303:. Purines are complementary only with pyrimidines: pyrimidine–pyrimidine pairings are energetically unfavorable because the molecules are too far apart for hydrogen bonding to be established; purine–purine pairings are energetically unfavorable because the molecules are too close, leading to overlap repulsion. Purine–pyrimidine base-pairing of AT or GC or UA (in RNA) results in proper duplex structure. The only other purine–pyrimidine pairings would be AC and GT and UG (in RNA); these pairings are mismatches because the patterns of hydrogen donors and acceptors do not correspond. The GU pairing, with two hydrogen bonds, does occur fairly often in
480:. The process of mismatch repair ordinarily must recognize and correctly repair a small number of base mispairs within a long sequence of normal DNA base pairs. To repair mismatches formed during DNA replication, several distinctive repair processes have evolved to distinguish between the template strand and the newly formed strand so that only the newly inserted incorrect nucleotide is removed (in order to avoid generating a mutation). The proteins employed in mismatch repair during DNA replication, and the clinical significance of defects in this process are described in the article
497:
786:
31:
3331:
2890:
3942:
240:
227:
774:
754:. The artificial strings of DNA do not encode for anything yet, but scientists speculate they could be designed to manufacture new proteins which could have industrial or pharmaceutical uses. Experts said the synthetic DNA incorporating the unnatural base pair raises the possibility of life forms based on a different DNA code.
726:
mechanisms. This is the first known example of a living organism passing along an expanded genetic code to subsequent generations. Romesberg said he and his colleagues created 300 variants to refine the design of nucleotides that would be stable enough and would be replicated as easily as the natural
700:
and PCR-based applications. Their results show that for PCR and PCR-based applications, the d5SICS–dNaM unnatural base pair is functionally equivalent to a natural base pair, and when combined with the other two natural base pairs used by all organisms, A–T and G–C, they provide a fully functional
279:
are primarily responsible for stabilising the double-helical structure; Watson-Crick base pairing's contribution to global structural stability is minimal, but its role in the specificity underlying complementarity is, by contrast, of maximal importance as this underlies the template-dependent
653:
7-(2-thienyl)imidazopyridine (Ds) and pyrrole-2-carbaldehyde (Pa) as a third base pair for replication and transcription. Afterward, Ds and 4--2-nitropyrrole (Px) was discovered as a high fidelity pair in PCR amplification. In 2013, they applied the Ds-Px pair to DNA aptamer generation by
652:
In 2002, Ichiro Hirao's group in Japan developed an unnatural base pair between 2-amino-8-(2-thienyl)purine (s) and pyridine-2-one (y) that functions in transcription and translation, for the site-specific incorporation of non-standard amino acids into proteins. In 2006, they created
836:
In addition to these alternative base pairings, a wide range of base-base hydrogen bonding is observed in RNA secondary and tertiary structure. These bonds are often necessary for the precise, complex shape of an RNA, as well as its binding to interaction partners.
102:
encoded within each strand of DNA. The regular structure and data redundancy provided by the DNA double helix make DNA well suited to the storage of genetic information, while base-pairing between DNA and incoming nucleotides provides the mechanism through which
798:
In addition to the canonical pairing, some conditions can also favour base-pairing with alternative base orientation, and number and geometry of hydrogen bonds. These pairings are accompanied by alterations to the local backbone shape.
161:
is often measured in base pairs because DNA is usually double-stranded. Hence, the number of total base pairs is equal to the number of nucleotides in one of the strands (with the exception of non-coding single-stranded regions of
270:
is the chemical interaction that underlies the base-pairing rules described above. Appropriate geometrical correspondence of hydrogen bond donors and acceptors allows only the "right" pairs to form stably. DNA with high
833:(typically written as A•U/T and G•C) can exist in some DNA sequences (e.g. CA and TA dinucleotides) in dynamic equilibrium with standard Watson–Crick pairing. They have also been observed in some protein–DNA complexes.
261:
base pair with two hydrogen bonds. Non-covalent hydrogen bonds between the bases are shown as dashed lines. The wiggly lines stand for the connection to the pentose sugar and point in the direction of the minor groove.
601:
which is created in a laboratory and does not occur in nature. DNA sequences have been described which use newly created nucleobases to form a third base pair, in addition to the two base pairs found in nature, A-T
318:
that is determined by the length of the molecules, the extent of mispairing (if any), and the GC content. Higher GC content results in higher melting temperatures; it is, therefore, unsurprising that the genomes of
3367:
1770:
Hirao I, Kimoto M, Mitsui T, Fujiwara T, Kawai R, Sato A, et al. (September 2006). "An unnatural hydrophobic base pair system: site-specific incorporation of nucleotide analogs into DNA and RNA".
122:) permit the formation of short double-stranded helices, and a wide variety of non–Watson–Crick interactions (e.g., G–U or A–A) allow RNAs to fold into a vast range of specific three-dimensional
692:
or "test tube" templates containing the unnatural base pair and they confirmed that it was efficiently replicated with high fidelity in virtually all sequence contexts using the modern standard
3734:
567:
is also often used to imply distance along a chromosome, but the number of base pairs it corresponds to varies widely. In the human genome, the centimorgan is about 1 million base pairs.
3360:
2077:
2728:
3353:
1727:
Hirao I, Ohtsuki T, Fujiwara T, Mitsui T, Yokogawa T, Okuni T, et al. (February 2002). "An unnatural base pair for incorporating amino acid analogs into proteins".
1053:
Cockburn AF, Newkirk MJ, Firtel RA (December 1976). "Organization of the ribosomal RNA genes of
Dictyostelium discoideum: mapping of the nontranscribed spacer regions".
1437:
750:
which can be encoded by DNA, from the existing 20 amino acids to a theoretically possible 172, thereby expanding the potential for living organisms to produce novel
708:
containing natural T-A and C-G base pairs along with the best-performing UBP Romesberg's laboratory had designed and inserted it into cells of the common bacterium
448:
by "masquerading" as a base, causing the DNA replication machinery to skip or insert additional nucleotides at the intercalated site. Most intercalators are large
846:
1100:
2753:
111:
transcribes DNA into RNA. Many DNA-binding proteins can recognize specific base-pairing patterns that identify particular regulatory regions of genes.
1911:
Kimoto M, Yamashige R, Matsunaga K, Yokoyama S, Hirao I (May 2013). "Generation of high-affinity DNA aptamers using an expanded genetic alphabet".
