Classical conditioning - Knowledge (XXG)

861:"Comparator" theories of conditioning are "performance based", that is, they stress what is going on at the time of the test. In particular, they look at all the stimuli that are present during testing and at how the associations acquired by these stimuli may interact. To oversimplify somewhat, comparator theories assume that during conditioning the subject acquires both CS-US and context-US associations. At the time of the test, these associations are compared, and a response to the CS occurs only if the CS-US association is stronger than the context-US association. After a CS and US are repeatedly paired in simple acquisition, the CS-US association is strong and the context-US association is relatively weak. This means that the CS elicits a strong CR. In "zero contingency" (see above), the conditioned response is weak or absent because the context-US association is about as strong as the CS-US association. Blocking and other more subtle phenomena can also be explained by comparator theories, though, again, they cannot explain everything. 914:

the CS and the US are in the A1 state at the same time, an association is learned between the two stimuli. This means that if, at a later time, the CS is presented ahead of the US, and some CS elements enter A1, these elements will activate some US elements. However, US elements activated indirectly in this way only get boosted to the A2 state. (This can be thought of the CS arousing a memory of the US, which will not be as strong as the real thing.) With repeated CS-US trials, more and more elements are associated, and more and more US elements go to A2 when the CS comes on. This gradually leaves fewer and fewer US elements that can enter A1 when the US itself appears. In consequence, learning slows down and approaches a limit. One might say that the US is "fully predicted" or "not surprising" because almost all of its elements can only enter A2 when the CS comes on, leaving few to form new associations.

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the nature of the US (e.g. its intensity). The amount of learning that happens during any single CS-US pairing depends on the difference between the total associative strengths of CS and other stimuli present in the situation (ΣV in the equation), and a maximum set by the US (λ in the equation). On the first pairing of the CS and US, this difference is large and the associative strength of the CS takes a big step up. As CS-US pairings accumulate, the US becomes more predictable, and the increase in associative strength on each trial becomes smaller and smaller. Finally, the difference between the associative strength of the CS (plus any that may accrue to other stimuli) and the maximum strength reaches zero. That is, the US is fully predicted, the associative strength of the CS stops growing, and conditioning is complete.

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animal neuroscience experiments, a CS for reward may trigger a more frenzied pulse of increased instrumental efforts to obtain that associated UCS reward in situations that purify the measurement of incentive salience, such as in Pavlovian-Instrumental Transfer (PIT) experiments ... Similarly, including a CS can often spur increased consumption of a reward UCS by rats or people, compared to consumption of the same UCS when CSs are absent ... Thus Pavlovian cues can elicit pulses of increased motivation to consume their UCS reward, whetting and intensifying the appetite. However, the motivation power is never simply in the cues themselves or their associations, since cue-triggered motivation can be easily modulated and reversed by drugs, hungers, satieties, etc., as discussed below.

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important part of our life that continuously influence and guide our actions. Hearing the sound of a horn makes us stop before we attempt to cross the street. Seeing an advertisement for fast food might make us hungry and lead us to seek out a specific type and source of food. In general, cues can both prompt us towards or stop us from engaging in a certain course of action. They can be adaptive (saving our life in crossing the street) or maladaptive, leading to suboptimal choices, e.g. making us eat when we are not really hungry (Colagiuri and Lovibond, 2015). In extreme cases they can even play a part in pathologies such as in addiction, where drug associated cues produce craving and provoke relapse (Belin et al., 2009).

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piece of dry bread, and dry bread is likely to work better than a piece of cardboard. A key idea behind the R–W model is that a CS signals or predicts the US. One might say that before conditioning, the subject is surprised by the US. However, after conditioning, the subject is no longer surprised, because the CS predicts the coming of the US. (The model can be described mathematically and that words like predict, surprise, and expect are only used to help explain the model.) Here the workings of the model are illustrated with brief accounts of acquisition, extinction, and blocking. The model also predicts a number of other phenomena, see main article on the model.

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is provided by assuming that a stimulus is internally represented by a collection of elements, each of which may change from one associative state to another. For example, the similarity of one stimulus to another may be represented by saying that the two stimuli share elements in common. These shared elements help to account for stimulus generalization and other phenomena that may depend upon generalization. Also, different elements within the same set may have different associations, and their activations and associations may change at different times and at different rates. This allows element-based models to handle some otherwise inexplicable results.

832:, the speed of conditioning depends on the amount of attention devoted to the CS, and this amount of attention depends in turn on how well the CS predicts the US. Pearce and Hall proposed a related model based on a different attentional principle Both models have been extensively tested, and neither explains all the experimental results. Consequently, various authors have attempted hybrid models that combine the two attentional processes. Pearce and Hall in 2010 integrated their attentional ideas and even suggested the possibility of incorporating the Rescorla-Wagner equation into an integrated model. 841:

experimental CS itself, because the room is also there between experimental trials, when the US is absent. The role of such context is illustrated by the fact that the dogs in Pavlov's experiment would sometimes start salivating as they approached the experimental apparatus, before they saw or heard any CS. Such so-called "context" stimuli are always present, and their influence helps to account for some otherwise puzzling experimental findings. The associative strength of context stimuli can be entered into the Rescorla-Wagner equation, and they play an important role in the

1041:. If so, a drug user may increase the amount of drug consumed in order to feel its effects, and end up taking very large amounts of the drug. In this case a dangerous overdose reaction may occur if the CS happens to be absent, so that the conditioned compensatory effect fails to occur. For example, if the drug has always been administered in the same room, the stimuli provided by that room may produce a conditioned compensatory effect; then an overdose reaction may happen if the drug is administered in a different location where the conditioned stimuli are absent. 764: 659:

theory of conditioning. A critical problem with the stimulus-substitution theory is that the CR and UR are not always the same. Pavlov himself observed that a dog's saliva produced as a CR differed in composition from that produced as a UR. The CR is sometimes even the opposite of the UR. For example: the unconditional response to electric shock is an increase in heart rate, whereas a CS that has been paired with the electric shock elicits a decrease in heart rate. (However, it has been proposed that only when the UR does not involve the

523:. Then, in a series of trials, the rat is exposed to a CS, a light or a noise, followed by the US, a mild electric shock. An association between the CS and US develops, and the rat slows or stops its lever pressing when the CS comes on. The rate of pressing during the CS measures the strength of classical conditioning; that is, the slower the rat presses, the stronger the association of the CS and the US. (Slow pressing indicates a "fear" conditioned response, and it is an example of a conditioned emotional response; see section below.) 772:

As a result of this "surprising" outcome, the associative strength of the CS takes a step down. Extinction is complete when the strength of the CS reaches zero; no US is predicted, and no US occurs. However, if that same CS is presented without the US but accompanied by a well-established conditioned inhibitor (CI), that is, a stimulus that predicts the absence of a US (in R-W terms, a stimulus with a negative associate strength) then R-W predicts that the CS will not undergo extinction (its V will not decrease in size).

425: 610: 1021:, intended to associate the feared stimuli with a response (relaxation) that is incompatible with anxiety Flooding is a form of desensitization that attempts to eliminate phobias and anxieties by repeated exposure to highly distressing stimuli until the lack of reinforcement of the anxiety response causes its extinction. "Flooding" usually involves actual exposure to the stimuli, whereas the term "implosion" refers to imagined exposure, but the two terms are sometimes used synonymously. 1050:

and they induce a state of hunger. An example of conditioned hunger is the "appetizer effect." Any signal that consistently precedes a meal, such as a clock indicating that it is time for dinner, can cause people to feel hungrier than before the signal. The lateral hypothalamus (LH) is involved in the initiation of eating. The nigrostriatal pathway, which includes the substantia nigra, the lateral hypothalamus, and the basal ganglia have been shown to be involved in hunger motivation.

1017:. Aversion therapy is a type of behavior therapy designed to make patients cease an undesirable habit by associating the habit with a strong unpleasant unconditioned stimulus. For example, a medication might be used to associate the taste of alcohol with stomach upset. Systematic desensitization is a treatment for phobias in which the patient is trained to relax while being exposed to progressively more anxiety-provoking stimuli (e.g. angry words). This is an example of 746:

the strengths of all stimuli present in the situation. λ is the maximum associative strength that a given US will support; its value is usually set to 1 on trials when the US is present, and 0 when the US is absent. α and β are constants related to the salience of the CS and the speed of learning for a given US. How the equation predicts various experimental results is explained in following sections. For further details, see the main article on the model.

