620:
electrical stimulation. In 1974, Walters and Hatton investigated the effect of water dehydration by electrically stimulating the supraoptic nucleus—the hypothalamic center responsible for the release of vasopressin. Glenn Hatton dedicated his career to studying the physiology of the
Neurohypophyseal system, which involved studying the electrical properties of hypothalamic neurons. Doing so enabled investigation into the behavior of these neurons and the resulting physiological effects. Studying the electrical activity of neuroendocrine cells enabled the eventual distinction between central nervous neurons, neuroendocrine neurons, and endocrine cells.
149:
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153:
hypothalamus releases tropic hormones into the hypophyseal portal system to the anterior pituitary (right). The anterior pituitary then secretes trophic hormones into the circulation which elicit different responses from various target tissues. These responses then signal back to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to either stop producing or continue to produce their precursor signals.
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where multiple populations of cells interact, using several sets quickly becomes overcomplicated. This model has been used to describe several systems, especially involving the reproductive cycle (menstrual cycles, luteinizing hormone, prolactin surges). Functional models also exist to represent cortisol secretion, and growth hormone secretion.
2135:
536:
the peripheral actions. So understanding these central actions also became the province of neuroendocrinologists, sometimes even when these peptides cropped up in quite different parts of the brain that appeared to serve functions unrelated to endocrine regulation. Neuroendocrine neurons were discovered in the
653:
aims for mathematic simplicity in describing biological systems by focusing on, and only on, the threshold activity of a neuron. By doing so, the model successfully reduces the complexity of a complicated system; however it ignores the actual mechanisms of action and replaces them with functions that
362:
for producing secretory products; their nerve terminals are large and organised in coherent terminal fields; their output can often be measured easily in the blood; and what these neurons do and what stimuli they respond to are readily open to hypothesis and experiment. Hence, neuroendocrine neurons
666:
relies on the premise "simpler is better". It strives to reduce the complexity of modelling multi-faceted systems by using a single variable to describe an entire population of cells. The alternative would be to use a different set of variables for each population. When attempting to model a system
535:
under the influence of adrenocorticotrophic hormone. The study of these feedbacks became the province of neuroendocrinologists. The peptides secreted by hypothalamic neuroendocrine neurons into the blood proved to be released also into the brain, and the central actions often appeared to complement
318:
into portal blood vessels for transport to the anterior pituitary. Growth hormone is secreted in pulses, which arise from alternating episodes of GHRH release and somatostatin release, which may reflect neuronal interactions between the GHRH and somatostatin cells, and negative feedback from growth
167:
is commonly known as the relay center of the brain because of its role in integrating inputs from all areas of the brain and producing a specific response. In the neuroendocrine system, the hypothalamus receives electrical signals from different parts of the brain and translates those electrical
619:
Electrophysiology experiments were used in the early days of neuroendocrinology to identify the physiological happenings in the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary especially. In 1950, Geoffrey Harris and Barry Cross outlined the oxytocin pathway by studying oxytocin release in response to
152:
Hypothalamic interaction with the posterior and anterior pituitary glands. The hypothalamus produces the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin in its endocrine cells (left). These are released at nerve endings in the posterior pituitary gland and then secreted into the systemic circulation. The
641:. Experiments using this model typically rely on the same format and assumptions, but vary the differential equations to answer their particular questions. Much has been learned about vasopressin, GnRH, somatotrophs, corticotrophs, and lactotrophic hormones by employing this method.
606:
investigating the communication of the hypothalamus with the pituitary gland, much has been learned about the mechanistic details of this interaction. Various experimental techniques have been employed. Early experiments relied heavily on the electrophysiology techniques used by
363:
are good "model systems" for studying general questions, like "how does a neuron regulate the synthesis, packaging, and secretion of its product?" and "how is information encoded in electrical activity?"
291:. These vessels, the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal vessels, carry the hypothalamic factors to the anterior pituitary, where they bind to specific receptors on the surface of the hormone-producing cells.
894:
Knigge, K. M.; Joseph, S. A.; Sladek, J. R.; Notter, M. F.; Morris, M.; Sundberg, D. K.; Holzwarth, M. A.; Hoffman, G. E.; O'Brien, L. (1976-01-01), Bourne, G. H.; Danielli, J. F.; Jeon, K. W. (eds.),
351:, influencing eating and drinking behaviour, and influence how energy intake is utilised, that is, how fat is metabolised. They influence and regulate mood, body fluid and electrolyte homeostasis, and
654:
define how the output of a system depends on its input. This model has been used to describe the release of hormones to the posterior pituitary gland, specifically oxytocin and vasopressin.