2926:
2875:
329:
are particularly GC-rich. On the converse, regions of a genome that need to separate frequently — for example, the promoter regions for often-
2485:
2450:
2415:
1412:
1354:
1277:
931:
413:
Chemical analogs of nucleotides can take the place of proper nucleotides and establish non-canonical base-pairing, leading to errors (mostly
1370:
649:. Since then, Benner's team has been trying to engineer cells that can make foreign bases from scratch, obviating the need for a feedstock.
2733:
1572:"Efficient and sequence-independent replication of DNA containing a third base pair establishes a functional six-letter genetic alphabet"
2577:
91:
2019:
2748:
2542:
281:
2468:
Megger DA, Megger N, Mueller J (2012). "Metal-Mediated Base Pairs in
Nucleic Acids with Purine- and Pyrimidine-Derived Nucleosides".
3012:
2162:
Murphy FV, Ramakrishnan V (December 2004). "Structure of a purine-purine wobble base pair in the decoding center of the ribosome".
746:
The successful incorporation of a third base pair is a significant breakthrough toward the goal of greatly expanding the number of
657:
selection (SELEX) and demonstrated the genetic alphabet expansion significantly augment DNA aptamer affinities to target proteins.
2510:
3299:
634:. Some new base pairs based on alternative hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions and metal coordination have been reported.
299:; the smaller nucleobases, cytosine and thymine (and uracil), are members of a class of single-ringed chemical structures called
114:
Intramolecular base pairs can occur within single-stranded nucleic acids. This is particularly important in RNA molecules (e.g.,
664:
in San Diego, California, published that his team designed an unnatural base pair (UBP). The two new artificial nucleotides or
314:
Paired DNA and RNA molecules are comparatively stable at room temperature, but the two nucleotide strands will separate above a
3304:
1139:
95:
704:
In 2014 the same team from the
Scripps Research Institute reported that they synthesized a stretch of circular DNA known as a
3714:
3709:
2047:
1445:
3201:
3087:
3932:
1701:
3852:
3666:
3661:
2834:
505:
353:
The following DNA sequences illustrate pair double-stranded patterns. By convention, the top strand is written from the
3967:
3890:
3885:
3681:
3314:
3309:
3294:
2919:
743:
containing d5SICS–dNaM. Other researchers were surprised that the bacteria replicated these human-made DNA subunits.
177:) is estimated to be about 3.2 billion base pairs long and to contain 20,000–25,000 distinct protein-coding genes. A
3905:
3801:
3796:
3691:
3686:
3676:
3623:
2582:
851:
763:
661:
338:
3915:
3816:
3768:
2738:
2723:
823:
697:
576:
342:
1117:
3910:
3900:
3643:
2743:
2562:
496:
477:
422:
330:
3811:
1284:
Each mutagenic event in the presence of an acridine results in the addition or removal of a single base pair.
3872:
3830:
3783:
3671:
3618:
3613:
914:
Zhurkin VB, Tolstorukov MY, Xu F, Colasanti AV, Olson WK (2005). "Sequence-Dependent
Variability of B-DNA".
819:
732:
3972:
3895:
3847:
3842:
3633:
3334:
3027:
2912:
2535:
1268:
Krebs JE, Goldstein ES, Kilpatrick ST, Lewin B (2018). "Genes are DNA and Encode RNAs and
Polypeptides".
3862:
3806:
3763:
3758:
3628:
3211:
3055:
2870:
2704:
2669:
1670:
Switzer C, Moroney SE, Benner SA (1989). "Enzymatic incorporation of a new base pair into DNA and RNA".
1219:"Enzymatic synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid. X. Influence of bromouracil substitutions on replication"
584:
580:
408:
135:
623:
1815:"An unnatural base pair system for efficient PCR amplification and functionalization of DNA molecules"
785:
3962:
3867:
3857:
3778:
3580:
3246:
3229:
3060:
2769:
2587:
2118:
1974:
1583:
1017:
948:
685:
325:
276:
618:). A few research groups have been searching for a third base pair for DNA, including teams led by
3773:
3653:
3542:
3445:
3241:
3224:
3082:
2965:
2849:
2839:
2799:
2699:
2679:
2572:
2567:
2205:
Vargas-Rodriguez O, Musier-Forsyth K (June 2014). "Structural biology: wobble puts RNA on target".
1570:
Malyshev DA, Dhami K, Quach HT, Lavergne T, Ordoukhanian P, Torkamani A, Romesberg FE (July 2012).
856:
830:
556:
are used—abbreviated nt (or knt, Mnt, Gnt)—as they are not paired. To distinguish between units of
481:
445:
99:
87:
3575:
631:
3519:
3135:
3130:
3005:
2809:
2694:
2689:
2664:
2421:
2230:
2187:
1936:
1795:
1752:
1374:
1078:
627:
588:
3729:
3701:
3219:
3181:
3174:
3125:
3077:
2893:
2824:
2814:
2804:
2638:
2528:
2491:
2481:
2456:
2446:
2411:
2366:
2328:
2279:
2222:
2179:
2144:
2000:
1928:
1893:
1844:
1787:
1744:
1652:
1611:
1547:
1498:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1395:
Scott MP, Matsudaira P, Lodish H, Darnell J, Zipursky L, Kaiser CA, Berk A, Krieger M (2004).
1350:
1327:
1273:
1250:
1199:
1108:
1070:
1035:
927:
896:
739:
bacteria. Then, the natural bacterial replication pathways use them to accurately replicate a
536:
441:
198:
182:
86:) allow the DNA helix to maintain a regular helical structure that is subtly dependent on its
1349:(6th ed.). New York/Abingdon: Garland Science, Taylor & Francis Group. p. 177.
1170:"Base-stacking and base-pairing contributions into thermal stability of the DNA double helix"
3499:
3045:
2854:
2829:
2473:
2438:
2403:
2358:
2318:
2310:
2269:
2261:
2214:
2171:
2134:
2126:
1990:
1982:
1920:
1883:
1875:
1834:
1826:
1779:
1736:
1679:
1642:
1601:
1591:
1537:
1529:
1488:
1480:
1317:
1309:
1240:
1230:
1189:
1181:
1116:
1062:
1025:
919:
888:
803:
710:
660:
In 2012, a group of
American scientists led by Floyd Romesberg, a chemical biologist at the
619:
557:
457:
308:
876:
641:
in Zurich) and his team led with modified forms of cytosine and guanine into DNA molecules
3489:
3418:
3169:
3140:
2714:
485:
473:
418:
295:, adenine and guanine, are members of a class of double-ringed chemical structures called
285:
2433:
Clever GH, Shionoya M (2012). "Alternative DNA Base
Pairing through Metal Coordination".