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For example, sexual arousal has been conditioned in human subjects by pairing a stimulus like a picture of a jar of pennies with views of an erotic film clip. Similar experiments involving blue gourami fish and domesticated quail have shown that such conditioning can increase the number of offspring. These results suggest that conditioning techniques might help to increase fertility rates in infertile individuals and endangered species.

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followed by the US. Finally CS2 is tested and shown to produce no response because learning about CS2 was "blocked" by the initial learning about CS1. The R–W model explains this by saying that after the initial conditioning, CS1 fully predicts the US. Since there is no difference between what is predicted and what happens, no new learning happens on the additional trials with CS1+CS2, hence CS2 later yields no response.

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approach to prediction is suggested by models such as that proposed by Gallistel & Gibbon (2000, 2002). Here the response is not determined by associative strengths. Instead, the organism records the times of onset and offset of CSs and USs and uses these to calculate the probability that the US will follow the CS. A number of experiments have shown that humans and animals can learn to time events (see

1072:, disgust, nausea, anger, and sexual arousal. A familiar example is conditioned nausea, in which the CS is the sight or smell of a particular food that in the past has resulted in an unconditioned stomach upset. Similarly, when the CS is the sight of a dog and the US is the pain of being bitten, the result may be a conditioned fear of dogs. An example of conditioned emotional response is 196:

presented a stimulus (e.g. the sound of a metronome) and then gave the dog food; after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the stimulus. Pavlov concluded that if a particular stimulus in the dog's surroundings was present when the dog was given food then that stimulus could become associated with food and cause salivation on its own.

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projections are sufficient for delay conditioning, but in the case of trace conditioning, where the CS needs to be internally represented despite a lack of external stimulus, indirect pathways are necessary. The anterior cingulate is one candidate for intermediate trace conditioning, but the hippocampus may also play a major role. Presynaptic activation of

263:: In delay conditioning, the CS is presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the US. For example, if a person hears a buzzer for five seconds, during which time air is puffed into their eye, the person will blink. After several pairings of the buzzer and the puff, the person will blink at the sound of the buzzer alone. This is delay conditioning. 1148:. In a typical experiment, a rat is presented with sound-food pairings (classical conditioning). Separately, the rat learns to press a lever to get food (operant conditioning). Test sessions now show that the rat presses the lever faster in the presence of the sound than in silence, although the sound has never been associated with lever pressing. 4178: 171: 4166: 457:: Spontaneous recovery is defined as the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period. That is, if the CS is tested at a later time (for example an hour or a day) after extinction it will again elicit a CR. This renewed CR is usually much weaker than the CR observed prior to extinction. 1037:

other cases, the conditioned response is a compensatory reaction that tends to offset the effects of the drug. For example, if a drug causes the body to become less sensitive to pain, the compensatory conditioned reaction may be one that makes the user more sensitive to pain. This compensatory reaction may contribute to

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and there is a gradual increase in the conditioned response to the CS. This repeated number of trials increase the strength and/or frequency of the CR gradually. The speed of conditioning depends on a number of factors, such as the nature and strength of both the CS and the US, previous experience and the animal's

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by the sum of the associative strengths of all stimuli present in the conditioning situation. Learning is controlled by the difference between this total associative strength and the strength supported by the US. When this sum of strengths reaches a maximum set by the US, conditioning ends as just described.

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One of the main reasons for the importance of the R–W model is that it is relatively simple and makes clear predictions. Tests of these predictions have led to a number of important new findings and a considerably increased understanding of conditioning. Some new information has supported the theory,

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The R–W explanation of the blocking phenomenon illustrates one consequence of the assumption just stated. In blocking (see "phenomena" above), CS1 is paired with a US until conditioning is complete. Then on additional conditioning trials a second stimulus (CS2) appears together with CS1, and both are

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The associative process described by the R–W model also accounts for extinction (see "procedures" above). The extinction procedure starts with a positive associative strength of the CS, which means that the CS predicts that the US will occur. On an extinction trial the US fails to occur after the CS.

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In this model, the degree of learning is measured by how well the CS predicts the US, which is given by the "associative strength" of the CS. In the equation, V represents the current associative strength of the CS, and ∆V is the change in this strength that happens on a given trial. ΣV is the sum of

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During acquisition, the CS and US are paired as described above. The extent of conditioning may be tracked by test trials. In these test trials, the CS is presented alone and the CR is measured. A single CS-US pairing may suffice to yield a CR on a test, but usually a number of pairings are necessary

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In this procedure, the CS is paired with the US, but the US also occurs at other times. If this occurs, it is predicted that the US is likely to happen in the absence of the CS. In other words, the CS does not "predict" the US. In this case, conditioning fails and the CS does not come to elicit a CR.

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The example below shows the temporal conditioning, as US such as food to a hungry mouse is simply delivered on a regular time schedule such as every thirty seconds. After sufficient exposure the mouse will begin to salivate just before the food delivery. This then makes it temporal conditioning as it

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Backward conditioning occurs when a CS immediately follows a US. Unlike the usual conditioning procedure, in which the CS precedes the US, the conditioned response given to the CS tends to be inhibitory. This presumably happens because the CS serves as a signal that the US has ended, rather than as a

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As noted earlier, it is often thought that the conditioned response is a replica of the unconditioned response, but Pavlov noted that saliva produced by the CS differs in composition from that produced by the US. In fact, the CR may be any new response to the previously neutral CS that can be clearly

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response (e.g., salivation). After pairing is repeated the organism exhibits a conditioned response (CR) to the conditioned stimulus when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. (A conditioned response may occur after only one pairing.) Thus, unlike the UR, the CR is acquired through experience,

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is also necessary for conditioning related plasticity, and it may induce downstream synthesis of proteins necessary for this to occur. As NMDA receptors are only activated after an increase in presynaptic calcium(thereby releasing the Mg2+ block), they are a potential coincidence detector that could

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Fear and eyeblink conditioning involve generally non overlapping neural circuitry, but share molecular mechanisms. Fear conditioning occurs in the basolateral amygdala, which receives glutaminergic input directly from thalamic afferents, as well as indirectly from prefrontal projections. The direct

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The model can explain the findings that are accounted for by the Rescorla-Wagner model and a number of additional findings as well. For example, unlike most other models, SOP takes time into account. The rise and decay of element activation enables the model to explain time-dependent effects such as

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is said to occur if, after a particular CS has come to elicit a CR, a similar test stimulus is found to elicit the same CR. Usually the more similar the test stimulus is to the CS the stronger the CR will be to the test stimulus. Conversely, the more the test stimulus differs from the CS, the weaker

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In the extinction procedure, the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of a US. This is done after a CS has been conditioned by one of the methods above. When this is done, the CR frequency eventually returns to pre-training levels. However, extinction does not eliminate the effects of the prior

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In temporal conditioning, a US is presented at regular intervals, for instance every 10 minutes. Conditioning is said to have occurred when the CR tends to occur shortly before each US. This suggests that animals have a biological clock that can serve as a CS. This method has also been used to study

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Incentive salience or 'wanting' is a specific form of Pavlovian-related motivation for rewards mediated by mesocorticolimbic brain systems ...Incentive salience integrates two separate input factors: (1) current physiological neurobiological state; (2) previously learned associations about the

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This paper reviews one of the experimental paradigms used to study the effects of cues, the Pavlovian to Instrumental Transfer paradigm. In this paradigm, cues associated with rewards through Pavlovian conditioning alter motivation and choice of instrumental actions. ... Predictive cues are an

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Signals that consistently precede food intake can become conditioned stimuli for a set of bodily responses that prepares the body for food and digestion. These reflexive responses include the secretion of digestive juices into the stomach and the secretion of certain hormones into the blood stream,

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A stimulus that is present when a drug is administered or consumed may eventually evoke a conditioned physiological response that mimics the effect of the drug. This is sometimes the case with caffeine; habitual coffee drinkers may find that the smell of coffee gives them a feeling of alertness. In

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performed experiments that demonstrated "...discrete regions of the cerebellum and associated brainstem areas contain neurons that alter their activity during conditioning – these regions are critical for the acquisition and performance of this simple learning task. It appears that other regions of

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A number of other powerful models have appeared in recent years which incorporate element representations. These often include the assumption that associations involve a network of connections between "nodes" that represent stimuli, responses, and perhaps one or more "hidden" layers of intermediate

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The Rescorla-Wagner model treats a stimulus as a single entity, and it represents the associative strength of a stimulus with one number, with no record of how that number was reached. As noted above, this makes it hard for the model to account for a number of experimental results. More flexibility

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The most important and novel contribution of the R–W model is its assumption that the conditioning of a CS depends not just on that CS alone, and its relationship to the US, but also on all other stimuli present in the conditioning situation. In particular, the model states that the US is predicted

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Second-order or higher-order conditioning follow a two-step procedure. First a neutral stimulus ("CS1") comes to signal a US through forward conditioning. Then a second neutral stimulus ("CS2") is paired with the first (CS1) and comes to yield its own conditioned response. For example: A bell might

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Classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US). Usually, the conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound of a tuning fork), the unconditioned stimulus is biologically potent (e.g., the taste of food) and the unconditioned

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As an adaptive mechanism, emotional conditioning helps shield an individual from harm or prepare it for important biological events such as sexual activity. Thus, a stimulus that has occurred before sexual interaction comes to cause sexual arousal, which prepares the individual for sexual contact.

