928). "Introduction to the Ginsburg Edition of the Hebrew Old Testament". 3344: 3273:

The Masorah of Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia: Introduction and Annotated Glossary

2771:"From damage to discovery via virtual unwrapping: Reading the scroll from En-Gedi" 1914:

Next to Ibn Adoniyah, the critical study of the Masorah has been most advanced by

1851:

followed by Numbers 10:35–36 and the third text from there to the end of Numbers.

4167: 2924: 2086:(1784–1788), but his publications gave only the variants without a complete text. 5094: 4690: 4608: 4603: 4517: 4512: 4344: 4054: 3421:

Greek for the Rest of Us: Using Greek Tools Without Mastering Biblical Languages

2439: 1915: 1847: 1744: 1335: 1232: 1190: 1178: 1099: 1019: 870: 34: 4129: 3657: 3082: 17: 5083: 4207: 4133: 3818: 3713: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3625: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3586: 3221:. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference. pp. 319–321. 3065: 2834: 2213:, 1937; later reprints listed some variant readings from the Dead Sea Scrolls. 1130: 1063: 1035: 969: 960: 886: 866: 842: 652: 302: 100: 3661: 3629: 3621: 3617: 3322: 1145:

based on spelling versions which do not exist in the current Masoretic Text.

1094:

An emphasis on minute details of words and spellings, already used among the

4598: 2967:

pars 1. Libri I-IX anglice redditi ; pars 2. Libri X-XV anglice redditi

2940: 2926:

Studien zum althebräischen Buchwesen und zur biblischen Litteraturgeschichte

2041: 1751: 1535: 1406: 1174: 1154: 1115: 1095: 1046: 898: 838: 3888: 3870: 3702:

referencing Masechet Sofrim 6:1, Shabbat 115b (also Avot d'Rabi Natan 34:4)

3029:

Zeitlin, S. (April 1966). "Were there three Torah-scrolls in the Azarah?".

1258:

During the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries the Franco-German school of

986:, once the oldest-known complete copy but missing large sections since the 4192:"The Validity of the Masoretic Text: Evidence from Masoretic Vocalisation" 2361:(published 1983) was the source text for the Old Testament portion of the 1242:

rather than a Rabbinical Jew, though there is evidence against this view.

830: 5105: 4675: 4662: 4641: 4588: 4583: 2839:. Tel-Aviv, Israel: HaMachon L'Yahadut U'Machshava Bat-Z'mananu and Dvir. 2444: 1678: 1194: 1170: 1067: 902: 874: 307: 1070:

describes the Romans taking a copy of the Law as spoil, and both he and

965: 5117: 4982: 4137: 3330: 3298: 3270:

Kelley, Page H.; Mynatt, Daniel S.; Crawford, Timothy G. (1998-04-09).

3052: 1597: 1531: 1501: 1414: 1275: 1259: 1142: 1139: 1107: 1103: 1078: 519: 319: 105: 3243:"Errors in the Masoretes' "original" Hebrew manuscripts of the Bible?" 1818:

In nine passages of the Masoretic Text are found signs usually called

5088: 4965: 4349: 4214: 3794:

referencing Yadayim 3:5 and Sifre Bamidbar B'ha'alotcha Piska 26

2728:"Controversy lurks as scholars try to work out Bible's original text" 2070: 2009: 1962: 1958: 1894: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1690: 1359: 1355: 1287: 1135: 1007: 810: 514: 297: 4191: 3971:

Introduction to the Massoretico-Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible

3314: 3044: 1903:

of the Masorah. It was also used for the English translation of the

1604:

The most important of the Masoretic notes are those that detail the

1014:, shows that in this period there was no uniform text. According to 4174: 3965:

Orlinsky, Harry M. (1966) . "Prolegomenon to the 1966 reprint". In

3945:

But regardless of these details, as former executive editor of the

1798:, is due to an alteration of the original משה out of reverence for 1098:

as basis for argumentation, reached its height with the example of

1074:

claim no word of the text was ever changed from the time of Moses.

4928: 4249: 1874:, and in a Masoretic chain of tradition found in ben Asher's 1799: 1343: 1339: 1319: 1262:

influenced in the development and spread of Masoretic literature.

1210:

The Masorah for the most part ended in the 10th century with

1071: 959: 95: 57: 29: 4126:– Ginsburg's full edition of over 1,800 pages (scanned PDF) 1674: 873:

translation made in the third and second centuries BCE) and the

834: 4218: 3843:

Driver, G. R, The Judaean Scrolls. Great Britain: Oxford, 1965.

1918:, who published his famous "Massoret ha-Massoret" in 1538. The 3950: 3834:

Mansoor, Menahem. The Dead Sea Scrolls. Grand Rapids, Michigan

3349:

Cincinnati, Ohio: Students of the Hebrew union college. 1904.

2160:

Incomplete publication: Exodus to Deuteronomy never appeared.