735:
transporter which efficiently imports the triphosphates of both d5SICSTP and dNaMTP into
2122:
1978:
1864:"Highly specific unnatural base pair systems as a third base pair for PCR amplification"
1587:
1518:"Highly specific unnatural base pair systems as a third base pair for PCR amplification"
1021:
714:
that successfully replicated the unnatural base pairs through multiple generations. The
3946:
3605:
3555:
3550:
3471:
3261:
3164:
2981:
2844:
2784:
2684:
2274:
2249:
2139:
2106:
2105:
Nikolova EN, Kim E, Wise AA, O'Brien PJ, Andricioaei I, Al-Hashimi HM (February 2011).
1995:
1962:
1888:
1863:
1862:
Yamashige R, Kimoto M, Takezawa Y, Sato A, Mitsui T, Yokoyama S, Hirao I (March 2012).
1839:
1814:
1606:
1571:
1542:
1517:
1516:
Yamashige R, Kimoto M, Takezawa Y, Sato A, Mitsui T, Yokoyama S, Hirao I (March 2012).
1493:
1468:
1419:...in humans 1 centimorgan on average represents a distance of about 7.5x10 base pairs.
1322:
1297:
1194:
1169:
727:
ones when the cells divide. This was in part achieved by the addition of a supportive
504:
of a human. The blue scale to the left of each nuclear chromosome pair (as well as the
414:
108:
104:
2362:
2323:
2298:
1345:
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Morgan D, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (December 2014).
1245:
1218:
688:
that form a (d5SICS–dNaM) complex or base pair in DNA. His team designed a variety of
484:. The process of mispair correction during recombination is described in the article
337:). GC content and melting temperature must also be taken into account when designing
30:
3956:
3724:
3719:
3638:
3570:
3509:
3196:
3186:
3067:
3022:
3000:
2234:
1066:
990:
430:
267:
254:
131:
123:
67:
55:
47:
2425:
2191:
1961:
Malyshev DA, Dhami K, Lavergne T, Chen T, Dai N, Foster JM, et al. (May 2014).
1940:
1756:
1147:
1082:
991:"One copy of the human genome consists of approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA"
969:
3565:
3408:
3376:
3279:
3099:
3017:
2936:
2794:
2674:
1799:
1096:
715:
449:
320:
170:
147:
139:
127:
115:
1469:"Amplification, mutation, and sequencing of a six-letter synthetic genetic system"
877:"The stereochemistry of deoxyribonucleic acid. II. Hydrogen-bonded pairs of bases"
826:. They have also been observed in the secondary structures of some RNA sequences.
2477:
2442:
1313:
3191:
2774:
645:. The nucleotides, which encoded RNA and proteins, were successfully replicated
564:
315:
51:
3941:
1576:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1223:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
358:
354:
3594:
3532:
3527:
3462:
3425:
3385:
3251:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2779:
2648:
2628:
2603:
2407:
2297:
Aishima J, Gitti RK, Noah JE, Gan HH, Schlick T, Wolberger C (December 2002).
1272:(12th ed.). Burlington, Mass: Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 12.
892:
747:
723:
681:
677:
638:
594:
553:
453:
300:
292:
272:
174:
1656:
1112:
900:
519:
The following abbreviations are commonly used to describe the length of a D/R
3560:
3484:
3479:
3345:
3115:
1596:
923:
532:
512:
501:
426:
202:
2495:
2460:
2370:
2332:
2283:
2265:
2250:"A novel form of RNA double helix based on G·U and C·A wobble base pairing"
2226:
2183:
2148:
2004:
1932:
1897:
1848:
1791:
1748:
1615:
1551:
1502:
1331:
1254:
1203:
1039:
722:
cells and showed no sign of losing its unnatural base pairs to its natural
1879:
1533:
1235:
1074:
239:
226:
3504:
3440:
3413:
3269:
3120:
3050:
2904:
2819:
2789:
2633:
2623:
2551:
2314:
1830:
1185:
615:
528:
461:
334:
178:
163:
75:
17:
2218:
2130:
2020:"First life forms to pass on artificial DNA engineered by US scientists"
1986:
1740:
1683:
1030:
1005:
444:, fit into the gap between adjacent bases on a single strand and induce
3514:
3494:
3435:
3403:
3398:
3274:
751:
740:
705:
611:
607:
603:
167:
143:
83:
79:
71:
1647:
1630:
1484:
3430:
3393:
3289:
3284:
3234:
2643:
2618:
2514:
1924:
1783:
669:
383:
296:
210:
206:
158:
119:
2175:
62:
double helix and contribute to the folded structure of both DNA and
2048:"Scientists create first living organism containing artificial DNA"
949:"The total size of the human genome is very likely to be ~3,200 Mb"
3092:
1813:
Kimoto M, Kawai R, Mitsui T, Yokoyama S, Hirao I (February 2009).
815:
773:
728:
495:
194:
70:
patterns, "Watson–Crick" (or "Watson–Crick–Franklin") base pairs (
29:
2388:
Watson JD, Baker TA, Bell SP, Gann A, Levine M, Losick R (2004).
2078:"Scientists Add Letters to DNA's Alphabet, Raising Hope and Fear"
1004:
International Human Genome
Sequencing Consortium (October 2004).
275:
is more stable than DNA with low GC-content. Crucially, however,
811:
807:
673:
434:
154:
3349:
2908:
2524:
2472:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 10. pp. 295–317.
2437:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 10. pp. 269–294.
1702:"Scientists Create First Living Organism With 'Artificial' DNA"
1168:
Yakovchuk P, Protozanova E, Frank-Kamenetskii MD (2006-01-30).
138:
events that result in the nucleotide sequence of mRNA becoming
118:), where Watson–Crick base pairs (guanine–cytosine and adenine–
3154:
3072:
3037:
2992:
2975:
2613:
2608:
598:
520:
433:, which resembles thymine but can base-pair to guanine in its
304:
186:
63:
59:
2349:
Leontis NB, Westhof E (June 2003). "Analysis of RNA motifs".
1963:"A semi-synthetic organism with an expanded genetic alphabet"
527:
bp = base pair—one bp corresponds to approximately 3.4
508:
at bottom left) shows its length in terms of mega–base-pairs.