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Pavlov proposed that conditioning involved a connection between brain centers for conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. His physiological account of conditioning has been abandoned, but classical conditioning continues to be used to study the neural structures and functions that underlie learning

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When a stimulus first appears, some of its elements jump from inactivity I to primary activity A1. From the A1 state they gradually decay to A2, and finally back to I. Element activity can only change in this way; in particular, elements in A2 cannot go directly back to A1. If the elements of both

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To find out what has been learned, we must somehow measure behavior ("performance") in a test situation. However, as students know all too well, performance in a test situation is not always a good measure of what has been learned. As for conditioning, there is evidence that subjects in a blocking

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Latent inhibition might happen because a subject stops focusing on a CS that is seen frequently before it is paired with a US. In fact, changes in attention to the CS are at the heart of two prominent theories that try to cope with experimental results that give the R–W model difficulty. In one of

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The R–W model measures conditioning by assigning an "associative strength" to the CS and other local stimuli. Before a CS is conditioned it has an associative strength of zero. Pairing the CS and the US causes a gradual increase in the associative strength of the CS. This increase is determined by

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The Rescorla-Wagner model argues that there is a limit to the amount of conditioning that can occur in the pairing of two stimuli. One determinant of this limit is the nature of the US. For example: pairing a bell with a juicy steak is more likely to produce salivation than pairing the bell with a

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The Rescorla–Wagner (R–W) model is a relatively simple yet powerful model of conditioning. The model predicts a number of important phenomena, but it also fails in important ways, thus leading to a number of modifications and alternative models. However, because much of the theoretical research on

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A brief CS encounter (or brief UCS encounter) often primes a pulse of elevated motivation to obtain and consume more reward UCS. This is a signature feature of incentive salience. In daily life, the smell of food may make you suddenly feel hungry, when you hadn't felt that way a minute before. In

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As stated earlier, a key idea in conditioning is that the CS signals or predicts the US (see "zero contingency procedure" above). However, for example, the room in which conditioning takes place also "predicts" that the US may occur. Still, the room predicts with much less certainty than does the

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During simultaneous conditioning, the CS and US are presented and terminated at the same time. For example: If a person hears a bell and has air puffed into their eye at the same time, and repeated pairings like this led to the person blinking when they hear the bell despite the puff of air being

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published some related findings a year earlier. During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov developed a procedure that enabled him to study the digestive processes of animals over long periods of time. He redirected the animals' digestive fluids outside the body, where they

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Usually the conditioned response is similar to the unconditioned response, but sometimes it is quite different. For this and other reasons, most learning theorists suggest that the conditioned stimulus comes to signal or predict the unconditioned stimulus, and go on to analyse the consequences of

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A prominent example of the element approach is the "SOP" model of Wagner. The model has been elaborated in various ways since its introduction, and it can now account in principle for a very wide variety of experimental findings. The model represents any given stimulus with a large collection of

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According to Pavlov, conditioning does not involve the acquisition of any new behavior, but rather the tendency to respond in old ways to new stimuli. Thus, he theorized that the CS merely substitutes for the US in evoking the reflex response. This explanation is called the stimulus-substitution

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Pavlov noticed that his dogs began to salivate in the presence of the technician who normally fed them, rather than simply salivating in the presence of food. Pavlov called the dogs' anticipatory salivation "psychic secretion". Putting these informal observations to an experimental test, Pavlov

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An organism's need to predict future events is central to modern theories of conditioning. Most theories use associations between stimuli to take care of these predictions. For example: In the R–W model, the associative strength of a CS tells us how strongly that CS predicts a US. A different

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and the study of animal behavior. Classical conditioning has been applied in other areas as well. For example, it may affect the body's response to psychoactive drugs, the regulation of hunger, research on the neural basis of learning and memory, and in certain social phenomena such as the

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The R–W model reduces conditioning to the association of a CS and US, and measures this with a single number, the associative strength of the CS. A number of experimental findings indicate that more is learned than this. Among these are two phenomena described earlier in this article

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Experiments on theoretical issues in conditioning have mostly been done on vertebrates, especially rats and pigeons. However, conditioning has also been studied in invertebrates, and very important data on the neural basis of conditioning has come from experiments on the sea slug,

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This is the Rescorla-Wagner equation. It specifies the amount of learning that will occur on a single pairing of a conditioning stimulus (CS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US). The above equation is solved repeatedly to predict the course of learning over many such trials.

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CS+/US trials are continued, but these are interspersed with trials on which the CS+ is paired with a second CS, (the CS-) but not with the US (i.e. CS+/CS- trials). Typically, organisms show CRs on CS+/US trials, but stop responding on CS+/CS− trials.

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The SOP account of simple conditioning exemplifies some essentials of the SOP model. To begin with, the model assumes that the CS and US are each represented by a large group of elements. Each of these stimulus elements can be in one of three states:

394:– when there is a sudden appearance of the (CR) after extinction occurs – and other related phenomena (see "Recovery from extinction" below). These phenomena can be explained by postulating accumulation of inhibition when a weak stimulus is presented. 324:

be paired with food until the bell elicits salivation. If a light is then paired with the bell, then the light may come to elicit salivation as well. The bell is the CS1 and the food is the US. The light becomes the CS2 once it is paired with the CS1.

874:), and the Gallistel & Gibbon model yields very good quantitative fits to a variety of experimental data. However, recent studies have suggested that duration-based models cannot account for some empirical findings as well as associative models. 800:

but much has not, and it is generally agreed that the theory is, at best, too simple. However, no single model seems to account for all the phenomena that experiments have produced. Following are brief summaries of some related theoretical issues.

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Learning is fastest in forward conditioning. During forward conditioning, the onset of the CS precedes the onset of the US in order to signal that the US will follow. Two common forms of forward conditioning are delay and trace conditioning.

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the fact that conditioning is strongest when the CS comes just before the US, and that when the CS comes after the US ("backward conditioning") the result is often an inhibitory CS. Many other more subtle phenomena are explained as well.

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elements. The time of presentation of various stimuli, the state of their elements, and the interactions between the elements, all determine the course of associative processes and the behaviors observed during conditioning experiments.

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Several procedures lead to the recovery of a CR that had been first conditioned and then extinguished. This illustrates that the extinction procedure does not eliminate the effect of conditioning. These procedures are the following:

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provided a clear summary of this change in thinking, and its implications, in his 1988 article "Pavlovian conditioning: It's not what you think it is". Despite its widespread acceptance, Rescorla's thesis may not be defensible.

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Latent inhibition: If a subject is repeatedly exposed to the CS before conditioning starts, then conditioning takes longer. The R–W model cannot explain this because preexposure leaves the strength of the CS unchanged at

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when one stimulus ("CS1") elicits one CR and another stimulus ("CS2") elicits either another CR or no CR at all. This can be brought about by, for example, pairing CS1 with an effective US and presenting CS2 with no US.

162:: in classical conditioning, behaviors are modified through the association of stimuli as described above, whereas in operant conditioning behaviors are modified by the effect they produce (i.e., reward or punishment). 466:

Reinstatement: If the US used in conditioning is presented to a subject in the same place where conditioning and extinction occurred, but without the CS being present, the CS often elicits a response when it is tested

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linked to experience with the conditional relationship of CS and US. It was also thought that repeated pairings are necessary for conditioning to emerge, but many CRs can be learned with a single trial, especially in

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A separate test for each CS (CS1 and CS2) is performed. The blocking effect is observed in a lack of conditional response to CS2, suggesting that the first phase of training blocked the acquisition of the second CS.

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The CS- from phase 2 is paired with the US. If conditioned inhibition has occurred, the rate of acquisition to the previous CS− should be less than the rate of acquisition that would be found without the phase 2

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Recovery of responding after extinction: It appears that something remains after extinction has reduced associative strength to zero because several procedures cause responding to reappear without further

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Latent inhibition refers to the observation that it takes longer for a familiar stimulus to become a CS than it does for a novel stimulus to become a CS, when the stimulus is paired with an effective US.