968:). "Mt" here denotes the Masoretic Text; "LXX", the original 2632:

See also the whole book "The Sub Loco notes in the Torah of

893:. Fragments of an ancient 2nd–3rd-century manuscript of the 2533: 2524: 4009:(1992). "Editions of the Hebrew Bible – Past and Future". 2539: 2518: 1938:. Levita compiled likewise a vast Masoretic concordance, 1346:, however, provide extensive additional material, called 2226:

Based on Ginsburg 2nd edition, but revised based on the

1342:

text – nothing added, nothing taken away. The Masoretic

3068:, The Laws of Tefillin, Mezuzot, and Torah Scrolls, 1:2 1238:

Most scholars conclude that Aaron ben Asher was a

3299:"A Contribution to the History of the Term "Massorah"" 2077:

As well as the van der Hooght text, this included the

1504:

was paid and the fanciful shape he gave to his gloss.

785:'Text of the Tradition') is the authoritative 41:, the oldest complete manuscript of the Masoretic Text 3903:"Scanning software deciphers ancient biblical scroll" 3102:"Scanning software deciphers ancient biblical scroll" 2904:

Y. Sanh. 2:6, y. Shek. 4:3, m. MK 3:4, m. Kelim 15:6.

2877:

The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Bible: After Forty Years

2753:"Scanning software deciphers ancient biblical scroll" 2542: 2521: 2512: 1975:

War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness

829:

of the text of the Jewish scriptures and the concise

2964:

Caesarea), Eusebius (of Caesarea, Bishop of (1903).

2536: 2530: 1534:

were paid for their work according to the number of

773: 27:

Authoritative text of the Tanakh in Rabbinic Judaism

5146: 5064: 5018: 4916: 4761: 4724: 4689: 4660: 4622: 4567: 4474: 4458: 4256: 3754:(5th ed.). Kulmus Publishing. pp. 33–35. 3690:(5th ed.). Kulmus Publishing. pp. 24–25. 2714:"Piece of coal deciphered as ancient biblical text" 2527: 2515: 1717:The assumed emendations are of four general types: 2681: 2580:Aaron ben Moses ben Asher#Was ben Asher a Karaite? 1546:(small Masorah) in the outer side margins and the 3394:Basics of Biblical Hebrew Grammar: Second Edition 1474:The language of the Masoretic notes is primarily 1397:According to the majority of scholars, including 1394:20:37 (there from אסר "to bind" for "fetters"). 3472:Pratico, Gary Davis; Pelt, Miles V. Van (2001). 3922:. It deals primarily with her criticism of the 3782:(5th ed.). Kulmus Publishing. p. 34. 3018:Y. Taanit 4:2; Soferim 6:4; Sifrei Devarim 342. 2941:"Flavius Josephus, Wars of the Jews 7.96-7.162" 2854:(illustrated ed.). Yale University Press. 1506: 1427:According to a minority of scholars, including 3346:Hebrew union college annual [1904] ... 905:have identical wording to the Masoretic Text. 4230: 3526:"Den masoretiska ordräknesumman i 1 Mos 2:18" 3500:"Den masoretiska ordräknesumman i 1 Mos 1:12" 3391:Pratico, Gary D.; Pelt, Miles V. Van (2009). 2795:. Mahwah, NJ, US: Paulist Press. p. xvi. 2357:(third edition), 1977. The second edition of 1458:meant "counting" and was later conjugated as 1338:(Torah scroll) could contain only the Hebrew 731: 8: 2980:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2828: 2826: 2824: 2822: 2820: 1790: 1750:Safeguarding the unity of divine worship at 1709: 1653: 1330:, showing the extensive marginal annotations 3231:– via Gale Virtual Reference Library. 1409:to the מסר root meaning "to transmit", for 4471: 4237: 4223: 4215: 3931:. James D. Price Publications. p. 4. 3159: 3157: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3149: 3147: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3139: 3137: 3135: 1822:, because they resemble the Hebrew letter 1438:Other specific explanations are provided: 1062:, who asked that it be returned after the 845:(CE). The oldest known complete copy, the 841:between the 7th and 10th centuries of the 738: 724: 358: 44: 3878: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3115: 3084:Introduction to the Old Testament of the 2929:(in German). E.K.J. Trübner. p. 100. 2913:B. Ket. 106a, y. Shek. 4:3, y. Sanh. 2:6. 2139:The 1852 edition was yet another copy of 980:, dates from the early 11th century. The 908:The Masoretic Text is the basis for most 885:, the text of the Torah preserved by the 4170:and the Masora Magna from around 1300 CE 3865:(9). Advances.sciencemag.org: e1601247. 2894:. Vol. 12. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 849:, dates from the early 11th century CE. 4132:, online full edition of the bilingual 3179: 3177: 2970:. Typographeo Academico. pp. 357a. 2652: 2499: 2271:. Snaith combined the accent system of 447: 56: 5243:Hebrew Bible versions and translations 4124:The Masoretic Critical Edition of 1894 2973: 2688:(1st ed.). Random House. p. 2052:This was practically a reprint of the 1112:destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE 1054:claims that a model codex was sent to 809:and its precise letter-text, with its 4059:Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible 3552:"UBS Translations: Hebrew Scriptures" 3366:, Jerusalem, NY: MacMillan Co., 1971. 3358: 3356: 3265: 3263: 2807:"Rare scroll fragment to be unveiled" 2793:Jesus the Messiah in the Hebrew Bible 2667:Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible 2660: 2658: 2656: 2130:, 1852; 2nd edition, 1866 (published 1197:; and similar differences existed in 7: 3916:Price, James D. (14 February 1994). 3853:Brent, William (21 September 2016). 3380:. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans. 1934:Bible is largely a reworking of the 1350:, to show correct pronunciation and 1118:fragment recovered from the ancient 860:. Which is closest to a theoretical 5169:Other books referenced in the Bible 5128:New Testament manuscript categories 3808:"Errors in the King James Version?" 3186:"Ben Naphtali - JewishEncyclopedia" 2339:but correcting obvious errors, 1976 1710: 1654: 1417:.) Later, the text was also called 1169:, based primarily in the cities of 852:The differences attested to in the 821:. Referring to the Masoretic Text, 763: 4699:Testaments of the Three Patriarchs 2684:Understanding the Dead Sea Scrolls 2680:Shanks, Herschel (4 August 1992). 2669:. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. 1785:Suspended letters and dotted words 1522:, probably wrote them originally. 1431:, the intent of the Masoretes was 897:found near an ancient synagogue's 25: 3993:British and Foreign Bible Society 3935:from the original on 13 July 2011 3778:Michaels, Marc (26 August 2010). 