611:. Recent approaches have incorporated various mathematical models to understand previously identified mechanisms and predict systemic response and adaptation under various circumstances.
168:
signals into chemical signals in the form of hormones or releasing factors. These chemicals are then transported to the pituitary gland and from there to the systemic circulation.
1034:
Ratka A, Sutanto W, Bloemers M, de Kloet ER (August 1989). "On the role of brain mineralocorticoid (type I) and glucocorticoid (type II) receptors in neuroendocrine regulation".
1491:"On the presence in hog hypothalamus of 3-corticotropin releasing factor, alpha- and beta-melanocyte stimulating hormones, adrenocorticotropin, lysine-vasopressin and oxytocin"
519:
Today, neuroendocrinology embraces a wide range of topics that arose directly or indirectly from the core concept of neuroendocrine neurons. Neuroendocrine neurons control the
1600:
1802:
1844:
1260:(May 1995). "The angiotensin receptor subtype AT1A predominates in rat forebrain areas involved in blood pressure, body fluid homeostasis and neuroendocrine control".
1377:
556:
proved to have properties between endocrine cells and neurons, and proved to be outstanding model systems for instance for the study of the molecular mechanisms of
1531:
1849:
849:"Oxytocin cells in the paraventricular nucleus receive excitatory synaptic inputs from the contralateral paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei in lactating rats"
379:
noted the activity of the pituitary in the lactation of cows in 1915. He also noted that anaesthesia could block lactation and response to the suckling reflex.
1839:
1834:
1829:
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1433:
1168:
Davidson RJ, Lewis DA, Alloy LB, Amaral DG, Bush G, Cohen JD, et al. (September 2002). "Neural and behavioral substrates of mood and mood regulation".
1911:
217:
are synthesized by neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalamus and stored at the nerve endings in the posterior pituitary. They are secreted directly into
1854:
992:
Blázquez M, Bosma PT, Fraser EJ, Van Look KJ, Trudeau VL (June 1998). "Fish as models for the neuroendocrine regulation of reproduction and growth".
1077:
1969:
1795:
603:
401:
107:. Collectively, hormones regulate many physiological processes. The neuroendocrine system is the mechanism by which the hypothalamus maintains
822:
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 10: Neural and
Neuroendocrine Control of the Internal Milieu.". In Sydor A, Brown RY (ed.).
492:
isolated these factors from the hypothalamus of sheep and pigs, and then identified their structures. Guillemin and
Schally were awarded the
267:(the adenohypophysis) are secreted from endocrine cells that, in mammals, are not directly innervated, yet the secretion of these hormones (
391:
1221:
Antunes-Rodrigues J, de Castro M, Elias LL, Valença MM, McCann SM (January 2004). "Neuroendocrine control of body fluid metabolism".
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1788:
913:
831:
245:
762:"60 Years of Neuroendocrinology: The structure of the neuroendocrine hypothalamus: the neuroanatomical legacy of Geoffrey Harris"
481:
295:
579:. The origins and significance of patterning in neuroendocrine secretion are still dominant themes in neuroendocrinology today.
583:
451:
394:
are credited as co-founders the field of neuroendocrinology with their initial observations and proposals in 1945 concerning
496:
in
Physiology and Medicine in 1977 for their contributions to understanding "the peptide hormone production of the brain".
2318:
447:
199:
2472:
1859:
1378:"An urge to explain the incomprehensible: Geoffrey Harris and the discovery of the neural control of the pituitary gland"
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1535:
471:
268:
31:
1728:
84:
hormones, and has subsequently expanded to investigate numerous interconnections of the endocrine and nervous systems.
2615:
2512:
586:. One example is the augmentation of the treatment of mood symptoms with thyroid hormone. Another is the finding of a
504:
463:
203:
511:
wrote the world's first research paper showing how neural control of immunity takes place through the hypothalamus.
2039:
1962:
327:
The neuroendocrine systems control reproduction in all its aspects, from bonding to sexual behaviour. They control
1927:
1408:
1125:
McMinn JE, Baskin DG, Schwartz MW (May 2000). "Neuroendocrine mechanisms regulating food intake and body weight".