1631:"Artificial DNA Base Pairing Mediated by Diverse Metal Ions"
185:
equal to 1000 base pairs of DNA or RNA. The total number of
2520:
560:
and bases, kbp, Mbp, Gbp, etc. may be used for base pairs.
234:
221:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1467:
Yang Z, Chen F, Alvarado JB, Benner SA (September 2011).
535:) of length along the strand, and to roughly 618 or 643
2107:"Transient Hoogsteen base pairs in canonical duplex DNA"
1403:(Fifth ed.). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. p.
1006:"Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the human genome"
2402:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 10. Springer.
993:. National Human Genome Research Institute. 2024-08-24.
593:
An unnatural base pair (UBP) is a designed subunit (or
2392:(5th ed.). Pearson Benjamin Cummings: CSHL Press.
3930:
2299:"A Hoogsteen base pair embedded in undistorted B-DNA"
970:"The finished length of the human genome is 2.86 Gb"
472:
Mismatched base pairs can be generated by errors of
333:
genes — are comparatively GC-poor (for example, see
3829:
3747:
3700:
3652:
3604:
3593:
3541:
3470:
3461:
3384:
3260:
3210:
3153:
3108:
3036:
2991:
2974:
2943:
2863:
2762:
2713:
2657:
2596:
791:
Comparison of Hoogsteen to Watson–Crick base pairs.
394:
389:
373:
368:
1396:
1217:Trautner TA, Swartz MN, Kornberg A (March 1962).
94:nature of this based-paired structure provides a
1956:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1629:Takezawa Y, MĂĽller J, Shionoya M (2017-05-05).
429:chemistry. One common mutagenic base analog is
361:; thus, the bottom strand is written 3′ to 5′.
3452:
2470:Interplay between Metal Ions and Nucleic Acids
2435:Interplay between Metal Ions and Nucleic Acids
2400:Interplay between Metal Ions and Nucleic Acids
1298:"Strand discrimination in DNA mismatch repair"
548:Gb (= Gbp) = giga–base-pair = 1,000,000,000 bp
386:is substituted for thymine in the RNA strand:
3361:
2920:
2536:
847:List of Y-DNA single-nucleotide polymorphisms
8:
2100:
2098:
1438:"Life engineered with expanded genetic code"
701:and expanded six-letter "genetic alphabet".
1373:. Rarediseases.info.nih.gov. Archived from
637:In 1989 Steven Benner (then working at the
205:has been estimated to be as much as 4
46:) is a fundamental unit of double-stranded
3835:
3751:
3601:
3467:
3368:
3354:
3346:
2988:
2927:
2913:
2905:
2543:
2529:
2521:
2071:
2069:
545:Mb (= Mbp) = mega–base-pair = 1,000,000 bp
34:The chemical structure of DNA base-pairs
2517:tool for calculating melting temperatures
2398:Sigel A, Sigel H, Sigel RK, eds. (2012).
2322:
2273:
2164:Nature Structural & Molecular Biology
2138:
1994:
1887:
1838:
1646:
1605:
1595:
1541:
1492:
1321:
1244:
1234:
1193:
1029:
822:and during the charging of tRNAs by some
382:The corresponding RNA sequence, in which
1473:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1431:
1429:
1427:
58:. They form the building blocks of the
3937:
2876:List of genetics research organizations
1695:
1693:
867:
189:base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0
27:Two nucleobases bound by hydrogen bonds
2042:
2040:
552:For single-stranded DNA/RNA, units of
542:kb (= kbp) = kilo–base-pair = 1,000 bp
2351:Current Opinion in Structural Biology
2344:
2342:
2248:Garg A, Heinemann U (February 2018).
676:. More technically, these artificial
639:Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
452:compounds and are known or suspected
7:
126:. In addition, base-pairing between
972:. Strategicgenomics.com. 2006-06-12
814:at the third base position of many
1140:"The Biosphere: Diversity of Life"
916:DNA Conformation and Transcription
25:
3051:Micro
718:did not hamper the growth of the
181:(kb) is a unit of measurement in
3940:
3330:
3329:
2889:
2888:
802:The most common of these is the
784:
772:
238:
225:
142:into the amino acid sequence of
3006:precursor, heterogenous nuclear
1101:"Counting All the DNA on Earth"
193:10 with a weight of 50 billion
134:(mRNA) forms the basis for the
3136:Trans-acting small interfering
3100:Enhancer RNAs
3018:Transfer
403:Base analogs and intercalators
217:Hydrogen bonding and stability
1:
3023:Ribosomal
3001:Messenger
2390:Molecular Biology of the Gene
2363:10.1016/S0959-440X(03)00076-9
1347:Molecular Biology of the Cell
1144:Aspen Global Change Institute
875:Spencer M (10 January 1959).
539:for DNA and RNA respectively.
2835:Missing heritability problem
2478:10.1007/978-94-007-2172-2_11
2443:10.1007/978-94-007-2172-2_10
1314:10.1016/j.dnarep.2021.103161
1296:Putnam CD (September 2021).
1146:. Basalt, CO. Archived from
1067:10.1016/0092-8674(76)90043-X
476:and as intermediates during
365:A base-paired DNA sequence:
197:. In comparison, the total
3989:
3598:(Nucleoside monophosphate)
3202:Multicopy single-stranded
3046:Interferential
2513:—webserver version of the
1700:Callaway E (May 7, 2014).
852:Non-canonical base pairing
764:Non-canonical base pairing
761:
758:Non-canonical base pairing
662:Scripps Research Institute
574:
510:
440:Other chemicals, known as
406:
153:The size of an individual
3881:
3838:
3792:
3754:
3453:Unnatural base pair (UBP)
3325:
3116:Guide
2884:
2558:
2408:10.1007/978-94-007-2172-2
2076:Pollack A (May 7, 2014).
1371:"NIH ORDR – Glossary – C"
893:10.1107/S0365110X59000160
577:Artificial gene synthesis
571:Unnatural base pair (UBP)
3078:Small nuclear
2018:Sample I (May 7, 2014).
1436:Fikes BJ (May 8, 2014).
698:PCR amplification of DNA
478:homologous recombination
157:or an organism's entire
3831:Nucleoside triphosphate
3192:Genomic
2054:. Fox News. May 8, 2014
2052:The Wall Street Journal
1597:10.1073/pnas.1205176109
1442:San Diego Union Tribune
951:. Sandwalk.blogspot.com
947:Moran LA (2011-03-24).
