349:
spots on the surface of pods can be seen only after 40 to 80 days post infection; thus infected pods during the early stages appear asymptomatic, which is one factor that has led to the unwitting movement of infected pods by humans. One week after the appearance of dark lesions, the characteristic white powder of the disease appears on the surface of infected pods. The powdery appearance is due to the presence of millions of conidia that can reach up to 44 million per square centimeter with a mature infected pod capable of producing more than seven billion spores.
435:
46:
426:, 2005), in many cases resulting in abandonment of the entire plantation by farmers. The presence of the disease was confirmed in El Salvador and Bolivia in 2009 and 2012, respectively, where the fungus probably arrived some years before. This invasive behavior of the disease represents a threat to cacao growers from Brazil and also to areas outside of Latin America where the majority of the world cocoa is currently produced.
1031:
1019:
33:
348:
land on the surface of the pods. Then they germinate and penetrate the pod directly through the epidermis, causing internal damage in the early stages of the disease. The initiation of the necrotrophic phase begins when asexual spore masses are produced on the pod surface. External symptoms like dark
457:
In
Colombia, specifically in the Santander region, average annual losses are of 40% of dry cacao equivalent to US$ 33 million due to the disease. In Ecuador, during the 1918 outbreak, cacao exportation was reduced from 46,000 to 37,700 tons due to frosty pod rot. In Peru, around 16,500 ha of cacao
227:
sp.) constitute the cacao disease trilogy. It causes serious losses in southwestern parts of South
America; spores are dry and powdery and are spread easily by water movement, wind, or movement of pods; disease spread is highest during periods of high rainfall.
382:, a disease with symptomology that matches that of frosty pod rot was reported; therefore, many researchers believe the first known report of frosty pod rot of cacao was in Colombia around one century before the famous outbreak in Ecuador.
470:, the first report of the disease was in April 2005, and by 2007, frosty pod rot had invaded all cacao areas of the state, becoming the major limiting factor to cacao production there, as well as in Nicaragua and Honduras.
867:
Phillips-Mora, Wilbert; Arciniegas-Leal, A.; Mata-Quiros, A.; Motamayor-Arias, J.C. (2013). "Catalogue of cacao clones selected by CATIE for commercial plantings; CATIE Technical series. Technical manual #105/".
370:
in 1918, the most famous outbreak in the history of the disease was reported, causing abandonment of most of the cacao plantations over a period of three years. However, an earlier disease in
821:
Origin, Biogeography, Genetic
Diversity and Taxonomic Affinities of the Cacao Fungus Moniliophthora roreri as determined using Molecular, Phytopathological and Morpho-Physiological Evidence
1276:
1157:
585:
Aime, M.C.; Phillips-Mora, W. (2005). "The causal agents of witches' and frosty pod rot of cacao (chocolate, Theobroma cacao) form a new lineage of
Marasmiaceae".
1196:
1317:
257:. Later on it was noticed that the septa of the pathogen contained dolipores and septal pore caps, which are features of basidiomycete fungi. Consequently,
558:
Evans, HC; Satlpers, JA; Samson, RA; Benny, GL (1978). "On the taxonomy of
Monilia roreri, an iomportant pathogen of Theobroma cacao in South America".
1263:
1131:
919:
Krauss, U; Soberanis, W (2001). "Rehabilitation of diseased cacao fields in Peru through shade regulation and timing of biocontrol measures".
514:
344:
is a hemibiotrophic fungus that forms swollen irregularly shaped intercellular mycelia. The infection process starts when conidia of
1332:
723:
Estudio del mecanismo de penetración y del proceso de infección de
Monilia roreri Cif. Par. en frutos de cacao (Theobroma cacao)
45:
1170:
1012:
1201:
458:
were abandoned mostly as a result of frosty pod rot, with a final result that Peru went from being an exporter of
1327:
1023:
836:"Biodiversity and biogeography of the cacao (Theobroma cacao) pathogen Moniliophthora roreri in tropical America"
253:
Cif., due to the absence of a recognizable fruiting body or a sexual stage and other similarities to species of
641:"Moniliophthora perniciosa, the causal agent of witches' broom disease of cacao: what's new from this old foe?"
434:
1337:
1322:
1047:
985:
Ramirez-Gonzalez, S.I. (2008). "Moniliasis a challenge to achieve the sustainability of cacao in Mexico".
877:
736:
Bailey, Bryan A.; Evans, Harry C.; Phillips‐Mora, Wilbert; Ali, Shahin S.; Meinhardt, Lyndel W. (2018).