2507:
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2351:
1472:
537:
428:
241:
634:
608:
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2346:
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2158:
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1906:
1257:
733:
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409:
264:
237:
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is considered by many to be the "father" of neuroendocrinology. Harris, the Dr. Lee's
Professor of Anatomy at
2593:
2283:
1994:
1989:
1901:
1552:"Unifying concepts in stimulus-secretion coupling in endocrine cells and some implications for therapeutics"
663:
650:
637:
translates data about the current of a system at a specific voltage into time-dependent data describing the
311:
287:; these are substances released by hypothalamic neurons into blood vessels at the base of the brain, at the
279:) remains under the control of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary gland via
249:
194:. The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary's hormone secretion by sending releasing factors, called
2278:
2268:
2178:
2059:
2014:
1931:
1875:
1177:
682:
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directly from the nerve endings of hypothalamic neurons. This seminal work was done in collaboration with
421:
72:
processes of the human body. Neuroendocrinology arose from the recognition that the brain, especially the
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2341:
2336:
2143:
2034:
1955:
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938:
895:
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2153:
2124:
2019:
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387:
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of the hypothalamus, whereas the somatostatin cells involved in growth hormone regulation are in the
257:
218:
1182:
2456:
2356:
2233:
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2188:
692:
591:
467:
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into the systemic circulation. The cell bodies of the oxytocin and vasopressin neurons are in the
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1150:
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508:
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124:
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of the hypothalamus, respectively, and the electrical activity of these neurons is regulated by
148:
64:
activity in the body. The nervous and endocrine systems often act together in a process called
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489:
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For example, the secretion of growth hormone is controlled by two neuroendocrine systems: the
1310:
Dreifuss, Jean
Jacques (1981). "WL Gaines, précurseur du concept de réflexe neuroendocrine".
1096:
994:
Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology. Part C, Pharmacology, Toxicology & Endocrinology
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Neuroendocrine systems have been important to our understanding of many basic principles in
314:. These two neuronal systems project axons to the median eminence, where they release their
53:
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2547:
2542:
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2119:
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477:
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328:
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187:
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81:
1338:
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2381:
2228:
2208:
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2084:
2004:
1936:
1761:
1704:
1679:
1650:
1623:
1622:
Huang JT, Leweke FM, Oxley D, Wang L, Harris N, Koethe D, et al. (November 2006).
1576:
1551:
794:
687:
466:; GnRH (also called luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone) stimulates the secretion of
436:
383:
352:
276:
195:
132:
65:
49:
1191:
1005:
905:
2609:
2441:
2436:
2401:
2298:
2288:
2248:
2094:
2029:
2024:
1780:
1695:
1273:
1138:
954:
587:
553:
532:
340:
69:
17:
1207:
1154:
978:
900:, International Review of Cytology, vol. 45, Academic Press, pp. 383–408,
880:
2527:
2522:
2406:
2238:
2163:
2114:
2104:
2079:
2074:
2044:
1978:
1468:
1396:
707:
568:
395:
299:
164:
158:
112:
73:
1624:"Disease biomarkers in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with first-onset psychosis"
1354:
582:
Neuroendocrinology is also used as an integral part of understanding and treating
271:, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone,
1640:
864:
209:
The posterior pituitary is directly innervated by the hypothalamus; the hormones
202:
released by the hypothalamus in to the portal system stimulates the secretion of
27:
Branch of biology studying interactions between the nervous and endocrine systems
2396:
2243:
1323:
493:
332:
233:
214:
120:
108:
91:
system consists of numerous glands throughout the body that produce and secrete
1234:
2557:
2258:
1811:
1452:
572:
557:
549:
348:
128:
116:
45:
1752:
1567:
1362:
962:
785:
2502:
2193:
541:
459:
344:
336:
272:
88:
77:
1770:
1713:
1659:
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1516:
1460:
1242:
1199:
1146:
1104:
970:
872:
803:
1507:
1490:
1404:
1281:
1055:
1013:
2411:
1744:
1489:
Guillemin R, Schally AV, Lipscomb HS, Andersen RN, Long JM (April 1962).
524:
315:
229:
210:
100:
96:
92:
61:
897:
Uptake and
Transport Activity of the Median Eminence of the Hypothalamus
777:
455:
413:
41:
1047:
826:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 246, 248–259.