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Renewal: Renewal is a reemergence of a conditioned response following extinction when an animal is returned to the environment (or similar environment) in which the conditioned response was acquired.

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The CS- from phase 2 is presented together with a new CS+ that was conditioned as in phase 1. Conditioned inhibition is found if the response is less to the CS+/CS- pair than it is to the CS+ alone.

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Pavlov reported many basic facts about conditioning; for example, he found that learning occurred most rapidly when the interval between the CS and the appearance of the US was relatively short.

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This is one of the most common ways to measure the strength of learning in classical conditioning. A typical example of this procedure is as follows: a rat first learns to press a lever through

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or conditional stimulus; because its effects depend on its association with food. Likewise, the responses of the dog follow the same conditioned-versus-unconditioned arrangement. The

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are now beginning to be understood. Though it is sometimes hard to distinguish classical conditioning from other forms of associative learning (e.g. instrumental learning and human

463:: If the CS is tested just after extinction and an intense but associatively neutral stimulus has occurred, there may be a temporary recovery of the conditioned response to the CS. 420:

If the CS is presented without the US, and this process is repeated often enough, the CS will eventually stop eliciting a CR. At this point the CR is said to be "extinguished."

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may be observed if a strong or unfamiliar stimulus is presented just before, or at the same time as, the CS. This causes a reduction in the conditioned response to the CS.

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the brain, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex, contribute to the conditioning process, especially when the demands of the task get more complex."

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primary activity (A1) - Roughly speaking, the stimulus is "attended to." (References to "attention" are intended only to aid understanding and are not part of the model.)

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Reacquisition: If the CS is again paired with the US, a CR is again acquired, but this second acquisition usually happens much faster than the first one.

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Pearce JM, Hall G (November 1980). "A model for Pavlovian learning: variations in the effectiveness of conditioned but not of unconditioned stimuli".

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Pavlovian-instrumental transfer is a phenomenon that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS, also known as a "cue") that has been associated with

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conditioning in the past 40 years has been instigated by this model or reactions to it, the R–W model deserves a brief description here.

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signal that the US is about to appear. For example, a puff of air directed at a person's eye could be followed by the sound of a buzzer.

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experiment do learn something about the "blocked" CS, but fail to show this learning because of the way that they are usually tested.

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Of the elements that represent a single stimulus at a given moment, some may be in state A1, some in state A2, and some in state I.

90:. However, classical conditioning can affect operant conditioning; classically conditioned stimuli can reinforce operant responses. 1427: 4327: 3225: 636:

experiments have also been used, and the strength of classical conditioning is often measured through its operant effects, as in

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Miller RR, Escobar M (August 2001). "Contrasting acquisition-focused and performance-focused models of acquired behavior".

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Miller R, Escobar M (2004-02-05). "Learning: Laws and Models of Basic Conditioning". In Pashler H, Gallistel R (eds.).

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rather than CS-US pairing is the key to conditioning – greatly influenced subsequent conditioning research and theory.

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Kirsch I, Lynn SJ, Vigorito M, Miller RR (April 2004). "The role of cognition in classical and operant conditioning".

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Wagner AR (1981). "SOP: A model of automatic memory processing in animal behavior.". In Spear NE, Miller RR (eds.).

1630: 170: 3887: 3812: 3645: 1220: 1215: 1010: 236: 3178: 672: 82:, Pavlov observed that the experimental dogs salivated when fed red meat. Pavlovian conditioning is distinct from 923: 318: 763: 56:(e.g. food, a puff of air on the eye, a potential rival) is paired with a neutral stimulus (e.g. the sound of a 3925: 3870: 3845: 3675: 3652: 3602: 3507: 1180: 958: 2439: 2029:

Mackintosh NJ (1975). "A theory of attention: Variations in the associability of stimuli with reinforcement".

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was the food because its effects did not depend on previous experience. The metronome's sound is originally a

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Golkar A, Bellander M, Öhman A (February 2013). "Temporal properties of fear extinction--does time matter?".

4268: 3612: 3378: 1668: 1210: 927: 384: 87: 1940:"A theory of Pavlovan conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement." 4273: 4208: 4019: 3979: 3880: 3849: 3487: 3275: 2167: 2038: 1497: 660: 122: 3004:"A theory of Pavlovian conditioning. Variations in effectiveness of reinforcement and non-reinforcement." 2101:

Gibbon J, Balsam P (1981). "Spreading association in time.". In Locurto CM, Terrace HS, Gibbon J (eds.).

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because it does not elicit salivation in the dogs. After conditioning, the metronome's sound becomes the

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recruits both NMDA receptor-dependent enhancement and NMDA receptor-dependent depression of the reflex"

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Chang RC, Stout S, Miller RR (January 2004). "Comparing excitatory backward and forward conditioning".

2767: 609: 101:), a number of observations differentiate them, especially the contingencies whereby learning occurs. 4347: 4278: 3918: 3902: 3781: 3539: 3492: 3482: 3270: 3218: 2952: 1360: 1175: 641: 633: 520: 454: 391: 152: 105: 83: 64:

refers to the process of an automatic, conditioned response that is paired with a specific stimulus.

3024:. Translated by Marguerite A. Biederman-Thorson (Second, completely revised ed.). Berlin etc.: 2172: 2043: 1973:. Vol. 3: Learning, Motivation & Emotion (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley. pp. 47–102. 1502: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4049: 3949: 3640: 3524: 3472: 3440: 3420: 1018: 829: 653: 435: 948:

and memory. Forms of classical conditioning that are used for this purpose include, among others,

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which was dominant in the mid-20th century and is still an important influence on the practice of

4146: 3969: 3914: 3907: 3875: 3776: 3771: 3723: 3701: 3670: 3497: 2840: 2805: 2610: 2133: 1908: 1731: 1170: 966: 144: 4131: 2503: 2497: 2472: 2466: 2152: 1948: 1881:"Extinction of Pavlovian conditioning: The influence of trial number and reinforcement history" 1482: 1155:, a procedure which enhances operant discrimination by pairing stimuli with specific outcomes. 30:"Pavlov's dog" and "Pavlovian" redirect here. For the Pavlovian Upper Paleolithic culture, see 4352: 4201: 4182: 4170: 4141: 3989: 3860: 3835: 3791: 3718: 3696: 3597: 3534: 3502: 3477: 3445: 3430: 3340: 3310: 3248: 3113: 3072: 3053: 3029: 2978: 2927: 2887: 2832: 2791: 2728: 2675: 2602: 2560: 2507: 2476: 2400: 2349: 2332:

Fanselow MS, Poulos AM (February 2005). "The neuroscience of mammalian associative learning".

2301: 2272: 2249: 2185: 2083: 2011: 1974: 1900: 1859: 1813: 1769: 1723: 1564: 1515: 1396: 1378: 1327: 1302: 1274: 1063: 949: 505: 232: 31: 3188: 3173: 2941:"Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex" 1708:

The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. B, Comparative and Physiological Psychology

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Papini MR, Bitterman ME (July 1990). "The role of contingency in classical conditioning".

991:. STDP constrains LTP to situations where the CS predicts the US, and LTD to the reverse. 781: 577: 246:

Diagram representing forward conditioning. The time interval increases from left to right.

242: 2956: 1994:

Miller RR, Barnet RC, Grahame NJ (May 1995). "Assessment of the Rescorla-Wagner model".

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and its signal transduction pathway are necessary for conditioning related plasticity.

293: 188: 2782:. Vol. 2. Translated by Ludmila Aksenova; translation edited by H. C. Creighton. 1265:

Rehman, Ibraheem; Mahabadi, Navid; Sanvictores, Terrence; Rehman, Chaudhry I. (2023),

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Tarantola, Tor; Kumaran, Dharshan; Dayan, Peter; De Martino, Benedetto (2017-10-10).

1230: 1130: 979: 632:. Most relevant experiments have used the classical conditioning procedure, although 460: 117: 2844: 2819:

Dayan P, Kakade S, Montague PR (November 2000). "Learning and selective attention".

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The influence of classical conditioning can be seen in emotional responses such as

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interconnections. Such models make contact with a current explosion of research on

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The best-known and most thorough early work on classical conditioning was done by

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Mind in evolution; an East-West synthesis of learned behavior and cognition

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with dogs, and published the experimental results in 1897. In the study of

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the CR will be, or the more it will differ from that previously observed.

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A CS (CS+) is paired with a US until asymptotic CR levels are reached.