140:
956:"First report of Moniliophthora roreri causing frosty pod rot (moniliasis disease) of cocoa in México"
487:
Fulton, RH (1989). "The Cacao
Disease Trilogy : Black Pod, Monilia Pod Rot, and Witches' Broom".
1255:
1123:
1092:
379:
936:
162:
40:
639:
Meinhardt, Lyndel; Rincones, J; Bailey, B; Aime, MC; Griffith, GW; Zhang, D; Pereira, G (2008).
1281:
1162:
1035:
1209:
1079:
775:
757:
670:
602:
220:
967:
928:
847:
795:
Proceedings of the Eighth
International Cocoa Research Conference, 1981, Cartagena, Colombia
765:
749:
701:
660:
652:
594:
567:
539:
Ciferri, R.; Parodi, E. (1933). "Descrizione del fungo che causa la "Moniliasi" del cacao".
496:
367:
890:
203:
1214:
1250:
1118:
770:
737:
665:
640:
201:
fungus that causes frosty pod rot disease, one of the most serious problems for cacao (
117:
87:
1311:
971:
852:
835:
656:
326:
212:
198:
77:
1084:
940:
330:
274:
107:
706:
689:
265:(Cif.) H.C. Evans, Stalpers, Samson & Benny. More recently, it was shown that
1241:
1007:
954:
Phillips-Mora, W; Coutiño, A; Ortiz, C; López, A; Hernández, J; Aime, MC (2006).
620:
Evans, HC (1986). "A reassessment of
Moniliophthora (Monilia) pod rot of cocoa".
1144:
598:
1070:
1030:
905:
932:
449:
445:
403:
322:
246:
97:
761:
1105:
459:
439:
415:
407:
395:
290:
208:
57:
1175:
779:
674:
606:
398:. However, during the last 50 years, the disease has spread southward into
1018:
402:(in 1988), and northward into all cacao-growing areas of Central America (
1289:
1235:
1183:
1064:
411:
371:
688:
Griffith, GW; Nicholson, J; Nenninger, A; Birch, RN; Hedger, JN (2003).
1268:
1136:
500:
467:
363:
1149:
753:
1294:
1188:
463:
423:
419:
67:
1041:
571:
515:"Cocoa (cacao) - Diseases and Pests, Description, Uses, Propagation"
1110:
955:
797:. Cartagena, Colombia: Cocoa Producer’s Alliance. pp. 425–428.
215:. This disease and together with witches’ broom disease (caused by
32:
433:
1097:
399:
1045:
834:
Phillips-Mora, Wilbert; Aime, M. C.; Wilkinson, M. J. (2007).
690:"Witches' broom and frosty pods: two major pathogens of cacao"
738:"Moniliophthora roreri, causal agent of cacao frosty pod rot"
725:. Guayaquil, Ecuador: Universidad de Guayaquil. p. 54p.
904:
156:(Cif.) H.C. Evans, Stalpers, Samson & Benny, (1978)
321:
has a much broader host range, including hosts in the
814:
812:
810:
808:
806:
804:
362:
The first verified report of frosty pod rot is from
1225:
1054:
313:, as well as plants in the closely related genus
269:and the causal agent of witches’ broom of cacao,
273:, are sister species within the mushroom family
394:was confined to Ecuador, Colombia, and western
261:was reclassified and given its current name,
8:
366:in 1895; some years later in the region of
1042:
31:
20:
851:
823:. Reading, UK: The University of Reading.
769:
705:
664:
479:
886:
875:
7:
337:Infection process and symptomatology
1318:Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
317:. In contrast, the sister species
14:
1029:
1017:
972:10.1111/j.1365-3059.2006.01418.x
853:10.1111/j.1365-3059.2007.01646.x
657:10.1111/j.1364-3703.2008.00496.x
44:
819:Phillips-Mora, Wilbert (2003).
245:was described as an anamorphic
541:Phytopathologische Zeitschrift
438:A warning sign at the port of
430:Economic impact of the disease
1:
707:10.1080/0028825x.2003.9512860
694:New Zealand Journal of Botany
374:may have also been caused by
599:10.3852/mycologia.97.5.1012
378:. In 1817 in the region of
1354:
560:Canadian Journal of Botany
742:Molecular Plant Pathology
645:Molecular Plant Pathology
293:that belong to the genus
175:(Cif.) H.C. Evans, (2002)
168:
161:
146:
139:
41:Scientific classification
39:
30:
23:
1013:USDA ARS Fungal Database
452:fruits to other regions"
1333:Fungi described in 1933
933:10.1023/A:1013376504268
622:Cocoa Growers' Bulletin
885:Cite journal requires
462:to a net importer. In
454:
353:History of the disease
1056:Moniliophthora roreri
793:Campuzano, H (1971).