3750:Michaels, Marc (26 August 2010). 3725:Michaels, Marc (26 August 2010). 3686:Michaels, Marc (26 August 2010). 3475:Basics of Biblical Hebrew Grammar 3184:Ginzberg, Louis; Levias, Caspar. 2892:Discoveries in the Judaean Desert 2248:British and Foreign Bible Society 2132:British and Foreign Bible Society 1946:(correct ed. Florence, 1750); to 1496:), or the Masoretic Concordance. 936:, it has also been used for some 805:. The Masoretic Text defines the 793:text of the 24 books of the 5238:9th-century biblical manuscripts 4013:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 239–240. 3815:Detroit Baptist Seminary Journal 2508: 2452:List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts 2188:, first two editions, 1906, 1912 2120:(London, 1950) is an exact copy. 707: 64: 5184:Biblical and Quranic narratives 4130:Masoretic Text (Hebrew-English) 3806:Combs, William W. (Fall 1999). 2852:Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls 2298:where extant and otherwise the 2292:, this follows the text of the 2281:Hebrew University Bible Project 1401:, the form of the Ezekiel word 1187:talmudic academies in Babylonia 703:Outline of Bible-related topics 4182:New International Encyclopedia 4145:and S. David Sperling (2006), 3276:. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. 2634:Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia 2590:Vocalization uncertain, also: 2416:Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia 2344:Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia 2238:, and other early manuscripts. 2168:, 1894; 2nd edition, 1908–1926 1911:(though not always followed). 1580:Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia 412:Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia 1: 4081:The Text of the Old Testament 3576:. Zondervan. pp. 406 ff. 3378:The Text of the Old Testament 2030:New Cambridge Paragraph Bible 2006:Jacob ben Hayyim ibn Adonijah 1944:Sefer Massoret Seyag la-Torah 1887:Jacob ben Hayyim ibn Adonijah 1573:, in measure, is an expanded 1405:"fetters" was applied by the 1086:argues it is not historical. 539:Historical-grammatical method 3247:Biblical Archaeology Society 3205:"Ben-Asher, Aaron ben Moses" 4164:Biblical Archaeology Review 3445:Mounce, William D. (2003). 3418:Mounce, William D. (2007). 3303:The Jewish Quarterly Review 3032:The Jewish Quarterly Review 2996:"Josephus: Against Apion I" 2207:Third edition based on the 1300:Judah ben Isaac Messer Leon 1038:type, and 10% non-aligned. 988:1947 Civil war in Palestine 926:New American Standard Bible 774: 5274: 5164:English Bible translations 4552:Song of the Three Children 3572:Pratico; Van Pelt (2001). 3451:. Zondervan. p. 288. 3424:. Zondervan. p. 289. 3190:www.jewishencyclopedia.com 2314:Koren Publishers Jerusalem 2084:Giovanni Bernardo De Rossi 1644: 1313: 1206:Ben Asher and Ben Naphtali 534:Allegorical interpretation 5202: 4021:General and cited sources 3985:Ginsburg, Christian David 3574:Basics of Biblical Hebrew 3376:Würthwein, Ernst (1979). 3203:Ben-Hayyim, Zeev (2007). 1878:§ 69 and elsewhere. 1791: 1520:Aaron ben Moses ben Asher 1272:Joseph ben Samuel Bonfils 1212:Aaron ben Moses ben Asher 1199:those of Syria Palaestina 930:New International Version 4033:The Unauthorized Version 3989:The Hebrew Old Testament 2430:Composition of the Torah 2363:English Standard Version 2166:Christian David Ginsburg 1728:; e.g. substitution of " 1685:; or to Ezra, Nehemiah, 1608:that are located in the 1566:contain several errors. 1530:In classical antiquity, 1415:Aggadah § Etymology 1334:Traditionally, a ritual 1149:The Age of the Masoretes 922:English Standard Version 424:Novum Testamentum Graece 226:Composition of the Torah 5248:Jewish texts in Aramaic 5026:Intertestamental period 4208:10.25159/1013-8471/2569 4007:Goshen-Gottstein, Moshe 2506:"Masoretic" pronounced 1993:Some important editions 1413:"tradition." (See also 956:Origin and transmission 910:Protestant translations 825:specifically means the 5010:Apocalyptic literature 4647:Paralipomena of Baruch 4157:Jewish Virtual Library 3924:New King James Version 3920:New Age Bible Versions 3871:10.1126/sciadv.1601247 3079:Driver, Godfrey Rolles 3027:For a discussion see: 2850:Schiffman, L. (2007). 2578:For more details, see 2406:Biblia Hebraica Quinta 2323:Moshe Goshen-Gottstein 2290:Moshe Goshen-Gottstein 2038:Everard van der Hooght 2026:New King James Version 1893:edition of the Bible ( 1858:History of the Masorah 1638:Scribal emendations – 1511: 1331: 1193:differed from that of 973: 687:Criticism of the Bible 430:Documentary hypothesis 42: 5174:Additional Scriptures 5138:New Testament uncials 4152:Encyclopaedia Judaica 4116:Encyclopaedia Judaica 3817:: 155. Archived from 3364:Encyclopaedia Judaica 3218:Encyclopaedia Judaica 3000:penelope.uchicago.edu 2665:Tov, Emanuel (1992). 