734:"Endocrine system and neuroendocrinology :: DNA Learning Center"
520:
417:
2134:
824:
358:
The neurons of the neuroendocrine system are large; they are mini
104:
57:
939:"Modelling the Hypothalamic Control of Growth Hormone Secretion"
1951:
1947:
1784:
198:, down the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system. For example,
847:
Honda, Kazumasa; Zhang, William; Tomiyama, Keita (June 2014).
244:(the neurohypophysis), are secreted from the nerve endings of
1680:"The Adaptive Brain: Glenn Hatton and the Supraoptic Nucleus"
1434:"First ladies in laying the foundation of neuroendocrinology"
306:
secretion, respectively. The GHRH neurons are located in the
1729:"Electrical Properties of Hypothalamic Neuroendocrine Cells"
1601:"Identifying Hypothyroidism's Psychiatric Presentations"
1678:
Leng, G.; Moos, F. C.; Armstrong, W. E. (2010-05-01).
182:
The pituitary gland is divided into three lobes: the
2465:
2327:
2267:
2142:
2003:
1920:
1889:
1868:
1822:
416:is regulated by hormones secreted by hypothalamic
343:. They control the body's response to stress and
446:The first of these factors to be identified are
594:of some patients diagnosed with schizophrenia.
1963:
1796:
560:. And these, too, have become, by extension,
236:(also called anti-diuretic hormone), the two
8:
2498:Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring
1076:Webster JI, Tonelli L, Sternberg EM (2002).
937:MacGregor, D. J.; Leng, G. (December 2005).
48:) which studies the interaction between the
1970:
1956:
1948:
1912:Reproductive endocrinology and infertility
1803:
1789:
1781:
1760:
1703:
1649:
1639:
1575:
1506:
1432:Breathnach CS, Moynihan JB (March 2013).
1337:Scharrer E, Scharrer B (1 January 1945).
1181:
793:
95:of diverse chemical structure, including
1845:Hypothalamic–pituitary–somatotropic axis
1534:. University of Manitoba. Archived from
1262:Brain Research. Molecular Brain Research
1097:10.1146/annurev.immunol.20.082401.104914
147:
1078:"Neuroendocrine regulation of immunity"
725:
527:, in turn, influence the brain, as do
1850:Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis
1673:
1671:
1669:
1540:(Warning: automatic background music)
817:
815:
813:
590:(thyroxine transport) problem in the
575:, for instance, our understanding of
302:neurons, which stimulate and inhibit
7:
2588:
1855:Hypothalamic–neurohypophyseal system
1071:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1023:
932:
930:
755:
753:
408:, is credited with showing that the
1840:Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis
1835:Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
1830:Hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis
427:. By contrast, the hormones of the
392:Albert Einstein College of Medicine
602:Since the original experiments by
246:magnocellular neurosecretory cells
25:
2478:Development of the nervous system
263:By contrast, the hormones of the
2587:
2576:
2575:
2133:
1696:10.1111/j.1365-2826.2010.01997.x
1556:Advances in Physiology Education
1441:Irish Journal of Medical Science
1139:10.1046/j.1467-789x.2000.00007.x
955:10.1111/j.1365-2826.2005.01370.x
296:growth hormone-releasing hormone
1532:"Dr Andor Szentivanyi Memorial"
664:functional or mean fields model
658:Functional or Mean Fields Model
584:neurobiological brain disorders
1397:10.1146/annurev.neuro.20.1.533
452:gonadotropin-releasing hormone
1:
2319:Social cognitive neuroscience
1733:Journal of General Physiology
1684:Journal of Neuroendocrinology
1385:Annual Review of Neuroscience
1355:10.1152/physrev.1945.25.1.171
1192:10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01458-0
1006:10.1016/S0742-8413(98)00023-1
943:Journal of Neuroendocrinology
906:10.1016/s0074-7696(08)60082-0
448:thyrotropin-releasing hormone
221:by the hypothalamic neurons.
200:thyrotropin-releasing hormone
2294:Molecular cellular cognition
1727:Kandel, E. R. (1964-03-01).
1641:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030428
1274:10.1016/0169-328X(94)00272-G
865:10.1016/j.neulet.2014.04.040
760:Watts, Alan G (2015-08-01).