437:
263:Moniliophthora roreri
194:Moniliophthora roreri
150:Moniliophthora roreri
25:Moniliophthora roreri
1026:at Wikimedia Commons
921:Agroforestry Systems
519:www.plantvillage.org
442:, Brazil announcing
380:Santander, Colombia
721:Suárez, C (1971).
501:10.1094/pd-73-0601
466:, in the state of
455:
444:"Do not transport
390:Before the 1950s,
289:are plants in the
285:The main hosts of
172:Crinipellis roreri
1305:
1304:
1210:Open Tree of Life
1048:Taxon identifiers
1022:Media related to
754:10.1111/mpp.12648
566:(20): 2528–2532.
190:
189:
184:
176:
16:Species of fungus
1345:
1328:Tricholomataceae
1298:
1297:
1285:
1284:
1272:
1271:
1259:
1258:
1246:
1245:
1244:
1218:
1217:
1205:
1204:
1192:
1191:
1179:
1178:
1166:
1165:
1153:
1152:
1140:
1139:
1127:
1126:
1114:
1113:
1101:
1100:
1088:
1087:
1075:
1074:
1073:
1043:
1034:Data related to
1033:
1021:
995:
994:
982:
976:
975:
951:
945:
944:
916:
910:
909:
901:
895:
894:
888:
883:
881:
873:
864:
858:
857:
855:
831:
825:
824:
816:
799:
798:
790:
784:
783:
773:
748:(7): 1580–1594.
733:
727:
726:
718:
712:
711:
709:
685:
679:
678:
668:
636:
630:
629:
617:
611:
610:
593:(5): 1012–1022.
582:
576:
575:
555:
549:
548:
536:
530:
529:
527:
525:
511:
505:
504:
484:
368:Quevedo, Ecuador
211:) production in
207:— the source of
182:
174:
152:
49:
48:
35:
21:
1353:
1352:
1348:
1347:
1346:
1344:
1343:
1342:
1308:
1307:
1306:
1301:
1293:
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1280:
1275:
1267:
1262:
1254:
1249:
1240:
1239:
1234:
1221:
1213:
1208:
1200:
1195:
1187:
1182:
1174:
1169:
1161:
1156:
1148:
1143:
1135:
1130:
1122:
1117:
1109:
1104:
1096:
1091:
1083:
1078:
1069:
1068:
1063:
1050:
1004:
999:
998:
987:Technol. Marcha
984:
983:
979:
960:Plant Pathology
953:
952:
948:
918:
917:
913:
903:
902:
898:
884:
874:
866:
865:
861:
840:Plant Pathology
833:
832:
828:
818:
817:
802:
792:
791:
787:
735:
734:
730:
720:
719:
715:
687:
686:
682:
638:
637:
633:
619:
618:
614:
584:
583:
579:
572:10.1139/b78-305
557:
556:
552:
538:
537:
533:
523:
521:
513:
512:
508:
486:
485:
481:
476:
432:
388:
360:
355:
339:
311:T. grandiflorum
283:
239:
234:
223:rot (caused by
204:Theobroma cacao
157:
154:
148:
135:
43:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1351:
1349:
1341:
1340:
1338:Fungus species
1335:
1330:
1325:
1323:Cacao diseases
1320:
1310:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1300:
1299:
1286:
1273:
1260:
1247:
1231:
1229:
1227:Monilia roreri
1223:
1222:
1220:
1219:
1206:
1193:
1180:
1167:
1154:
1141:
1128:
1115:
1102:
1089:
1076:
1060:
1058:
1052:
1051:
1046:
1040:
1039:
1038:at Wikispecies
1027:
1024:Moniliophthora
1015:
1010:
1008:Index Fungorum
1003:
1002:External links
1000:
997:
996:
977:
946:
927:(2): 179–184.
911:
896:
887:|journal=
859:
846:(6): 911–922.
826:
800:
785:
728:
713:
700:(3): 423–435.
680:
651:(5): 577–588.
631:
612:
577:
550:
531:
506:
495:(7): 601–603.