924:10.1007/0-387-29148-2_2
733:nucleotide triphosphate
425:. This is due to their
66:. Dictated by specific
54:bound to each other by
3784:Xanthosine diphosphate
3748:Nucleoside diphosphate
3295:Artificial chromosomes
3083:Small nucleolar
2394:(See esp. ch. 6 and 9)
2303:Nucleic Acids Research
2266:10.1261/rna.064048.117
1868:Nucleic Acids Research
1819:Nucleic Acids Research
1522:Nucleic Acids Research
1399:Molecular Cell Biology
1174:Nucleic Acids Research
881:Acta Crystallographica
831:Hoogsteen base pairing
516:
35:
3088:Small Cajal Body RNAs
2871:List of genetic codes
1236:10.1073/pnas.48.3.449
585:Nucleic acid analogue
581:Expanded genetic code
511:Further information:
499:
409:Nucleic acid analogue
277:stacking interactions
253:base pair with three
136:molecular recognition
33:
3141:Subgenomic messenger
3056:Small interfering
3028:Transfer-messenger
2770:Behavioural genetics
1913:Nature Biotechnology
1729:Nature Biotechnology
806:that occurs between
684:, feature two fused
680:bearing hydrophobic
506:mitochondrial genome
446:frameshift mutations
326:Thermus thermophilus
3654:Deoxyribonucleotide
3543:Deoxyribonucleoside
3446:Pyrimidine analogue
2850:Population genomics
2840:Molecular evolution
2800:Genetic engineering
2219:10.1038/nature13502
2131:10.1038/nature09775
2123:2011Natur.470..498N
1987:10.1038/nature13314
1979:2014Natur.509..385M
1880:10.1093/nar/gkr1068
1741:10.1038/nbt0202-177
1684:10.1021/ja00203a067
1588:2012PNAS..10912005M
1582:(30): 12005–12010.
1534:10.1093/nar/gkr1068
1479:(38): 15105–15112.
1061:(4 Pt 1): 605–613.
1031:10.1038/nature03001
1022:2004Natur.431..931H
804:wobble base pairing
696:techniques, namely
666:Unnatural Base Pair
492:Length measurements
482:DNA mismatch repair
456:. Examples include
107:replicates DNA and
100:genetic information
88:nucleotide sequence
3968:Molecular genetics
3170:Chloroplast
3013:modified Messenger
2976:Ribonucleic acids
2810:Genetic monitoring
2315:10.1093/nar/gkf661
1831:10.1093/nar/gkn956
1186:10.1093/nar/gkj454
1105:The New York Times
918:. pp. 18–34.
628:Floyd E. Romesberg
589:Synthetic genomics
517:
395:UAGCUAACUCGAGAUCGC
390:AUCGAUUGAGCUCUAGCG
374:TAGCTAACTCGAGATCGC
369:ATCGATTGAGCTCTAGCG
323:organisms such as
209:(trillion tons of
50:consisting of two
36:
3928:
3927:
3924:
3923:
3825:
3824:
3743:
3742:
3702:Cyclic nucleotide
3589:
3588:
3343:
3342:
3220:Xeno
3182:Complementary
3155:Deoxyribonucleic
3149:
3148:
3126:Small hairpin
2902:
2901:
2825:He Jiankui affair
2815:Genetic genealogy
2805:Genetic diversity
2734:the British Isles
2639:Genetic variation
2487:978-94-007-2171-5
2452:978-94-007-2171-5
2417:978-9-4007-2171-5
2309:(23): 5244–5252.
2213:(7506): 480–481.
2170:(12): 1251–1252.
2117:(7335): 498–502.
1973:(7500): 385–388.
1708:. Huffington Post
1678:(21): 8322–8323.
1648:10.1246/cl.160985
1635:Chemistry Letters
1485:10.1021/ja204910n
1414:978-0-7167-4366-8
1356:978-0-8153-4432-2
1279:978-1-284-10449-3
1270:Lewin's genes XII
1016:(7011): 931–945.
933:978-0-387-25579-8
779:Wobble base pairs
731:that expresses a
668:(UBP) were named
624:Philippe Marliere
442:DNA intercalators
423:DNA transcription
280:processes of the
246:
245:
233:
232:
183:molecular biology
16:(Redirected from
3980:
3945:
3944:
3936:
3836:
3752:
3602:
3523:-Methyladenosine
3500:5-Methylcytidine
3468:
3370:
3363:
3356:
3347:
3333:
3332:
3310:Yeast
3131:Small temporal
3061:Piwi-interacting
2989:
2985:
2966:Deoxynucleotides
2929:
2922:
2915:
2906:
2892:
2891:
2855:Reverse genetics
2830:Medical genetics
2545:
2538:
2531:
2522:
2499:
2464:
2429:
2393:
2375:
2374:
2346:
2337:
2336:
2326:
2294:
2288:
2287:
2277:
2245:
2239:
2238:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2142:
2102:
2093:
2092:
2090:
2088:
2073:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2044:
2035:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2015:
2009:
2008:
1998:
1958:
1945:
1944:
1925:10.1038/nbt.2556
1908:
1902:
1901:
1891:
1874:(6): 2793–2806.
1859:
1853:
1852:
1842:
1810:
1804:
1803:
1784:10.1038/nmeth915
1767:
1761:
1760:
1724:
1718:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1697:
1688:
1687:
1672:J. Am. Chem. Soc
1667:
1661:
1660:
1650:
1626:
1620:
1619:
1609:
1599:
1567:
1556:
1555:
1545:
1528:(6): 2793–2806.
1513:
1507:
1506:
1496:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1444:. Archived from
1433:
1422:
1421:
1402:
1392:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1382:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1342:
1336:
1335:
1325:
1293:
1287:
1286:
1265:
1259:
1258:
1248:
1238:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1197:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1156:
1155:
1136:
1130:
1129:
1127:
1126:
1120:
1115:. Archived from
1099:(18 July 2015).