540:, regulating, for instance,
472:follicle-stimulating hormone
269:adrenocorticotrophic hormone
32:Neuroendocrinology (journal)
2513:Neurodevelopmental disorder
2488:Neural network (biological)
2483:Neural network (artificial)
1550:Misler S (September 2009).
1324:10.1163/22977953-0380304004
1085:Annual Review of Immunology
577:stimulus-secretion coupling
505:University of South Florida
482:Faculté de Médecine of Lyon
464:thyroid-stimulating hormone
347:. They regulate the body's
206:by the anterior pituitary.
204:thyroid-stimulating hormone
188:intermediate pituitary lobe
2632:
2040:Computational neuroscience
1297:A History of Endocrinology
1235:10.1152/physrev.00017.2003
285:release-inhibiting factors
260:from other brain regions.
175:
156:
66:neuroendocrine integration
29:
2571:
2508:Neurodegenerative disease
2352:Evolutionary neuroscience
2131:
1985:
1453:10.1007/s11845-012-0830-9
538:peripheral nervous system
429:posterior pituitary gland
242:posterior pituitary gland
238:neurohypophysial hormones
225:Major neuroendocrine axes
2473:Brain–computer interface
2422:Neuromorphic engineering
2347:Educational neuroscience
2254:Nutritional neuroscience
2159:Clinical neurophysiology
2055:Integrative neuroscience
1907:Psychoneuroendocrinology
1860:Renin–angiotensin system
1568:10.1152/advan.90213.2008
1299:. Springer. p. 409.
766:Journal of Endocrinology
678:Behavioral endocrinology
651:integrate-and-fire model
645:Integrate-and-Fire Model
410:anterior pituitary gland
265:anterior pituitary gland
258:afferent synaptic inputs
123:and drinking behaviour,
2284:Behavioral neuroscience
1902:Pediatric endocrinology
598:Experimental techniques
480:, a medical student of
454:(GnRH). TRH is a small
331:and the ovarian cycle,
312:periventricular nucleus
298:(GHRH) neurons and the
250:paraventricular nucleus
2279:Affective neuroscience
2060:Molecular neuroscience
2015:Behavioral epigenetics
1876:Blood sugar regulation
1256:Lenkei, Z; Corvol, P;
683:Molecular neuroscience
431:are secreted into the
422:hypothalamohypophysial
154:
2342:Cultural neuroscience
2337:Consumer neuroscience
2179:Neurogastroenterology
2035:Cellular neuroscience
1928:Wolff–Chaikoff effect
1599:Geracioti TD (2006).
1508:10.1210/endo-70-4-471
1343:Physiological Reviews
1295:Medvei, V.C. (2012).
1223:Physiological Reviews
1170:Biological Psychiatry
151:
139:Neuroendocrine system
30:For the journal, see
18:Neuroendocrine System
2314:Sensory neuroscience
2154:Behavioral neurology
2125:Systems neuroscience
1745:10.1085/jgp.47.4.691
853:Neuroscience Letters
698:Neuroendocrine tumor
635:Hodgkin–Huxley model
629:Hodgkin-Huxley Model
458:that stimulates the
433:systemic circulation
388:University of Munich
219:systemic circulation
2457:Social neuroscience
2357:Global neurosurgery
2234:Neurorehabilitation
2204:Neuro-ophthalmology
2189:Neurointensive care
2020:Behavioral genetics
778:10.1530/JOE-15-0157
693:Neuroendocrine cell
624:Mathematical Models
592:cerebrospinal fluid
544:. The cells in the
468:luteinizing hormone
192:posterior pituitary
2616:Neuroendocrinology
2533:Neuroimmune system
2427:Neurophenomenology
2367:Neural engineering
2090:Neuroendocrinology
2070:Neural engineering
1932:Jod-Basedow effect
1897:Neuroendocrinology
1881:Calcium metabolism
1823:Regulatory systems
1605:Current Psychiatry
1376:Raisman G (1997).
1036:Neuroendocrinology
639:membrane potential
609:Hodgkin and Huxley
531:secreted from the
425:portal circulation
341:maternal behaviour
254:supraoptic nucleus
184:anterior pituitary
155:
125:energy utilization
68:, to regulate the
38:Neuroendocrinology
2603:
2602:
2452:Paleoneurobiology
2387:Neuroepistemology
2362:Neuroanthropology
2328:Interdisciplinary
2214:Neuropharmacology
2174:Neuroepidemiology
1945:
1944:
1530:Berczi I (2010).