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absent, this demonstrates that simultaneous conditioning has occurred.

2854:"Differential classical conditioning of the gill-withdrawal reflex in 2964: 2783: 2245: 2052: 1809: 1185: 1069: 903:

secondary activity (A2) - The stimulus is "peripherally attended to."

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Schmidt RF (1989). "Behavior Memory (Learning by Conditioning)". In

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Pavlovian-instrumental transfer is suggested to play a role in the

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would appear that the mouse is conditioned to the passage of time.

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The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Operant and Classical Conditioning

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Theoretical issues and alternatives to the Rescorla–Wagner model

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Classical conditioning is a basic behavioral mechanism, and its

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Cartoni E, Puglisi-Allegra S, Baldassarre G (November 2013).

2502:. New Jersey, United States: Pearson Education Inc. pp. 2471:. New Jersey, United States: Pearson Education Inc. pp. 1880: 2578:

Geurts DE, Huys QJ, den Ouden HE, Cools R (September 2013).

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response (UR) to the unconditioned stimulus is an unlearned

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Scholarpedia Computational models of classical conditioning

52:) is a behavioral procedure in which a biologically potent 1791:"Pavlovian conditioning and its proper control procedures" 1005:

Some therapies associated with classical conditioning are

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Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior

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Comparing the associate strength by R-W model in Learning

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This form of classical conditioning involves two phases.

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is the response to the conditioned stimulus, whereas the

1483:"Pavlovian conditioning. It's not what you think it is" 1110: 3143:

Classical conditioning II: current research and theory

2644:"Appetitive Pavlovian-instrumental Transfer: A review" 2642:

Cartoni E, Balleine B, Baldassarre G (December 2016).

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Classical Conditioning II: Current Theory and Research

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state. The process slows down as it nears completion.

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Abnormal Psychology and Life: A Dimensional Approach

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Abnormal Psychology and Life: A Dimensional Approach

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Information processing in animals: Memory mechanisms

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First published in Russian as «Физиология человека»