1093:
1087:
1086:
1050:
1044:
1043:
1033:
1001:
995:
994:
987:
981:
980:
978:
977:
966:
960:
959:
957:
956:
944:
938:
937:
911:
905:
904:
872:
857:Chargaff's rules
824:tRNA synthetases
788:
776:
620:Steven A. Benner
558:computer storage
458:ethidium bromide
396:
391:
375:
370:
309:wobble base pair
268:Hydrogen bonding
242:
235:
229:
222:
192:
68:hydrogen bonding
21:
3988:
3987:
3983:
3982:
3981:
3979:
3978:
3977:
3953:
3952:
3951:
3939:
3931:
3929:
3920:
3877:
3821:
3788:
3739:
3696:
3648:
3597:
3585:
3581:Deoxyxanthosine
3537:
3490:5-Methyluridine
3457:
3419:Purine analogue
3380:
3374:
3344:
3339:
3321:
3262:Cloning vectors
3256:
3242:Locked
3206:
3156:
3145:
3104:
3032:
2979:
2978:
2970:
2939:
2933:
2903:
2898:
2880:
2859:
2758:
2749:the Middle East
2715:Archaeogenetics
2709:
2653:
2592:
2554:
2549:
2507:
2502:
2488:
2467:
2453:
2432:
2418:
2397:
2387:
2383:
2381:Further reading
2378:
2348:
2347:
2340:
2296:
2295:
2291:
2247:
2246:
2242:
2204:
2203:
2199:
2176:10.1038/nsmb866
2161:
2160:
2156:
2104:
2103:
2096:
2086:
2084:
2075:
2074:
2067:
2057:
2055:
2046:
2045:
2038:
2028:
2026:
2017:
2016:
2012:
1960:
1959:
1948:
1910:
1909:
1905:
1861:
1860:
1856:
1812:
1811:
1807:
1769:
1768:
1764:
1726:
1725:
1721:
1711:
1709:
1699:
1698:
1691:
1669:
1668:
1664:
1628:
1627:
1623:
1569:
1568:
1559:
1515:
1514:
1510:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1451:
1449:
1435:
1434:
1425:
1415:
1394:
1393:
1389:
1380:
1378:
1369:
1368:
1364:
1357:
1344:
1343:
1339:
1295:
1294:
1290:
1280:
1267:
1266:
1262:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1153:
1151:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1124:
1122:
1095:
1094:
1090:
1052:
1051:
1047:
1003:
1002:
998:
989:
988:
984:
975:
973:
968:
967:
963:
954:
952:
946:
945:
941:
934:
913:
912:
908:
874:
873:
869:
865:
843:
796:
795:
794:
793:
792:
789:
781:
780:
777:
766:
760:
591:
573:
515:
509:
494:
486:gene conversion
474:DNA replication
470:
468:Mismatch repair
419:DNA replication
415:point mutations
411:
405:
351:
286:DNA replication
265:
264:
263:
219:
190:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3986:
3984:
3976:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3955:
3954:
3950:
3949:
3926:
3925:
3922:
3921:
3919:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3882:
3879:
3878:
3876:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3839:
3833:
3827:
3826:
3823:
3822:
3820:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3793:
3790:
3789:
3787:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3755:
3749:
3745:
3744:
3741:
3740:
3738:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3706:
3704:
3698:
3697:
3695:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3658:
3656:
3650:
3649:
3647:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3610:
3608:
3606:Ribonucleotide
3599:
3591:
3590:
3587:
3586:
3584:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3556:Deoxyguanosine
3553:
3551:Deoxyadenosine
3547:
3545:
3539:
3538:
3536:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3476:
3474:
3472:Ribonucleoside
3465:
3459:
3458:
3456:
3455:
3450:
3449:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3423:
3422:
3421:
3416:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3390:
3388:
3382:
3381:
3375:
3373:
3372:
3365:
3358:
3350:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3337:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3320:
3319:
3318:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3266:
3264:
3258:
3257:
3255:
3254:
3249:
3247:Peptide
3244:
3239:
3238:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3225:Glycol
3216:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3205:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3172:
3161:
3159:
3151:
3150:
3147:
3146:
3144:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3112:
3110:
3106:
3105:
3103:
3102:
3097:
3096:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3070:
3065:
3064:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3042:
3040:
3034:
3033:
3031:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3009:
3008:
2997:
2995:
2986:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2947:
2945:
2941:
2940:
2937:nucleic acids
2934:
2932:
2931:
2924:
2917:
2909:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2896:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2867:
2865:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2845:Plant genetics
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2785:Genome editing
2782:
2777:
2772:
2766:
2764:
2763:Related topics
2760:
2759:
2757:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2720:
2718:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2685:Immunogenetics
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2661:
2659:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2600:
2598:
2597:Key components
2594:
2593:
2591:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2559:
2556:
2555:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2540:
2533:
2525:
2519:
2518:
2506:
2505:External links
2503:
2501:
2500:
2486:
2465:
2451:
2430:
2416:
2395:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2376:
2357:(3): 300–308.
2338:
2289:
2260:(2): 209–218.
2240:
2197:
2154:
2094:
2082:New York Times
2065:
2036:
2010:
1946:
1919:(5): 453–457.
1903:
1854:
1805:
1778:(9): 729–735.
1772:Nature Methods
1762:
1735:(2): 177–182.
1719:
1689:
1662:
1641:(5): 622–633.
1621:
1557:
1508:
1459:
1423:
1413:
1387:
1362:
1355:
1337:
1288:
1278:
1260:
1229:(3): 449–455.
1209:
1180:(2): 564–574.