2495:Explanatory footnotes 2116:, and the edition of 2108:Samson Raphael Hirsch 2102:This edition (called 1564:Codex Leningradiensis 1440:Samuel David Luzzatto 1378:From the Hebrew word 1323: 1316:Tiberian vocalization 1002:The discovery of the 963: 440:NT textual categories 33: 5159:Bible version debate 5133:New Testament papyri 5079:Samaritan Pentateuch 4704:Testament of Abraham 4642:1, 2, and 3 Meqabyan 4196:Journal for Semitics 4190:Samet, Nili (2016). 3362:"Masorah, Vol. XVI. 3108:. 21 September 2016. 2923:Blau, Lajos (1902). 2777:. 21 September 2016. 2759:. 21 September 2016. 2365:, published in 2001. 2079:Samaritan Pentateuch 1868:Masseket Sefer Torah 1724:Safeguarding of the 998:Second Temple period 992:Second Temple period 883:Samaritan Pentateuch 858:Second Temple period 387:Internal consistency 293:Samaritan Pentateuch 5101:Muratorian fragment 5036:New Testament canon 5031:Old Testament canon 4924:Chapters and verses 4542:Additions to Daniel 4508:Additions to Esther 4107:Jewish Encyclopedia 4039:. pp. 99–106. 3973:(reprint ed.). 3967:Ginsburg, Christian 3905:. Associated Press. 3297:Bacher, W. (1891). 3167:Jewish Encyclopedia 2732:The Times of Israel 2482:Damascus Pentateuch 1876:Diḳduḳe ha-Ṭe'amim, 1740:" in some passages. 1360:pronunciation marks 1060:High Priest Eleazar 946:New Jerusalem Bible 221:New Testament canon 216:Old Testament canon 144:Chapters and verses 4714:Testament of Jacob 4709:Testament of Isaac 4594:Prayer of Manasseh 4557:Bel and the Dragon 4537:Letter of Jeremiah 4083:. Fortress press. 4061:. Fortress press. 3947:NKJV Old Testament 3209:Berenbaum, Michael 2875:Fitzmyer, Joseph. 2836:HaMikrah V'anachnu 2246:, 1958 (published 2067:Benjamin Kennicott 2022:King James Version 1989:Dead Sea Scrolls. 1909:King James Version 1681:; to Ezra and the 1617:Fixing of the text 1446:was a synonym for 1390:, a word found in 1332: 1304:Meir of Rothenburg 1302:, Meïr Spira, and 1282:(Jacob ben Meïr), 1167:Abbasid Caliphates 1052:Letter of Aristeas 1028:Lawrence Schiffman 1012:c. 150 BCE – 75 CE 974: 942:New American Bible 918:King James Version 827:diacritic markings 764:נֻסָּח הַמָּסוֹרָה 692:Biblical authority 573:Capital punishment 449:Biblical criticism 418:Rahlfs' Septuagint 122:New Testament (NT) 117:Old Testament (OT) 43: 5225: 5224: 5194:Textual criticism 4757: 4756: 4681:Psalms of Solomon 4624:Orthodox Tewahedo 4155:2nd ed.; via the 3789:978-0-9810947-7-9 3761:978-0-9810947-7-9 3736:978-0-9810947-7-9 3697:978-0-9810947-7-9 3654:Deuteronomy 29:28 3485:978-0-310-23760-0 3458:978-0-310-23485-2 3431:978-0-310-28289-1 3404:978-0-310-55882-8 3283:978-0-8028-4363-0 3228:978-0-02-866097-4 3086:New English Bible 2861:978-0-300-14022-4 2789:Pentiuc, Eugen J. 2716:. 5 October 2016. 2096:Frankfurt-am-Main 2028:in 1982, and the 1986:Book of Leviticus 1940:Sefer ha-Zikronot 1658:), i.e. to avoid 1589:Book of Leviticus 1526:Numerical Masorah 1470:Language and form 1284:Menahem ben Perez 1264:Gershom ben Judah 1138:, and often even 895:Book of Leviticus 784: 772: 748: 747: 563:Conspiracy theory 492: 491: 231:Mosaic authorship 16:(Redirected from 5265: 5074:Dead Sea Scrolls 5056:Dating the Bible 4934:Historical books 4571:Eastern Orthodox 4484:Eastern Orthodox 4472: 4465: 4239: 4232: 4225: 4216: 4211: 4202:(2): 1064–1079. 4186: 4178: 4094: 4077:Würthwein, Ernst 4072: 4050: 4015: 4014: 4003: 3997: 3996: 3981: 3975: 3974: 3962: 3956: 3955: 3942: 3940: 3930: 3913: 3907: 3906: 3899: 3893: 3892: 3882: 3859:Science Advances 3850: 3844: 3841: 3835: 3832: 3826: 3825: 3823: 3812: 3803: 3797: 3796: 3775: 3769: 3768: 3747: 3741: 3740: 3722: 3716: 3714:Numbers 10:35–36 3711: 3705: 3704: 3683: 3677: 3615: 3609: 3595: 3589: 3584: 3578: 3577: 3569: 3563: 3562: 3560: 3558: 3548: 3542: 3541: 3539: 3537: 3528:. Archived from 3522: 3516: 3515: 3513: 3511: 3502:. Archived from 3496: 3490: 3489: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3442: 3436: 3435: 3415: 3409: 3408: 3388: 3382: 3381: 3373: 3367: 3360: 3351: 3350: 3341: 3335: 3334: 3294: 3288: 3287: 3267: 3258: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3239: 3233: 3232: 3200: 3194: 3193: 3181: 3172: 3171: 3161: 3110: 3109: 3106:Associated Press 3098: 3092: 3091: 3075: 3069: 3063: 3057: 3056: 3025: 3019: 3016: 3010: 3009: 3007: 3006: 2992: 2986: 2985: 2979: 2971: 2961: 2955: 2954: 2952: 2951: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2920: 2914: 2911: 2905: 2902: 2896: 2895: 2887: 2881: 2880: 2872: 2866: 2865: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2830: 2815: 2814: 2803: 2797: 2796: 2785: 2779: 2778: 2775:Science Advances 2767: 2761: 2760: 2757:Associated Press 2749: 2743: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2724: 2718: 2717: 2710: 2704: 2703: 2687: 2677: 2671: 2670: 2662: 2637: 2630: 2624: 2617: 2611: 2588: 2582: 2576: 