1458: 1456: 1454: 1452: 1450: 1448: 1446: 1444: 1024:Conditioning therapies usually take less time than 3140: 3105: 3069:A Neuroscientist's Guide to Classical Conditioning 3002: 1938: 731: 531:Typically, three phases of conditioning are used. 108:, classical conditioning became the foundation of 906:inactive (I) – The stimulus is "not attended to." 2369:"A history of spike-timing-dependent plasticity" 2219:The Symbolic Foundations of Conditioned Behavior 1843: 1841: 1326:. Malden. MA: John Wiley & Sons. p. 3. 2418: 2416: 2414: 1607:Learning and Behavior: A Contemporary Synthesis 1476: 1474: 1322:McSweeney, Frances K.; Murphy, Eric S. (2014). 1273:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, 3108:Hilgard and Marquis' Conditioning and learning 2852:Jami SA, Wright WG, Glanzman DL (March 2007). 1759: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1751: 1749: 1747: 1745: 1600: 1598: 4209: 3219: 2105:. New York: Academic Press. pp. 219–235. 1701: 1699: 1596: 1594: 1592: 1590: 1588: 1586: 1584: 1582: 1580: 1578: 598:A compound CS (CS1+CS2) is paired with a US. 297:Classical conditioning procedures and effects 74:studied classical conditioning with detailed 8: 1971:Stevens' Handbook of Experimental Psychology 1073: 564:Retardation test for conditioned inhibition: 3350:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two 2367:Markram H, Gerstner W, Sjöström PJ (2011). 2118:Current Directions in Psychological Science 956:, and the foot contraction conditioning of 224:corresponds to the unconditioned stimulus. 139:and it is also less permanent than the UR. 4216: 4202: 4194: 3939: 3288: 3226: 3212: 3204: 1964: 1962: 1960: 1958: 1191:Measures of conditioned emotional response 558:Summation test for conditioned inhibition: 313:Second-order and higher-order conditioning 174:Ivan Pavlov research on dog's reflex setup 3071:. Springer Science & Business Media. 2972: 2951:(3052). Translated by Anrep GV: 662–664. 2881: 2722: 2669: 2659: 2554: 2544: 2394: 2384: 2271:. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. pp. 5–47. 2171: 2042: 1618: 1616: 1501: 1390: 1372: 694: 2294:"Neural Basis of Classical Conditioning" 1609:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer. 1467:(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 1297:Coon, Dennis; Mitterer, John O. (2008). 169: 2298:Encyclopedia of Behavioral Neuroscience 1947:. New York: Appleton-Century. pp. 1676:Psychology: A Student Friendly Approach 1257: 3086:Medin DL, Ross BH, Markman AB (2009). 2803: 2648:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2346:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070213 1887:. SQAB 2016: Persistence and Relapse. 1652:Medin DL, Ross BH, Markmen AB (2009). 390:conditioning. This is demonstrated by 3112:. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. 2151:Gallistel CR, Gibbon J (April 2000). 7: 3011:. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. 2738:reward cue, or Pavlovian CS ... 2703:The European Journal of Neuroscience 2533:Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 2499:Psychology: The Science of Behaviour 2468:Psychology: The Science of Behaviour 2300:. Academic Press. pp. 313–319. 151:Classical conditioning differs from 3189:Scholarpedia Classical conditioning 2740:Cue-triggered 'wanting' for the UCS 2103:Autoshaping and conditioning theory 1201:Placebo (origins of technical term) 943:Neural basis of learning and memory 634:instrumental (operant) conditioning 3007:. In Black A, Prokasky WF (eds.). 2446:from the original on 24 March 2012 2373:Frontiers in Synaptic Neuroscience 1943:. In Black AH, Prokasy WF (eds.). 1879:Chan CK, Harris JA (August 2017). 1465:Cognition, Evolution, and Behavior 1140:via classical conditioning alters 720: 696: 663:are the CR and the UR opposites.) 640:(see Phenomena section above) and 25: 3631:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm 2587:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 1416:"What Is a Conditioned Response?" 1301:. Cengage Learning. p. 220. 1241:Conditioned compensatory response 1226:Quantitative analysis of behavior 989:spike timing dependent plasticity 4176: 4164: 2715:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.07990.x 1629:. New York: Dover Publications. 1097: 608: 590:A CS (CS1) is paired with a US. 423: 358: 327: 305: 281: 3104:Hilgard ER, Marquis DG (1961). 3001:Rescorla RA, Wagner AR (1972). 2989:from the original on 2020-09-21 2898:from the original on 2015-09-23 2661:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.09.020 2624:from the original on 2019-05-01 2314:from the original on 2021-08-30 2199:from the original on 2015-05-05 1937:Rescorla RA, Wagner AR (1972). 1919:from the original on 2021-06-27 1827:from the original on 2014-04-07 1685:from the original on 2012-04-16 1633:from the original on 2020-09-21 1529:from the original on 2014-06-11 1430:from the original on 2013-01-21 1196:Pavlovian-instrumental transfer 1090:Pavlovian-instrumental transfer 1084:Pavlovian-instrumental transfer 978:and postsynaptic activation of 349:timing ability in animals (see 3841:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model 3714:Memory and social interactions 2912:Journal of Clinical Psychology 2874:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2581-06.2007 2217:Gallistel R, Gibbon J (2002). 2153:"Time, rate, and conditioning" 1060:Conditioned emotional response 1054:Conditioned emotional response 726: 711: 1: 3139:Black AH, Prokasy WF (1972). 823:Role of attention in learning 36:Pavlov's dog (disambiguation) 3550:Retrieval-induced forgetting 3179:Resources in other libraries 3043:wiki book on Animal behavior 1897:10.1016/j.beproc.2017.04.017 1789:Rescorla RA (January 1967). 1153:differential outcomes effect 965:The American neuroscientist 648:Stimulus-substitution theory 204:In Pavlov's experiments the 27:Aspect of learning procedure 3134:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 3095:Kearney CA (January 2011). 2862:The Journal of Neuroscience 2780:Human Physiology, in 2 vols 2423:Kearney CA (January 2011). 2334:Annual Review of Psychology 2182:10.1037/0033-295X.107.2.289 2008:10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.363 1854:. Catherine Woods. p. 222:unconditioned response (UR) 206:unconditioned stimulus (US) 4369: 3888:Levels of Processing model 3813:World Memory Championships 3646:Lost in the mall technique 3493:dissociative (psychogenic) 3147:. Appleton-Century-Crofts. 2810:: CS1 maint: postscript ( 2697:Berridge KC (April 2012). 2080:10.1037/0033-295X.87.6.532 1561:10.1037/0033-295X.97.3.396 1512:10.1037/0003-066X.43.3.151 1481:Rescorla RA (March 1988). 1374:10.1038/s41467-017-00826-8 1221:Psychological manipulation 1216:Proboscis extension reflex 1087: 1057: 1011:systematic desensitization 998: 779: 670: 651: 575: 503: 382: 366:Zero contingency procedure 316: 29: 4159: 3174:Resources in your library 3052:. Belmont/CA: Wadsworth. 3009:Classical Conditioning II 1768:. Belmont/CA: Wadsworth. 1720:10.1080/02724990344000015 1490:The American Psychologist 1032:Conditioned drug response 849:theories outlined below. 319:Second-order conditioning 289:Simultaneous conditioning 218:conditioned response (CR) 214:conditioned stimulus (CS) 4233:Non-associative learning 3926:The Seven Sins of Memory 3871:Intermediate-term memory 3676:Indirect tests of memory 3653:Recovered-memory therapy 3603:Misattribution of memory 3199:Scholarpedia Hermissenda 2546:10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00153 2386:10.3389/fnsyn.2011.00004 1463:Shettleworth SJ (2010). 1267:"Classical Conditioning" 1181:Little Albert experiment 959:Hermissenda crassicornis 442:Recovery from extinction 178: 4328:Experimental psychology 3613:Source-monitoring error 2440:"Behavior Modification" 2234:Behavioral Neuroscience 2130:10.1111/1467-8721.00135 1246:Stimulus–response model 1211:Preparedness (learning) 1074:conditioned suppression 928:artificial intelligence 638:conditioned suppression 515:Conditioned suppression 493:stimulus discrimination 487:Stimulus discrimination 480:Stimulus generalization 475:Stimulus generalization 385:Extinction (psychology) 46:respondent conditioning 4274:Observational learning 4264:Classical conditioning 4020:George Armitage Miller 3980:Patricia Goldman-Rakic 3165:Classical conditioning 2221:. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 1996:Psychological Bulletin 768: 750:R–W model: acquisition 733: 661:central nervous system 527:Conditioned inhibition 298: 247: 175: 123:false consensus effect 62:classical conditioning 50:Pavlovian conditioning 42:Classical conditioning 34:. For other uses, see 4338:History of psychology 4183:Philosophy portal 4171:Psychology portal 4035:Henry L. Roediger III 3636:False memory syndrome 3608:Misinformation effect 3588:Imagination inflation 3050:Learning and Behavior 2442:. Wellness.com, Inc. 2292:Steinmetz JE (2010). 1885:Behavioural Processes 1766:Learning and Behavior 1353:Nature Communications 1142:motivational salience 1058:Further information: 954:eyeblink conditioning 766: 759:R–W model: extinction 734: 673:Rescorla–Wagner model 667:Rescorla–Wagner model 652:Further information: 344:Temporal conditioning 335:Backward conditioning 296: 275:conditioning interval 245: 210:neutral stimulus (NS) 173: 118:psychological therapy 4279:Operant conditioning 4256:Associative learning 3540:Motivated forgetting 3088:Cognitive Psychology 3028:. pp. 155–156. 2823:. 3 Suppl: 1218–23. 2790:. pp. 330–357. 2599:10.1162/jocn_a_00425 2160:Psychological Review 2068:Psychological Review 2031:Psychological Review 1848:Schacter DL (2009). 