1258:Llorens-Cortes, C
1048:10.1159/000125210
703:Neuropharmacology
615:Electrophysiology
501:Andor Szentivanyi
490:Tulane University
486:Andrew W. Schally
406:Oxford University
377:Walter Lee Gaines
281:releasing factors
44:(specifically of
40:is the branch of
16:(Redirected from
2623:
2591:
2590:
2579:
2578:
2493:Detection theory
2377:Neurocriminology
2304:Neurolinguistics
2219:Neuroprosthetics
2137:
2100:Neuroinformatics
2050:Imaging genetics
1972:
1965:
1958:
1949:
1816:endocrine system
1805:
1798:
1791:
1782:
1775:
1774:
1764:
1724:
1718:
1717:
1707:
1675:
1664:
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1653:
1643:
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1613:
1612:
1596:
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1579:
1547:
1541:
1539:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1510:
1486:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1471:. Archived from
1438:
1429:
1423:
1422:
1420:
1419:
1413:
1407:. Archived from
1382:
1373:
1367:
1366:
1339:"Neurosecretion"
1334:
1328:
1327:
1318:(3–4): 331–338.
1307:
1301:
1300:
1292:
1286:
1285:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1218:
1212:
1211:
1185:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1122:
1116:
1115:
1113:
1107:. Archived from
1082:
1073:
1060:
1059:
1031:
1018:
1017:
989:
983:
982:
934:
925:
924:
923:
922:
891:
885:
884:
844:
838:
837:
819:
808:
807:
797:
757:
748:
747:
745:
744:
730:
305:
54:endocrine system
21:
2631:
2630:
2626:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2621:
2620:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2599:
2567:
2553:Neurotechnology
2548:Neuroplasticity
2543:Neuromodulation
2538:Neuromanagement
2461:
2432:Neurophilosophy
2329:
2323:
2309:Neuropsychology
2270:
2263:
2224:Neuropsychiatry
2184:Neuroimmunology
2169:Neurocardiology
2145:
2138:
2129:
2120:Neurophysiology
2110:Neuromorphology
2065:Neural decoding
2006:
1999:
1981:
1976:
1946:
1941:
1916:
1885:
1864:
1818:
1809:
1779:
1778:
1726:
1725:
1721:
1677:
1676:
1667:
1621:
1620:
1616:
1598:
1597:
1593:
1549:
1548:
1544:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1488:
1487:
1483:
1475:
1436:
1431:
1430:
1426:
1417:
1415:
1411:
1380:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1336:
1335:
1331:
1309:
1308:
1304:
1294:
1293:
1289:
1255:
1254:
1250:
1220:
1219:
1215:
1183:10.1.1.558.6231
1167:
1166:
1162:
1127:Obesity Reviews
1124:
1123:
1119:
1111:
1080:
1075:
1074:
1063:
1033:
1032:
1021:
991:
990:
986:
949:(12): 788–803.
936:
935:
928:
920:
918:
916:
893:
892:
888:
846:
845:
841:
834:
821:
820:
811:
759:
758:
751:
742:
740:
732:
731:
727:
722:
717:
673:
660:
647:
631:
626:
617:
604:Geoffrey Harris
600:
546:adrenal medulla
529:corticosteroids
517:
478:Roger Guillemin
441:Lund University
402:Geoffrey Harris
374:
369:
329:spermatogenesis
325:
308:arcuate nucleus
303:
289:median eminence
227:
196:tropic hormones
180:
178:Pituitary gland
174:
172:Pituitary gland
161:
146:
141:
82:pituitary gland
56:; i.e. how the
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2629:
2627:
2619:
2618:
2608:
2607:
2601:
2600:
2598:
2597:
2585:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2565:
2563:Self-awareness
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2518:Neurodiversity
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2469:
2467:
2463:
2462:
2460:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2417:Neuromarketing
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2392:Neuroesthetics
2389:
2384:
2382:Neuroeconomics
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2333:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2322:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2275:
2273:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2229:Neuroradiology
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2209:Neuropathology
2206:
2201:
2199:Neuro-oncology
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2150:
2148:
2140:
2139:
2132:
2130:
2128:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2085:Neurochemistry
2082:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2011:
2009:
2001:
2000:
1998:
1997:
1992:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1977:
1975:
1974:
1967:
1960:
1952:
1943:
1942:
1940:
1939:
1937:Plummer effect
1934:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1883:
1878:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1865:
1863:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1826:
1824:
1820:
1819:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1800:
1793:
1785:
1777:
1776:
1739:(4): 691–717.