2570: 2561:Dead Sea Scrolls 2557: 2551: 2549: 2548: 2545: 2544: 2541: 2538: 2535: 2532: 2529: 2526: 2523: 2520: 2517: 2514: 2504: 2487:Dead Sea Scrolls 2477:Codex Orientales 2371:Mordechai Breuer 2142: 2115: 1924:Johannes Buxtorf 1872:Masseket Soferim 1814:Inverted letters 1797: 1796: 1713: 1712: 1660:anthropomorphism 1657: 1656: 1324:A page from the 1292:Perez ben Elijah 1268:Machir ben Judah 1189:, the school of 1127:Aquila of Sinope 1077:In contrast, an 1013: 1004:Dead Sea Scrolls 891:Samaritan Hebrew 854:Dead Sea Scrolls 803:Rabbinic Judaism 779: 777: 775:Nūssāḥ hamMāsōrā 767: 765: 740: 733: 726: 714:Bible portal 712: 711: 710: 435:Synoptic problem 359: 354:Biblical studies 283:Dead Sea scrolls 244:Petrine epistles 239:Pauline epistles 68: 45: 21: 5273: 5272: 5268: 5267: 5266: 5264: 5263: 5262: 5253:Karaite Judaism 5228: 5227: 5226: 5221: 5198: 5142: 5060: 5051:Christian canon 5014: 4949:Prophetic books 4912: 4843:2 Thessalonians 4838:1 Thessalonians 4753: 4720: 4685: 4656: 4618: 4577: 4563: 4491: 4463: 4462: 4454: 4265: 4261: 4252: 4243: 4189: 4173: 4102: 4097: 4091: 4075: 4069: 4053: 4047: 4037:Alfred A. Knopf 4029:Lane Fox, Robin 4027: 4023: 4018: 4011:Sha'arei Talmon 4005: 4004: 4000: 3983: 3982: 3978: 3964: 3963: 3959: 3938: 3936: 3928: 3915: 3914: 3910: 3901: 3900: 3896: 3852: 3851: 3847: 3842: 3838: 3833: 3829: 3821: 3810: 3805: 3804: 3800: 3790: 3777: 3776: 3772: 3762: 3749: 3748: 3744: 3737: 3724: 3723: 3719: 3712: 3708: 3698: 3685: 3684: 3680: 3616: 3612: 3596: 3592: 3585: 3581: 3571: 3570: 3566: 3556: 3554: 3550: 3549: 3545: 3535: 3533: 3524: 3523: 3519: 3509: 3507: 3498: 3497: 3493: 3486: 3471: 3470: 3466: 3459: 3444: 3443: 3439: 3432: 3417: 3416: 3412: 3405: 3390: 3389: 3385: 3375: 3374: 3370: 3361: 3354: 3343: 3342: 3338: 3315:10.2307/1450053 3296: 3295: 3291: 3284: 3269: 3268: 3261: 3251: 3249: 3241: 3240: 3236: 3229: 3202: 3201: 3197: 3183: 3182: 3175: 3163: 3162: 3113: 3100: 3099: 3095: 3077: 3076: 3072: 3064: 3060: 3045:10.2307/1453840 3028: 3026: 3022: 3017: 3013: 3004: 3002: 2994: 2993: 2989: 2972: 2963: 2962: 2958: 2949: 2947: 2939: 2938: 2934: 2922: 2921: 2917: 2912: 2908: 2903: 2899: 2889: 2888: 2884: 2874: 2873: 2869: 2862: 2849: 2848: 2844: 2832: 2831: 2818: 2805: 2804: 2800: 2787: 2786: 2782: 2769: 2768: 2764: 2751: 2750: 2746: 2736: 2734: 2726: 2725: 2721: 2712: 2711: 2707: 2700: 2679: 2678: 2674: 2664: 2663: 2654: 2650: 2645: 2640: 2631: 2627: 2618: 2614: 2589: 2585: 2577: 2573: 2558: 2554: 2511: 2507: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2472:Codex Cairensis 2462:Leningrad Codex 2426: 2391:Jerusalem Crown 2354:Biblia Hebraica 2336:Leningrad Codex 2333:, based on the 2310:The Koren Bible 2301:Leningrad Codex 2235:Leningrad Codex 2219:Umberto Cassuto 2210:Leningrad Codex 2200:Biblia Hebraica 2185:Biblia Hebraica 2153:Franz Delitzsch 2140: 2111: 2092:Wolf Heidenheim 1995: 1948:Menahem Lonzano 1900:textus receptus 1884: 1860: 1816: 1794: 1787: 1761: 1759:Mikra and ittur 1699:Great Synagogue 1671:tikkune Soferim 1664:anthropopathism 1649: 1643: 1640:Tikkune Soferim 1628:Tikkune Soferim 1619: 1528: 1472: 1392:Book of Ezekiel 1376: 1318: 1312: 1274:(Tob 'Elem) of 1248: 1246:The Middle Ages 1208: 1151: 1092: 1090:Rabbinic period 1084:Solomon Zeitlin 1066:was completed. 1040:Joseph Fitzmyer 1011: 1000: 978:Leningrad Codex 958: 938:Catholic Bibles 847:Leningrad Codex 744: 708: 706: 705: 697: 696: 683: 669: 647: 639: 638: 637: 553: 529: 502: 494: 493: 488: 407: 391: 380: 356: 346: 345: 344: 277: 276: 257: 256: 252:Johannine works 248: 212: 192: 191: 188:and development 175: 174: 173: 140: 126: 112: 85: 84: 39:Leningrad Codex 28: 23: 22: 18:Massoretic text 15: 12: 11: 5: 5271: 5269: 5261: 5260: 5255: 5250: 5245: 5240: 5230: 5229: 5223: 5222: 5220: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5203: 5200: 5199: 5197: 5196: 5191: 5189:Synod of Hippo 5186: 5181: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5150: 5148: 5144: 5143: 5141: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5123:Masoretic Text 5120: 5115: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5070: 5068: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5022: 5020: 5016: 5015: 5013: 5012: 5007: 5006: 5005: 5000: 4995: 4990: 4980: 4979: 4978: 4973: 4963: 4962: 4961: 4959:Minor prophets 4956: 4954:Major prophets 4946: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4920: 4918: 4914: 4913: 4911: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4767: 4765: 4759: 4758: 4755: 4754: 4752: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4740: 4739: 4732:Pseudepigrapha 4728: 4726: 4725:Classification 4722: 4721: 4719: 4718: 4717: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4695: 4693: 4687: 4686: 4684: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4671:Psalms 152–155 4667: 4665: 4658: 4657: 4655: 4654: 