478:
477:
475:
472:
431:
428:
387:
384:
359:
356:
354:
351:
338:
335:
282:
279:
259:Monilia roreri
251:Monilia roreri
238:
235:
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186:
185:
180:Monilia roreri
177:
166:
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159:
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155:
144:
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137:
136:
132:M. roreri
129:
127:
123:
122:
119:Moniliophthora
115:
111:
110:
105:
101:
100:
95:
91:
90:
88:Agaricomycetes
85:
81:
80:
75:
71:
70:
65:
61:
60:
55:
51:
50:
37:
36:
28:
27:
15:
13:
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2:
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1172:
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1159:
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1133:
1129:
1125:
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1116:
1112:
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1077:
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1066:
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1059:
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1028:
1025:
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1016:
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965:
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546:
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520:
516:
510:
507:
502:
498:
494:
490:
489:Plant Disease
483:
480:
473:
471:
469:
465:
461:
453:
451:
447:
441:
436:
429:
427:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
385:
383:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
357:
352:
350:
347:
343:
336:
334:
332:
328:
327:Malpighiaceae
324:
320:
319:M. perniciosa
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
280:
278:
276:
272:
271:M. perniciosa
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
236:
231:
229:
226:
222:
218:
217:M. perniciosa
214:
213:Latin America
210:
206:
205:
200:
199:basidiomycete
196:
195:
181:
178:
173:
170:
169:
167:
164:
160:
153:
151:
145:
142:
141:Binomial name
138:
134:
133:
128:
125:
124:
121:
120:
116:
113:
112:
109:
106:
103:
102:
99:
96:
93:
92:
89:
86:
83:
82:
79:
78:Basidiomycota
76:
73:
72:
69:
66:
63:
62:
59:
56:
53:
52:
47:
42:
38:
34:
29:
26:
22:
19:
1226:
1055:
1036:Marasmiaceae
990:
986:
980:
963:
959:
949:
924:
920:
914:
899:
878:cite journal
869:
862:
843:
839:
829:
820:
794:
788:
745:
741:
731:
722:
716:
697:
693:
683:
648:
644:
634:
625:
621:
615:
590:
586:
580:
563:
559:
553:
544:
540:
534:
522:. Retrieved
518:
509:
492:
488:
482:
456:
443:
391:
389:
375:
361:
358:First report
345:
341:
340:
331:Bignoniaceae
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
286:
284:
275:Marasmiaceae
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
242:
241:Originally,
240:
225:Phytophthora
224:
216:
202:
193:
192:
191:
183:Cif., (1933)
179:
171:
149:
147:
131:
130:
118:
108:Marasmiaceae
24:
18:
1145:iNaturalist
422:, 2004 and
297:, such as
1312:Categories
966:(4): 584.
547:: 539–542.
474:References
404:Costa Rica
323:Solanaceae
307:T. bicolor
281:Host range
247:ascomycete
232:The fungus
98:Agaricales
74:Division:
1242:Q59538122
993:: 97–110.
906:"FAOSTAT"
762:1364-3703
587:Mycologia
524:5 January
460:chocolate
440:Tabatinga
416:Guatemala
408:Nicaragua
396:Venezuela
392:M. roreri
376:M. roreri
346:M. roreri
342:M. roreri
303:T. gileri
295:Theobroma
291:Malvaceae
287:M. roreri
267:M. roreri
243:M. roreri
221:black pod
209:chocolate
126:Species:
64:Kingdom:
58:Eukaryota
1290:MycoBank
1282:10111796
1251:Fungorum
1236:Wikidata
1184:MycoBank
1163:11395206
1119:Fungorum
1071:Q6900298
1065:Wikidata
780:29194910
675:19018989
628:: 34–43.
607:16596953
418:, 2002;
414:, 1997;
412:Honduras
410:, 1979;
406:, 1978;
372:Colombia
315:Herrania
299:T. cacao
237:Taxonomy
163:Synonyms
104:Family:
54:Domain:
1269:7715330
1137:2538068
1098:1003950
941:9733917
771:6638017
666:6640444
468:Tabasco
450:capuaçu
364:Ecuador
255:Monilia
114:Genus:
94:Order:
84:Class:
1295:276691
1256:276691
1202:221103
1189:317823
1150:980747
1124:317823
1111:MONPRO
939:
778:
768:
760:
673:
663:
605:
464:Mexico
424:Mexico
420:Belize
386:Spread
329:, and
309:, and
219:) and
1277:IRMNG
1176:34779
1158:IRMNG
1085:444C9
937:S2CID
872:: 68.
446:cacao
197:is a
68:Fungi
1264:GBIF
1197:NCBI
1132:GBIF
1106:EPPO
891:help
776:PMID
758:ISSN
671:PMID
603:PMID
526:2018
448:and
400:Peru
1215:457
1171:ISC
1093:EoL
1080:CoL
968:doi
929:doi
848:doi
766:PMC
750:doi
702:doi
661:PMC
653:doi
595:doi
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