1160:
1131:
1088:
1045:
996:
982:
961:
939:
932:
906:
866:
864:
861:
860:
859:
854:
849:
842:
839:
829:Additionally,
790:
783:
782:
778:
771:
770:
769:
768:
767:
762:Main article:
759:
756:
686:aromatic rings
572:
569:
550:
549:
546:
543:
540:
493:
490:
469:
466:
407:Main article:
404:
401:
400:
399:
398:
397:
392:
379:
378:
377:
376:
371:
350:
347:
255:hydrogen bonds
248:
247:
244:
243:
231:
230:
220:
218:
215:
109:RNA polymerase
105:DNA polymerase
56:hydrogen bonds
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3985:
3974:
3973:Nucleic acids
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3960:
3958:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3934:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3883:
3880:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3840:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3828:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3794:
3791:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3756:
3753:
3750:
3746:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3707:
3705:
3703:
3699:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3657:
3655:
3651:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3611:
3609:
3607:
3603:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3571:Deoxycytidine
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3548:
3546:
3544:
3540:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3522:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3510:Pseudouridine
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3473:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3460:
3454:
3451:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3428:
3427:
3424:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3392:
3391:
3389:
3387:
3383:
3378:
3371:
3366:
3364:
3359:
3357:
3352:
3351:
3348:
3336:
3328:
3327:
3324:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3297:
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3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3259:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3230:Threose
3228:
3226:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3218:
3217:
3215:
3213:
3209:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3187:Deoxyribozyme
3185:
3183:
3180:
3176:
3175:Mitochondrial
3173:
3171:
3168:
3167:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3160:
3158:
3152:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
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3119:
3117:
3114:
3113:
3111:
3107:
3101:
3098:
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3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
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3079:
3076:
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3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3048:
3047:
3044:
3043:
3041:
3039:
3035:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3007:
3004:
3003:
3002:
2999:
2998:
2996:
2994:
2993:Translational
2990:
2987:
2983:
2977:
2973:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
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2938:
2930:
2925:
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2911:
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2907:
2895:
2887:
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2883:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2868:
2866:
2862:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
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2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
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2768:
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2761:
2755:
2752:
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2745:
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2737:
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2732:
2730:
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2722:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2712:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2662:
2660:
2656:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
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2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
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2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2601:
2599:
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2589:
2586:
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2579:
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2566:
2564:
2561:
2560:
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2553:
2546:
2541:
2539:
2534:
2532:
2527:
2526:
2523:
2516:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2504:
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2466:
2462:
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2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2385:
2380:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2334:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2316:
2312:
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2300:
2293:
2290:
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2276:
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2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2244:
2241:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2201:
2198:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2158:
2155:
2150:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2099:
2095:
2083:
2079:
2072:
2070:
2066:
2053:
2049:
2043:
2041:
2037:
2025:
2021:
2014:
2011:
2006:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1907:
1904:
1899:
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1890:
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1869:
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1846:
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1828:
1824:
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1816:
1809:
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1777:
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1754:
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1723:
1720:
1707:
1703:
1696:
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1603:
1598:
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1474:
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1463:
1460:
1448:on 9 May 2014
1447:
1443:
1439:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1400:
1391:
1388:
1377:on 2012-07-17
1376:
1372:
1366:
1363:
1358:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1338:
1333:
1329:
1324:
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1228:
1224:
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1213:
1210:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1164:
1161:
1150:on 2014-11-10
1149:
1145:
1141:
1135:
1132:
1121:on 2022-01-01
1119:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1092:
1089:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1049:
1046:
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1037:
1032:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1000:
997:
992:
986:
983:
971:
965:
962:
950:
943:
940:
935:
929:
925:
921:
917:
910:
907:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
871:
868:
862:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
844:
840:
838:
834:
832:
827:
825:
821:
820:transcription
817:
813:
809:
805:
800:
787:
775:
765:
757:
755:
753:
749:
744:
742:
738:
734:
730:
725:
721:
717:
713:
712:
707:
702:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
658:
656:
650:
648:
644:
640:
635:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
600:
596:
590:
586:
582:
578:
570:
568:
566:
561:
559:
555:
547:
544:
541:
538:
534:
530:
526:
525:
524:
522:
514:
507:
503:
498:
491:
489:
487:
483:
479:
475:
467:
465:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
438:
436:
432:
431:5-bromouracil
428:
424:
420:
416:
410:
402:
393:
388:
387:
385:
381:
380:
372:
367:
366:
364:
363:
362:
360:
356:
348:
346:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
327:
322:
317:
316:melting point
312:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
289:
287:
283:
282:central dogma
278:
274:
269:
260:
257:. Bottom, an
256:
252:
241:
237:
236:
228:
224:
223:
216:
214:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
169:
165:
160:
156:
151:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
132:messenger RNA
129:
125:
121:
117:
112:
110:
106:
101:
97:
93:
92:complementary
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
48:nucleic acids
45:
41:
32:
19:
3576:Deoxyinosine
3566:Deoxyuridine
3520:
3409:Hypoxanthine
3379:constituents
3377:Nucleic acid
3305:Bacterial
3280:Lambda phage
2944:Constituents
2795:Genetic code
2729:the Americas
2705:Quantitative
2675:Cytogenetics
2670:Conservation
2563:Introduction
2469:
2434:
2399:
2389:
2354:
2350:
2306:
2302:
2292:
2257:
2253:
2243:
2210:
2206:
2200:
2167:
2163:
2157:
2114:
2110:
2085:. Retrieved
2081:
2056:. Retrieved
2051:
2027:. Retrieved
2024:The Guardian
2023:
2013:
1970:
1966:
1916:
1912:
1906:
1871:
1867:
1857:
1822:
1818:
1808:
1775:
1771:
1765:
1732:
1728:
1722:
1710:. Retrieved
1705:
1675:
1671:
1665:
1638:
1634:
1624:
1579:
1575:
1525:
1521:
1511:
1476:
1472:
1462:
1450:. Retrieved
1446:the original
1441:
1418:
1398:
1390:
1379:. Retrieved
1375:the original
1365:
1346:
1340:
1305:
1301:
1291:
1283:
1269:
1263:
1226:
1222:
1212:
1177:
1173:
1163:
1152:. Retrieved
1148:the original
1143:
1134:
1123:. Retrieved
1118:the original
1107:. New York.
1104:
1091:
1058:
1054:
1048:
1013:
1009:
999:
985:
974:. Retrieved
964:
953:. Retrieved
942:
915:
909:
887:(1): 66–71.
884:
880:
870:
835:
828:
801:
797:
745:
736:
719:
716:transfection
709:
703:
693:
689:
665:
659:
654:
651:
646:
642:
636:
632:Ichiro Hirao
592:
562:
551:
518:
471:
450:polyaromatic
439:
412:
352:
324:
321:extremophile
313:
290:
266:
258:
250:
171:human genome
152:
148:genetic code
128:transfer RNA
116:transfer RNA
113:
98:copy of the
43:
39:
37:
3963:Nucleobases
3300:P1-derived
3068:Antisense
2961:Nucleotides
2956:Nucleosides
2951:Nucleobases
2775:Epigenetics
1706:Nature News
748:amino acids
682:nucleobases
678:nucleotides
610:) and G-C (
565:centimorgan
554:nucleotides
521:NA molecule
454:carcinogens
345:reactions.
331:transcribed
301:pyrimidines
293:nucleobases
291:The bigger
175:chromosomes
130:(tRNA) and
52:nucleobases
3957:Categories
3595:Nucleotide
3533:Wybutosine
3528:Xanthosine
3463:Nucleoside
3426:Pyrimidine
3386:Nucleobase
3252:Morpholino
3165:Organellar
3073:Processual
3038:Regulatory
2982:non-coding
2780:Geneticist
2754:South Asia
2700:Population
2680:Ecological
2649:Amino acid
2629:Nucleotide
2604:Chromosome
1825:(2): e14.
1381:2012-07-16
1308:: 103161.