4649: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4628: 4626: 4620: 4619: 4617: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4580: 4578: 4576: 4575: 4572: 4568: 4565: 4564: 4562: 4561: 4560: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4539: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4494: 4492: 4490: 4489: 4486: 4481: 4475: 4469: 4456: 4455: 4453: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4325:1–2 Chronicles 4322: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4271: 4269: 4254: 4253: 4244: 4242: 4241: 4234: 4227: 4219: 4213: 4212: 4187: 4176:"Masora" 4171: 4165: 4159: 4143:Nahum M. Sarna 4140: 4127: 4121: 4112: 4101: 4100:External links 4098: 4096: 4095: 4089: 4073: 4067: 4051: 4045: 4024: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4016: 3998: 3976: 3957: 3908: 3894: 3845: 3836: 3827: 3824:on 2017-08-29. 3798: 3788: 3770: 3760: 3742: 3735: 3717: 3706: 3696: 3678: 3658:2 Samuel 19:20 3610: 3590: 3579: 3564: 3543: 3532:on 28 May 2013 3517: 3506:on 28 May 2013 3491: 3484: 3464: 3457: 3437: 3430: 3410: 3403: 3383: 3368: 3352: 3336: 3309:(4): 785–790. 3289: 3282: 3259: 3234: 3227: 3195: 3173: 3111: 3093: 3070: 3058: 3039:(4): 269–272. 3035:. New Series. 3020: 3011: 2987: 2956: 2932: 2915: 2906: 2897: 2882: 2879:. p. 302. 2867: 2860: 2842: 2816: 2813:. 21 May 2007. 2811:Jerusalem Post 2798: 2780: 2762: 2744: 2719: 2705: 2699:978-0679414483 2698: 2672: 2651: 2649: 2646: 2644: 2641: 2639: 2638: 2625: 2612: 2583: 2571: 2552: 2498: 2496: 2493: 2492: 2491: 2490: 2489: 2484: 2479: 2474: 2469: 2464: 2459: 2448: 2447: 2442: 2437: 2432: 2425: 2422: 2421: 2420: 2410: 2409: 2401: 2400: 2396: 2395: 2385: 2384: 2374: 2373: 2367: 2366: 2359:Stuttgartensia 2348: 2347: 2340: 2327: 2326: 2318: 2317: 2306: 2305: 2285: 2284: 2277: 2276: 2252: 2251: 2240: 2239: 2223: 2222: 2215: 2214: 2204: 2203: 2195: 2194: 2190: 2189: 2180: 2179: 2170: 2169: 2162: 2161: 2157: 2156: 2145: 2144: 2141:van der Hooght 2136: 2135: 2122: 2121: 2099: 2098: 2088: 2087: 2074: 2073: 2063: 2062: 2049: 2048: 2034: 2033: 2018:Rabbinic Bible 2013: 2012: 2002:Daniel Bomberg 1994: 1991: 1982:En-Gedi Scroll 1971:Community Rule 1952:Jedidiah Norzi 1883: 1882:Critical study 1880: 1859: 1856: 1841:Saul Lieberman 1815: 1812: 1793: 1786: 1783: 1760: 1757: 1756: 1755: 1748: 1741: 1726:Tetragrammaton 1722: 1706:tikkun Soferim 1677:; to Ezra and 1647:Tiqqun soferim 1645:Main article: 1642: 1636: 1618: 1615: 1606:Qere and Ketiv 1527: 1524: 1494:Masora finalis 1481:Oklah we-Oklah 1471: 1468: 1452:Ze'ev Ben-Haim 1399:Wilhelm Bacher 1375: 1372: 1364:stress accents 1311: 1308: 1266:, his brother 1247: 1244: 1207: 1204: 1150: 1147: 1120:En-Gedi Scroll 1091: 1088: 1016:Menachem Cohen 1010:, dating from 999: 996: 957: 954: 940:, such as the 831:marginal notes 752:Masoretic Text 746: 745: 743: 742: 735: 728: 720: 717: 716: 699: 698: 695: 694: 689: 682: 681: 676: 670: 668: 667: 666: 665: 655: 649: 648: 645: 644: 641: 640: 636: 635: 630: 625: 620: 615: 610: 605: 600: 595: 590: 585: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 554: 552: 551: 546: 541: 536: 530: 528: 527: 522: 517: 511: 510: 509: 503: 501:Interpretation 500: 499: 496: 495: 490: 489: 487: 486: 481: 476: 471: 466: 461: 455: 452: 451: 445: 444: 443: 442: 437: 432: 427: 420: 415: 406: 405: 400: 395: 389: 384: 378: 373: 368: 362: 357: 352: 351: 348: 347: 343: 342: 337: 335:English Bibles 332: 327: 322: 317: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 288:Masoretic Text 285: 279: 278: 275: 274: 264: 263: 262: 259: 258: 255: 254: 247: 246: 241: 235: 234: 233: 228: 223: 218: 211: 210: 205: 200: 194: 193: 190: 189: 182: 181: 180: 177: 176: 172: 171: 170: 169: 164: 159: 148: 147: 146: 139: 138: 133: 127: 125: 124: 119: 113: 111: 110: 109: 108: 103: 98: 87: 86: 83: 82: 75: 74: 73: 70: 69: 61: 60: 54: 53: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5270: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5236: 5235: 5233: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5204: 5201: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5151: 5149: 5145: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5113: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5096: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5071: 5069: 5067: 5063: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5023: 5021: 5017: 5011: 5008: 5004: 5001: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4985: 4984: 4981: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4968: 4967: 4964: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4951: 4950: 4947: 4944: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4921: 4919: 4915: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4833: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4806:2 Corinthians 4804: 4802: 4801:1 Corinthians 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4768: 