1798:Psychological Review 1654:Cognitive Psychology 1626:Conditional Reflexes 1549:Psychological Review 1176:Learned helplessness 995:Behavioral therapies 878:Element-based models 865:Computational theory 693: 521:operant conditioning 455:Spontaneous recovery 392:spontaneous recovery 371:This finding – that 251:Forward conditioning 106:operant conditioning 84:operant conditioning 4333:Behavioral concepts 4307:Inductive reasoning 4302:Deductive reasoning 4297:Abductive reasoning 4050:Arthur P. Shimamura 3950:Richard C. Atkinson 3767:Effects of exercise 3641:Memory implantation 3525:Interference theory 3441:Selective retention 3421:Meaningful learning 2957:1928Natur.121..662D 2821:Nature Neuroscience 2496:Carlson NR (2010). 2465:Carlson NR (2010). 1623:Pavlov IP (1960) . 1365:2017NatCo...8..817T 1019:counterconditioning 830:Nicholas Mackintosh 828:these, proposed by 804:Content of learning 776:R–W model: blocking 654:Counterconditioning 436:External inhibition 431:External inhibition 192:could be measured. 18:Mental conditioning 4343:Russian inventions 4147:Andriy Slyusarchuk 3970:Hermann Ebbinghaus 3876:Involuntary memory 3777:Memory improvement 3762:Effects of alcohol 3724:Transactive memory 3702:Politics of memory 3671:Exceptional memory 3020:, Thews G (eds.). 2939:Pavlov IP (1927). 2924:10.1002/jclp.10251 1678:. pp. 97–98. 1669:"Unit 6: Learning" 1605:Bouton ME (2016). 1171:Conversion therapy 1109:. You can help by 1045:Conditioned hunger 967:David A. McCormick 769: 729: 398:Phenomena observed 299: 267:Trace conditioning 261:Delay conditioning 248: 176: 145:Robert A. Rescorla 99:associative memory 4315: 4314: 4191: 4190: 4155: 4154: 4142:Cosmos Rossellius 3990:Marcia K. Johnson 3861:Exosomatic memory 3846:Context-dependent 3836:Absent-mindedness 3719:Memory conformity 3697:Collective memory 3598:Memory conformity 3535:Memory inhibition 3454: 3453: 3446:Tip of the tongue 3160:Library resources 3067:Moore JW (2012). 3059:978-0-495-09564-4 3048:Chance P (2008). 3035:978-3-540-19432-3 2797:978-5-03-000776-2 2513:978-0-205-64524-4 2482:978-0-205-64524-4 2438:McGee DL (2006). 2278:978-1-317-75770-2 1980:978-0-471-65016-4 1865:978-1-4292-3719-2 1775:978-0-495-09564-4 1764:Chance P (2008). 1667:Brink TL (2008). 1656:. pp. 50–53. 1127: 1126: 1064:Fear conditioning 950:fear conditioning 853:Comparator theory 506:Latent inhibition 500:Latent inhibition 233:fear conditioning 179:Pavlov's research 95:neural substrates 32:Pavlovian culture 16:(Redirected from 4360: 4289:Insight learning 4218: 4211: 4204: 4195: 4181: 4180: 4179: 4169: 4168: 4167: 4122:Jonathan Hancock 4075:Robert Stickgold 4045:Richard Shiffrin 4000:Elizabeth Loftus 3940: 3856:Childhood memory 3663:Research methods 3545:Repressed memory 3520:Forgetting curve 3508:transient global 3379:Autobiographical 3289: 3228: 3221: 3214: 3205: 3148: 3146: 3135: 3123: 3111: 3100: 3091: 3082: 3063: 3039: 3022:Human Physiology 3012: 3006: 2997: 2995: 2994: 2976: 2965:10.1038/121662a0 2935: 2906: 2904: 2903: 2885: 2848: 2815: 2809: 2801: 2746: 2745: 2726: 2694: 2688: 2687: 2673: 2663: 2639: 2633: 2632: 2630: 2629: 2623: 2584: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2558: 2548: 2524: 2518: 2517: 2493: 2487: 2486: 2462: 2456: 2455: 2453: 2451: 2435: 2429: 2428: 2420: 2409: 2408: 2398: 2388: 2364: 2358: 2357: 2329: 2323: 2322: 2320: 2319: 2289: 2283: 2282: 2264: 2258: 2257: 2246:10.1037/a0030892 2229: 2223: 2222: 2214: 2208: 2207: 2205: 2204: 2198: 2175: 2157: 2148: 2142: 2141: 2113: 2107: 2106: 2098: 2092: 2091: 2063: 2057: 2056: 2053:10.1037/h0076778 2046: 2026: 2020: 2019: 1991: 1985: 1984: 1966: 1953: 1952: 1942: 1934: 1928: 1927: 1925: 1924: 1876: 1870: 1869: 1845: 1836: 1835: 1833: 1832: 1826: 1810:10.1037/h0024109 1795: 1786: 1780: 1779: 1761: 1740: 1739: 1703: 1694: 1693: 1691: 1690: 1684: 1673: 1664: 1658: 1657: 1649: 1643: 1641: 1639: 1638: 1620: 1611: 1610: 1602: 1573: 1572: 1544: 1538: 1537: 1535: 1534: 1528: 1505: 1487: 1478: 1469: 1468: 1460: 1439: 1438: 1436: 1435: 1411: 1405: 1404: 1394: 1376: 1344: 1338: 1337: 1319: 1313: 1312: 1294: 1288: 1287: 1286: 1285: 1262: 1236:Stimulus control 1166:Carrot and stick 1146:operant behavior 1122: 1119: 1101: 1094: 1007:aversion therapy 1001:Behavior therapy 976:protein kinase A 932:machine learning 872:Animal cognition 738: 736: 735: 730: 612: 427: 362: 351:Animal cognition 331: 309: 285: 58:musical triangle 21: 4368: 4367: 4363: 4362: 4361: 4359: 4358: 4357: 4318: 4317: 4316: 4311: 4283: 4250: 4227: 4222: 4192: 4187: 4177: 4175: 4165: 4163: 4151: 4132:Dominic O'Brien 4110: 4079: 4060:Susumu Tonegawa 4040:Daniel Schacter 4015:Eleanor Maguire 4005:Geoffrey Loftus 3960:Stephen J. Ceci 3955:Robert A. Bjork 3931: 3850:state-dependent 3824: 3796: 3728: 3709:Cultural memory 3685: 3681:Memory disorder 3657: 3617: 3559: 3450: 3360: 3335: 3280: 3237: 3232: 3185: 3184: 3183: 3168: 3167: 3163: 3156: 3151: 3138: 3126: 3120: 3103: 3094: 3085: 3079: 3066: 3060: 3047: 3036: 3026:Springer-Verlag 3015: 3000: 2992: 2990: 2938: 2909: 2901: 2899: 2851: 2818: 2802: 2798: 2758: 2754: 2752:Further reading 2749: 2741: 2739: 2696: 2695: 2691: 2641: 2640: 2636: 2627: 2625: 2621: 2582: 2577: 2576: 2572: 2526: 2525: 2521: 2514: 2495: 2494: 2490: 2483: 2464: 2463: 2459: 2449: 2447: 2437: 2436: 2432: 2422: 2421: 2412: 2366: 2365: 2361: 2331: 2330: 2326: 2317: 2315: 2308: 2291: 2290: 2286: 2279: 2266: 2265: 2261: 2231: 2230: 2226: 2216: 2215: 2211: 2202: 2200: 2196: 2173:10.1.1.407.1802 2155: 2150: 2149: 2145: 2115: 2114: 2110: 2100: 2099: 2095: 2065: 2064: 2060: 2044:10.1.1.556.1688 2028: 2027: 2023: 1993: 1992: 1988: 1981: 1968: 1967: 1956: 1936: 1935: 1931: 1922: 1920: 1891:(Pt 1): 19–25. 1878: 1877: 1873: 1866: 1847: 1846: 1839: 1830: 1828: 1824: 1793: 1788: 1787: 1783: 1776: 1763: 1762: 1743: 1705: 1704: 1697: 1688: 1686: 1682: 1671: 1666: 1665: 1661: 1651: 1650: 1646: 1636: 1634: 1622: 1621: 1614: 1604: 1603: 1576: 1546: 1545: 1541: 1532: 1530: 1526: 1503:10.1.1.156.1219 1485: 1480: 1479: 1472: 1462: 1461: 1442: 1433: 1431: 1420:About.com Guide 1413: 1412: 1408: 1346: 1345: 1341: 1334: 1321: 1320: 1316: 1309: 1296: 1295: 1291: 1283: 1281: 1264: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1250: 1161: 1123: 1117: 1114: 1107:needs expansion 1092: 1086: 1066: 1056: 1047: 1034: 1003: 997: 945: 940: 924:neural networks 889: 880: 867: 855: 838: 825: 806: 797: 784: 782:Blocking effect 778: 761: 752: 691: 690: 688: 675: 669: 656: 650: 623: 618: 604: 596: 588: 580: 578:Blocking effect 574: 554: 545: 537: 529: 517: 508: 502: 489: 477: 444: 433: 418: 405: 400: 387: 381: 368: 346: 337: 321: 315: 291: 253: 202: 181: 168: 131: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4366: 4364: 4356: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4335: 4330: 4320: 4319: 4313: 4312: 4310: 4309: 4304: 4299: 4293: 4291: 4285: 4284: 4282: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4266: 4260: 4258: 4252: 4251: 4249: 4248: 4243: 4237: 4235: 4229: 4228: 4223: 4221: 4220: 4213: 4206: 4198: 4189: 4188: 4186: 4185: 4173: 4160: 4157: 4156: 4153: 4152: 4150: 4149: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4127:Paul R. McHugh 4124: 4118: 4116: 4112: 4111: 4109: 4108: 4103: 4098: 4093: 4087: 4085: 4081: 4080: 4078: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3987: 3985:Ivan Izquierdo 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3946: 3944: 3937: 3933: 3932: 3930: 3929: 3922: 3912: 3911: 3910: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3884: 3883: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3853: 3843: 3838: 3832: 3830: 3826: 3825: 3823: 3822: 3817: 3816: 3815: 3804: 3802: 3798: 3797: 3795: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3758: 3757: 3752: 3742: 3736: 3734: 3730: 3729: 3727: 3726: 3721: 3716: 3711: 3706: 3705: 3704: 3693: 3691: 3687: 3686: 3684: 3683: 3678: 3673: 3667: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3656: 3655: 3650: 3649: 3648: 3638: 3633: 3627: 3625: 3619: 3618: 3616: 3615: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3585: 3583:Hindsight bias 3580: 3575: 3569: 3567: 3561: 3560: 3558: 3557: 3552: 3547: 3542: 3537: 3532: 3530:Memory erasure 3527: 3522: 3517: 3512: 3511: 3510: 3505: 3500: 3495: 3490: 3488:post-traumatic 3485: 3480: 3475: 3464: 3462: 3456: 3455: 3452: 3451: 3449: 3448: 3443: 3438: 3433: 3428: 3426:Personal-event 3423: 3418: 3413: 3408: 3403: 3402: 3401: 3396: 3391: 3381: 3376: 3370: 3368: 3362: 3361: 3359: 3358: 3356:Working memory 3353: 3345: 3343: 3337: 3336: 3334: 3333: 3328: 3326:Motor learning 3323: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3303: 3297: 3295: 3286: 3282: 3281: 3279: 3278: 3273: 3268: 3262: 3261: 3256: 3251: 3245: 3243: 3242:Basic concepts 3239: 3238: 3233: 3231: 3230: 3223: 3216: 3208: 3202: 3201: 3196: 3191: 3182: 3181: 3176: 3170: 3169: 3158: 3157: 3155: 3154:External links 3152: 3150: 3149: 3136: 3124: 3118: 3101: 3092: 3083: 3078:978-0387988054 3077: 3064: 3058: 3045: 3040: 3034: 3013: 2998: 2936: 2907: 2868:(12): 3064–8. 2849: 2816: 2796: 2788:Mir Publishers 2755: 2753: 2750: 2748: 2747: 2709:(7): 1124–43. 2689: 2634: 2593:(9): 1428–41. 2570: 2519: 2512: 2488: 2481: 2457: 2430: 2410: 2359: 2324: 2306: 2284: 2277: 2259: 2224: 2209: 2166:(2): 289–344. 2143: 2108: 2093: 2058: 2037:(4): 276–298. 2021: 1986: 1979: 1954: 1929: 1871: 1864: 1837: 1781: 1774: 1741: 1695: 1659: 1644: 1612: 1574: 1555:(3): 396–403. 