1302:DNA Repair
1154:2015-07-19
1125:2015-07-18
976:2012-07-16
955:2012-07-16
863:References
729:algal gene
724:DNA repair
595:nucleobase
575:See also:
531:(340
500:Schematic
273:GC-content
140:translated
124:structures
3561:Thymidine
3485:Guanosine
3480:Adenosine
3212:Analogues
3197:Hachimoji
2980:(coding,
2935:Types of
2695:Molecular
2690:Microbial
2665:Classical
2235:205239383
1657:0366-7022
1113:0362-4331
901:0365-110X
513:Karyotype
502:karyogram
427:isosteric
203:biosphere
164:telomeres
96:redundant
40:base pair
18:Megabases
3725:c-di-AMP
3720:c-di-GMP
3505:Cytidine
3441:Cytosine
3414:Xanthine
3335:Category
3270:Phagemid
3121:Ribozyme
2894:Category
2820:Heredity
2790:Genomics
2634:Mutation
2624:Heredity
2588:Glossary
2578:Timeline
2552:Genetics
2496:22210344
2461:22210343
2426:92951134
2371:12831880
2333:12466549
2284:29122970
2227:24919145
2192:27022506
2184:15558050
2149:21270796
2005:24805238
1941:23329867
1933:23563318
1898:22121213
1849:19073696
1792:16929319
1757:22055476
1749:11821864
1616:22773812
1552:22121213
1503:21842904
1332:34171627
1255:13922323
1204:16449200
1083:31624366
1040:15496913
841:See also
752:proteins
694:in vitro
690:in vitro
655:in vitro
647:in vitro
643:in vitro
616:cytosine
462:acridine
349:Examples
335:TATA box
179:kilobase
146:via the
144:proteins
76:cytosine
3947:Biology
3515:Inosine
3495:Uridine
3436:Thymine
3404:Guanine
3399:Adenine
3275:Plasmid
2573:History
2568:Outline
2275:5769748
2140:3074620
2119:Bibcode
1996:4058825
1975:Bibcode
1889:3315302
1840:2632903
1800:6494156
1607:3409741
1584:Bibcode
1543:3315302
1494:3427765
1323:8785607
1195:1360284
1097:Nuwer R
1075:1034500
1018:Bibcode
818:during
741:plasmid
737:E. coli
720:E. coli
711:E. coli
706:plasmid
612:guanine
608:thymine
604:adenine
537:daltons
357:to the
339:primers
297:purines
249:Top, a
201:of the
168:haploid
166:). The
84:thymine
80:adenine
72:guanine
3933:Portal
3431:Uracil
3394:Purine
3290:Fosmid
3285:Cosmid
3235:Hexose
3157:acids
3109:Others
2739:Europe
2724:Africa
2658:Fields
2644:Allele
2619:Genome
2515:EMBOSS
2494:
2484:
2459:
2449:
2424:
2414:
2369:
2331:
2324:137974
2321:
2282:
2272:
2233:
2225:
2207:Nature
2190:
2182:
2147:
2137:
2111:Nature
2003:
1993:
1967:Nature
1939:
1931:
1896:
1886:
1847:
1837:
1798:
1790:
1755:
1747:
1655:
1614:
1604:
1550:
1540:
1501:
1491:
1411:
1353:
1330:
1320:
1276:
1253:
1246:220799
1243:
1202:
1192:
1111:
1081:
1073:
1038:
1010:Nature
930:
899:
816:codons
670:d5SICS
587:, and
437:form.
384:uracil
359:3′-end
355:5′-end
284:(e.g.
211:carbon
195:tonnes
159:genome
120:uracil
90:. The
3735:cGAMP
3730:cADPR
3315:Human
3093:Y RNA
2864:Lists
2744:Italy
2583:Index
2422:S2CID
2231:S2CID
2188:S2CID
2087:8 May
2058:8 May
2029:8 May
1937:S2CID
1796:S2CID
1753:S2CID
1712:8 May
1452:8 May
1079:S2CID
812:mRNAs
808:tRNAs
597:) of
417:) in
307:(see
3916:dXTP
3911:dITP
3906:dCTP
3901:dUTP
3896:dTTP
3891:dGTP
3886:dATP
3853:mUTP
3817:dCDP
3812:dUDP
3807:dTDP
3802:dGDP
3797:dADP
3769:mUDP
3715:cGMP
3710:cAMP
3692:dXMP
3687:dIMP
3682:dCMP
3677:dUMP
3672:dTMP
3667:dGMP
3662:dAMP
3624:mUMP
2492:PMID
2482:ISBN
2457:PMID
2447:ISBN
2412:ISBN
2367:PMID
2329:PMID
2280:PMID
2223:PMID
2180:PMID
2145:PMID
2089:2014
2060:2014
2031:2014
2001:PMID
1929:PMID
1894:PMID
1845:PMID
1788:PMID
1745:PMID
1714:2014
1653:ISSN
1612:PMID
1548:PMID
1499:PMID
1454:2014
1409:ISBN
1351:ISBN
1328:PMID
1274:ISBN
1251:PMID
1200:PMID
1109:ISSN
1071:PMID
1055:Cell
1036:PMID
928:ISBN
897:ISSN
810:and
674:dNaM
672:and
630:and
563:The
460:and
435:enol
421:and
341:for
199:mass
173:(23
155:gene
78:and
3873:XTP
3868:ITP
3863:CTP
3858:UTP
3848:GTP
3843:ATP
3779:CDP
3774:UDP
3764:GDP
3759:ADP
3644:XMP
3639:IMP
3634:CMP
3629:UMP
3619:GMP
3614:AMP
2614:RNA
2609:DNA
2511:DAN
2474:doi
2439:doi
2404:doi
2359:doi
2319:PMC
2311:doi
2270:PMC
2262:doi
2254:RNA
2215:doi
2211:510
2172:doi
2135:PMC
2127:doi
2115:470
1991:PMC
1983:doi
1971:509
1921:doi
1884:PMC
1876:doi
1835:PMC
1827:doi
1780:doi
1737:doi
1680:doi
1676:111
1643:doi
1602:PMC
1592:doi
1580:109
1538:PMC
1530:doi
1489:PMC
1481:doi
1477:133
1405:396
1318:PMC
1310:doi
1306:105
1241:PMC
1231:doi
1190:PMC
1182:doi
1063:doi
1026:doi
1014:431
920:doi
889:doi
599:DNA
343:PCR
311:).
305:RNA
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