1719:
1690:(5): 318–329.
1665:
1614:
1591:
1542:
1538:on 2009-02-10.
1522:
1481:
1478:on 2018-12-24.
1424:
1368:
1349:(1): 171–181.
1329:
1302:
1287:
1248:
1229:(1): 169–208.
1213:
1176:(6): 478–502.
1160:
1117:
1114:on 2013-12-12.
1061:
1019:
984:
926:
914:
886:
839:
832:
809:
772:(2): T25–T39.
749:
724:
723:
721:
718:
716:
715:
713:Gut–brain axis
710:
705:
700:
695:
690:
688:Neurochemistry
685:
680:
674:
672:
669:
659:
656:
646:
643:
630:
627:
625:
622:
616:
613:
599:
596:
562:neuroendocrine
516:
513:
437:Dora Jacobsohn
384:Berta Scharrer
373:
370:
368:
365:
353:blood pressure
324:
321:
277:growth hormone
226:
223:
176:Main article:
173:
170:
157:Main article:
145:
142:
140:
137:
133:blood pressure
60:regulates the
50:nervous system
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2628:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2611:
2596:
2595:
2586:
2584:
2583:
2574:
2573:
2570:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2464:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2447:Neurotheology
2445:
2443:
2442:Neurorobotics
2440:
2438:
2437:Neuropolitics
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2402:Neuroethology
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2334:
2332:
2326:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2299:Motor control
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2289:Chronobiology
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2276:
2274:
2272:
2266:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2249:Neurovirology
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2149:
2147:
2141:
2136:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2095:Neurogenetics
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2030:Brain-reading
2028:
2026:
2025:Brain mapping
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2002:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1968:
1966:
1961:
1959:
1954:
1953:
1950:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1873:
1871:
1867:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1806:
1801:
1799:
1794:
1792:
1787:
1786:
1783:
1772:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1723:
1720:
1715:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1628:PLOS Medicine
1625:
1618:
1615:
1611:(11): 98–117.
1610:
1606:
1602:
1595:
1592:
1587:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1562:(3): 175–86.
1561:
1557:
1553:
1546:
1543:
1537:
1533:
1526:
1523:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1495:Endocrinology
1492:
1485:
1482:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1435:
1428:
1425:
1414:on 2007-07-03
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1379:
1372:
1369:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1333:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1314:(in French).
1313:
1306:
1303:
1298:
1291:
1288:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1252:
1249:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1217:
1214:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1184:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1164:
1161:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
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1121:
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1110:
1106:
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1090:
1086:
1079:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1042:(2): 117–23.
1041:
1037:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
1000:(3): 345–64.
999:
995:
988:
985:
980:
976:
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968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
933:
931:
927:
917:
915:9780123643452
911:
907:
903:
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887:
882:
878:
874:
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866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
843:
840:
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833:9780071481274
829:
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783:
779:
775:
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739:
738:www.dnalc.org
735:
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644:
642:
640:
636:
628:
623:
621:
614:
612:
610:
605:
597:
595:
593:
589:
588:transthyretin
585:
580:
578:
574:
570:
565:
563:
559:
555:
554:noradrenaline
551:
548:that release
547:
543:
539:
534:
533:adrenal gland
530:
526:
522:
514:
512:
510:
506:
502:
497:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
444:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
397:
396:neuropeptides
393:
389:
385:
380:
378:
371:
366:
364:
361:
356:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
322:
320:
317:
313:
309:
301:
297:
292:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
261:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
224:
222:
220:
216:
212:
207:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
179:
171:
169:
166:
160:
150:
143:
138:
136:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
111:, regulating
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
85:
83:
79:
75:
71:
70:physiological
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
33:
19:
2592:
2580:
2528:Neuroimaging
2523:Neurogenesis
2407:Neurohistory
2372:Neurobiotics
2271:neuroscience
2239:Neurosurgery
2164:Epileptology
2146:neuroscience
2115:Neurophysics
2105:Neurometrics
2089:
2080:Neurobiology
2075:Neuroanatomy
2045:Connectomics
1979:Neuroscience
1896:
1736:
1732:
1722:
1687:
1683:
1634:(11): e428.