4766: 4764: 4763:New Testament 4760: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4744:New Testament 4742: 4738: 4735: 4734: 4733: 4730: 4729: 4727: 4723: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4701: 4700: 4697: 4696: 4694: 4692: 4688: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4668: 4666: 4664: 4659: 4653: 4652:Broader canon 4650: 4648: 4645: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4629: 4627: 4625: 4621: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4581: 4579: 4573: 4570: 4569: 4566: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4544: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4495: 4493: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4476: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4461: 4457: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4365:Song of Songs 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4272: 4270: 4268: 4264: 4263:Old Testament 4259: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4240: 4235: 4233: 4228: 4226: 4221: 4220: 4217: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4188: 4184: 4183: 4177: 4172: 4169: 4166: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4154: 4153: 4148: 4144: 4141: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4128: 4125: 4122: 4119: 4117: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4104: 4103: 4099: 4092: 4090:0-8028-0788-7 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4068:0-8006-3429-2 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4046:0-394-57398-6 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4025: 4020: 4012: 4008: 4002: 3999: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3980: 3977: 3972: 3968: 3961: 3958: 3954: 3952: 3948: 3934: 3927: 3925: 3921: 3912: 3909: 3904: 3898: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3849: 3846: 3840: 3837: 3831: 3828: 3820: 3816: 3809: 3802: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3785: 3781: 3774: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3757: 3753: 3746: 3743: 3738: 3732: 3728: 3721: 3718: 3715: 3710: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3693: 3689: 3682: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3666:Ezekiel 41:20 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3614: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3594: 3591: 3588: 3583: 3580: 3575: 3568: 3565: 3553: 3547: 3544: 3531: 3527: 3521: 3518: 3505: 3501: 3495: 3492: 3487: 3481: 3478:. Zondervan. 3477: 3476: 3468: 3465: 3460: 3454: 3450: 3449: 3441: 3438: 3433: 3427: 3423: 3422: 3414: 3411: 3406: 3400: 3397:. Zondervan. 3396: 3395: 3387: 3384: 3379: 3372: 3369: 3365: 3359: 3357: 3353: 3348: 3347: 3340: 3337: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3293: 3290: 3285: 3279: 3275: 3274: 3266: 3264: 3260: 3248: 3244: 3238: 3235: 3230: 3224: 3220: 3219: 3214: 3213:Skolnik, Fred 3210: 3206: 3199: 3196: 3191: 3187: 3180: 3178: 3174: 3169: 3168: 3160: 3158: 3156: 3154: 3152: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3142: 3140: 3138: 3136: 3134: 3132: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3112: 3107: 3103: 3097: 3094: 3089: 3088: 3085: 3080: 3074: 3071: 3067: 3062: 3059: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3033: 3024: 3021: 3015: 3012: 3001: 2997: 2991: 2988: 2983: 2977: 2969: 2968: 2960: 2957: 2946: 2945:lexundria.com 2942: 2936: 2933: 2928: 2927: 2919: 2916: 2910: 2907: 2901: 2898: 2893: 2886: 2883: 2878: 2871: 2868: 2863: 2857: 2853: 2846: 2843: 2838: 2837: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2821: 2817: 2812: 2808: 2802: 2799: 2794: 2790: 2784: 2781: 2776: 2772: 2766: 2763: 2758: 2754: 2748: 2745: 2733: 2729: 2723: 2720: 2715: 2709: 2706: 2701: 2695: 2691: 2686: 2685: 2676: 2673: 2668: 2661: 2659: 2657: 2653: 2647: 2642: 2635: 2629: 2626: 2622: 2616: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2587: 2584: 2581: 2575: 2572: 2568: 2567: 2562: 2556: 2553: 2547: 2503: 2500: 2494: 2488: 2485: 2483: 2480: 2478: 2475: 2473: 2470: 2468: 2467:Codex Sassoon 2465: 2463: 2460: 2458: 2455: 2454: 2453: 2450: 2449: 2446: 2443: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2433: 2431: 2428: 2427: 2423: 2418: 2417: 2412: 2411: 2408: 2407: 2403: 2402: 2398: 2397: 2393: 2392: 2387: 2386: 2382: 2381: 2377:Based on the 2376: 2375: 2372: 2369: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2355: 2350: 2349: 2346: 2345: 2341: 2338: 2337: 2332: 2329: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2308: 2307: 2303: 2302: 2297: 2296: 2291: 2287: 2286: 2282: 2279: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2244:Norman Snaith 2242: 2241: 2237: 2236: 2231: 2230: 2225: 2224: 2220: 2217: 2216: 2212: 2211: 2206: 2205: 2202: 2201: 2197: 2196: 2192: 2191: 2187: 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