1539: 1470: 1440: 1406: 1339: 1332: 1314: 1307: 1289: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1206:Poison shyness 1203: 1198: 1193: 1188: 1183: 1178: 1173: 1168: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1125: 1124: 1104: 1102: 1088:Main article: 1085: 1082: 1055: 1052: 1046: 1043: 1039:drug tolerance 1033: 1030: 999:Main article: 996: 993: 980:NMDA receptors 944: 941: 939: 936: 908: 907: 904: 901: 888: 885: 879: 876: 866: 863: 854: 851: 837: 834: 824: 821: 820: 819: 815: 805: 802: 796: 793: 780:Main article: 777: 774: 760: 757: 751: 748: 728: 725: 722: 719: 716: 713: 710: 707: 704: 701: 698: 687: 684: 671:Main article: 668: 665: 649: 646: 622: 619: 617: 614: 603: 600: 595: 592: 587: 584: 576:Main article: 573: 570: 569: 568: 561: 553: 550: 544: 541: 536: 533: 528: 525: 516: 513: 504:Main article: 501: 498: 488: 485: 476: 473: 472: 471: 468: 464: 458: 452: 443: 440: 432: 429: 417: 414: 404: 401: 399: 396: 383:Main article: 380: 377: 367: 364: 345: 342: 336: 333: 317:Main article: 314: 311: 290: 287: 279: 278: 271:trace interval 264: 252: 249: 237:taste aversion 201: 198: 189:Edwin Twitmyer 180: 177: 167: 164: 130: 127: 112:, a school of 104:Together with 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4365: 4354: 4351: 4349: 4346: 4344: 4341: 4339: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4325: 4323: 4308: 4305: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4294: 4292: 4290: 4286: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4272: 4270: 4267: 4265: 4262: 4261: 4259: 4257: 4253: 4247: 4246:Sensitization 4244: 4242: 4239: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4219: 4214: 4212: 4207: 4205: 4200: 4199: 4196: 4184: 4174: 4172: 4162: 4161: 4158: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4119: 4117: 4113: 4107: 4106:Clive Wearing 4104: 4102: 4099: 4097: 4094: 4092: 4089: 4088: 4086: 4082: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4070:Endel Tulving 4068: 4066: 4065:Anne Treisman 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4025:Brenda Milner 4023: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4010:James McGaugh 4008: 4006: 4003: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3993: 3991: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3975:Sigmund Freud 3973: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3947: 3945: 3941: 3938: 3934: 3928: 3927: 3923: 3920: 3919:retrospective 3916: 3913: 3909: 3906: 3905: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3898:Muscle memory 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3882: 3879: 3878: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3851: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3833: 3831: 3827: 3821: 3818: 3814: 3811: 3810: 3809: 3806: 3805: 3803: 3799: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3773: 3770: 3768: 3765: 3763: 3760: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3747: 3746: 3745:Art of memory 3743: 3741: 3738: 3737: 3735: 3731: 3725: 3722: 3720: 3717: 3715: 3712: 3710: 3707: 3703: 3700: 3699: 3698: 3695: 3694: 3692: 3688: 3682: 3679: 3677: 3674: 3672: 3669: 3668: 3666: 3664: 3660: 3654: 3651: 3647: 3644: 3643: 3642: 3639: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3628: 3626: 3624: 3620: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3606: 3604: 3601: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3593:Memory biases 3591: 3589: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3573:Confabulation 3571: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3565:Memory errors 3562: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3543: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3533: 3531: 3528: 3526: 3523: 3521: 3518: 3516: 3513: 3509: 3506: 3504: 3501: 3499: 3496: 3494: 3491: 3489: 3486: 3484: 3483:post-hypnotic 3481: 3479: 3476: 3474: 3471: 3470: 3469: 3466: 3465: 3463: 3461: 3457: 3447: 3444: 3442: 3439: 3437: 3436:Rote learning 3434: 3432: 3429: 3427: 3424: 3422: 3419: 3417: 3414: 3412: 3411:Hyperthymesia 3409: 3407: 3404: 3400: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3390: 3387: 3386: 3385: 3382: 3380: 3377: 3375: 3374:Active recall 3372: 3371: 3369: 3367: 3363: 3357: 3354: 3351: 3347: 3346: 3344: 3342: 3338: 3332: 3329: 3327: 3324: 3322: 3319: 3317: 3314: 3312: 3309: 3307: 3304: 3302: 3299: 3298: 3296: 3294: 3290: 3287: 3283: 3277: 3274: 3272: 3271:Consolidation 3269: 3267: 3264: 3263: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3246: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3229: 3224: 3222: 3217: 3215: 3210: 3209: 3206: 3200: 3197: 3195: 3192: 3190: 3187: 3186: 3180: 3177: 3175: 3172: 3171: 3166: 3161: 3153: 3145: 3144: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3119:9780390510730 3115: 3110: 3109: 3102: 3098: 3093: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3074: 3070: 3065: 3061: 3055: 3051: 3046: 3044: 3041: 3037: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3014: 3010: 3005: 2999: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2975: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2918:(4): 369–92. 2917: 2913: 2908: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2884: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2857: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2829:10.1038/81504 2826: 2822: 2817: 2813: 2807: 2799: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2756: 2751: 2744: 2734: 2730: 2725: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2693: 2690: 2686: 2681: 2677: 2672: 2667: 2662: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2638: 2635: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2581: 2574: 2571: 2566: 2562: 2557: 2552: 2547: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2523: 2520: 2515: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2500: 2492: 2489: 2484: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2469: 2461: 2458: 2445: 2441: 2434: 2431: 2426: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2411: 2406: 2402: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2363: 2360: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2340:(1): 207–34. 2339: 2335: 2328: 2325: 2313: 2309: 2307:9780080453965 2303: 2299: 2295: 2288: 2285: 2280: 2274: 2270: 2263: 2260: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2228: 2225: 2220: 2213: 2210: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2174: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2154: 2147: 2144: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2112: 2109: 2104: 2097: 2094: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2074:(6): 532–52. 2073: 2069: 2062: 2059: 2054: 2050: 2045: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2025: 2022: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2002:(3): 363–86. 2001: 1997: 1990: 1987: 1982: 1976: 1972: 1965: 1963: 1961: 1959: 1955: 1950: 1946: 1941: 1933: 1930: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1875: 1872: 1867: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1852: 1844: 1842: 1838: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1792: 1785: 1782: 1777: 1771: 1767: 1760: 1758: 1756: 1754: 1752: 1750: 1748: 1746: 1742: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1702: 1700: 1696: 1681: 1677: 1670: 1663: 1660: 1655: 1648: 1645: 1632: 1628: 1627: 1619: 1617: 1613: 1608: 1601: 1599: 1597: 1595: 1593: 1591: 1589: 1587: 1585: 1583: 1581: 1579: 1575: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1543: 1540: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1504: 1499: 1496:(3): 151–60. 1495: 1491: 1484: 1477: 1475: 1471: 1466: 1459: 1457: 1455: 1453: 1451: 1449: 1447: 1445: 1441: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1410: 1407: 1402: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1343: 1340: 1335: 1333:9781118468180 1329: 1325: 1318: 1315: 1310: 1308:9780495599111 1304: 1300: 1293: 1290: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1261: 1258: 1252: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1231:Reward system 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1182: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1163: 1158: 1156: 1154: 1149: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1136: 1132: 1121: 1112: 1108: 1105:This section 1103: 1100: 1096: 1095: 1091: 1083: 1081: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1065: 1061: 1053: 1051: 1044: 1042: 1040: 1031: 1029: 1027: 1022: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1002: 994: 992: 990: 985: 981: 977: 971: 968: 963: 961: 960: 955: 951: 942: 937: 935: 933: 929: 925: 919: 915: 911: 905: 902: 899: 898: 897: 893: 887:The SOP model 886: 884: 877: 875: 873: 864: 862: 859: 852: 850: 848: 847:computational 844: 835: 833: 831: 822: 818:conditioning. 816: 812: 811: 810: 803: 801: 794: 792: 788: 783: 775: 773: 765: 758: 756: 749: 747: 743: 739: 723: 717: 714: 708: 705: 702: 699: 685: 683: 679: 674: 666: 664: 662: 655: 647: 645: 643: 639: 635: 631: 630: 620: 615: 613: 611: 601: 599: 593: 591: 585: 583: 579: 571: 565: 562: 559: 556: 555: 551: 549: 542: 540: 534: 532: 526: 524: 522: 514: 512: 507: 499: 497: 494: 491:One observes 486: 484: 481: 474: 469: 465: 462: 461:Disinhibition 459: 456: 453: 450: 449: 448: 441: 439: 437: 430: 428: 426: 421: 415: 413: 411: 402: 397: 395: 393: 386: 378: 376: 374: 365: 363: 361: 354: 352: 343: 341: 334: 332: 330: 325: 320: 312: 310: 308: 303: 295: 288: 286: 284: 276: 272: 268: 265: 262: 259: 258: 257: 250: 244: 240: 238: 234: 228: 225: 223: 219: 215: 211: 207: 199: 197: 193: 190: 186: 172: 165: 163: 161: 159: 155: 149: 146: 143:this signal. 140: 137: 128: 126: 124: 119: 115: 111: 107: 102: 100: 96: 91: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 70: 65: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 37: 33: 19: 4263: 4137:Ben Pridmore 4055:Larry Squire 3965:Susan Clancy 3924: 3808:Memory sport 3733:Other topics 3623:False memory 3578:Cryptomnesia 3555:Weapon focus 3515:Decay theory 3276:Neuroanatomy 3235:Human memory 3164: 3142: 3131: 3107: 3096: 3087: 3068: 3049: 3021: 3008: 2991:. 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