1631:
1627:
1617:
1608:
1604:
1594:
1559:
1555:
1545:
1536:the original
1525:
1501:(4): 471–7.
1498:
1494:
1484:
1473:the original
1447:(1): 143–7.
1444:
1440:
1427:
1416:. Retrieved
1409:the original
1388:
1384:
1371:
1346:
1342:
1332:
1315:
1311:
1305:
1296:
1290:
1268:(1): 53–60.
1265:
1261:
1251:
1226:
1222:
1216:
1173:
1169:
1163:
1133:(1): 37–46.
1130:
1126:
1120:
1109:the original
1088:
1084:
1039:
1035:
997:
993:
987:
946:
942:
919:, retrieved
896:
889:
856:
852:
842:
823:
769:
765:
741:. Retrieved
737:
728:
708:Neuroscience
661:
648:
632:
618:
601:
581:
569:neuroscience
566:
561:
518:
515:Modern scope
498:
476:
445:
400:
381:
375:
359:
357:
326:
300:somatostatin
293:
284:
280:
262:
228:
208:
181:
165:hypothalamus
162:
159:Hypothalamus
144:Hypothalamus
113:reproduction
86:
74:hypothalamus
37:
36:
2397:Neuroethics
2244:Neurotology
509:Geza Filipp
494:Nobel Prize
333:parturition
234:vasopressin
215:vasopressin
109:homeostasis
105:neuroamines
76:, controls
2558:Neurotoxin
2259:Psychiatry
1869:Metabolism
1812:Physiology
1418:2006-02-10
1391:: 533–66.
1091:: 125–63.
921:2021-11-15
743:2018-05-12
720:References
573:physiology
558:exocytosis
550:adrenaline
450:(TRH) and
382:Ernst and
349:metabolism
190:, and the
129:osmolarity
117:metabolism
46:physiology
2503:Neurochip
2269:Cognitive
2194:Neurology
1753:1540-7748
1363:1522-1210
1178:CiteSeerX
963:0953-8194
859:: 44–47.
786:0022-0795
564:systems.
542:digestion
503:, of the
499:In 1952,
460:secretion
420:into the
386:, of the
360:factories
345:infection
337:lactation
323:Functions
319:hormone.
273:prolactin
89:endocrine
78:secretion
2610:Category
2582:Category
2466:Concepts
2412:Neurolaw
2144:Clinical
1771:14127607
1714:20298459
1660:17090210
1586:19745043
1517:13902822
1461:22581099
1312:Gesnerus
1243:14715914
1208:39992433
1200:12361665
1155:33202919
1147:12119644
1105:11861600
979:36712187
971:16280026
881:25107850
873:24792395
804:25994006
671:See also
525:steroids
523:, whose
372:Pioneers
316:peptides
230:Oxytocin
211:oxytocin
101:steroids
97:peptides
93:hormones
62:hormonal
52:and the
2594:Commons
2007:science
1995:History
1990:Outline
1814:of the
1762:2195356
1705:5713484
1651:1630717
1577:3747786
1469:8177884
1405:9056724
1282:7609644
1056:2550833
1014:9827007
795:4574488
456:peptide
418:neurons
414:mammals
367:History
240:of the
42:biology
2330:fields
1890:Fields
1769:
1759:
1751:
1712:
1702:
1658:
1648:
1584:
1574:
1515:
1467:
1459:
1403:
1361:
1280:
1241:
1206:
1198:
1180:
1153:
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1103:
1054:
1012:
977:
969:
961:
912:
879:
871:
830:
802:
792:
784:
521:gonads
507:, and
484:, and
339:, and
275:, and
186:, the
121:eating
103:, and
2005:Basic
1921:Other
1476:(PDF)
1465:S2CID
1437:(PDF)
1412:(PDF)
1381:(PDF)
1204:S2CID
1151:S2CID
1112:(PDF)
1081:(PDF)
975:S2CID
877:S2CID
58:brain
1767:PMID
1749:ISSN
1710:PMID
1656:PMID
1582:PMID
1513:PMID
1457:PMID
1401:PMID
1359:ISSN
1278:PMID
1239:PMID
1196:PMID
1143:PMID
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