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chosen good blocks had a striped pattern on them while the bad blocks had a circular shape on them. The taste sense was simulated by conductivity of the blocks. The robot had positive and negative feedbacks to the taste based on its level of conductivity. The researchers observed the robot to see how it learned its action selection behaviors based on the inputs it had. Other studies have used herds of small robots which feed on batteries strewn about the room, and communicate its findings to other robots.
207:(MEA), which is capable of both recording the neural activity and stimulating the tissue. In some cases, the MEA is connected to a computer which presents a simulated environment to the brain tissue and translates brain activity into actions in the simulation, as well as providing sensory feedback The ability to record neural activity gives researchers a window into a brain, which they can use to learn about a number of the same issues neurorobots are used for.
1971:
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91:, clumps of neurons capable of driving repetitive behavior, to make four-legged walking robots. Other groups have expanded the idea of combining rudimentary control systems into a hierarchical set of simple autonomous systems. These systems can formulate complex movements from a combination of these rudimentary subsets. This theory of motor action is based on the organization of
114:. In this model, awkward, random, and error-prone movements are corrected for using error feedback to produce smooth and accurate movements over time. The controller learns to create the correct control signal by predicting the error. Using these ideas, robots have been designed which can learn to produce adaptive arm movements or to avoid obstacles in a course.
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save the rest. However, more neurorobots used in the study of action selection contend with much simpler persuasions such as self-preservation or perpetuation of the population of robots in the study. These neurorobots are modeled after the neuromodulation of synapses to encourage circuits with positive results.
222:
Neuroscientists benefit from neurorobotics because it provides a blank slate to test various possible methods of brain function in a controlled and testable environment. While robots are more simplified versions of the systems they emulate, they are more specific, allowing more direct testing of the
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such as dopamine or serotonin affect the firing sensitivity of a neuron to be sharper. The robot used in the study adequately matched the behavior of barn owls. Furthermore, the close interaction between motor output and auditory feedback proved to be vital in the learning process, supporting active
167:
In biological systems, neurotransmitters such as dopamine or acetylcholine positively reinforce neural signals that are beneficial. One study of such interaction involved the robot Darwin VII, which used visual, auditory, and a simulated taste input to "eat" conductive metal blocks. The arbitrarily
163:
Action selection studies deal with negative or positive weighting to an action and its outcome. Neurorobots can and have been used to study simple ethical interactions, such as the classical thought experiment where there are more people than a life raft can hold, and someone must leave the boat to
176:
Neurorobots have also been used to study sensory perception, particularly vision. These are primarily systems that result from embedding neural models of sensory pathways in automatas. This approach gives exposure to the sensory signals that occur during behavior and also enables a more realistic
154:
Neurorobots in these studies are presented with simple mazes or patterns to learn. Some of the problems presented to the neurorobot include recognition of symbols, colors, or other patterns and execute simple actions based on the pattern. In the case of the barn owl simulation, the robot had to
54:
Neurorobotics is that branch of neuroscience with robotics, which deals with the study and application of science and technology of embodied autonomous neural systems like brain-inspired algorithms. It is based on the idea that the brain is embodied and the body is embedded in the environment.
226:
The development of neuroscience has produced neural treatments. These include pharmaceuticals and neural rehabilitation. Progress is dependent on an intricate understanding of the brain and how exactly it functions. It is difficult to study the brain, especially in humans, due to the danger
313:
Vannucci L, Ambrosano A, Cauli N, Albanese U, Falotico E, Ulbrich S, et al. (1 November 2015). "A visual tracking model implemented on the iCub robot as a use case for a novel neurorobotic toolkit integrating brain and physics simulation".
66:
Neurorobots can be divided into various major classes based on the robot's purpose. Each class is designed to implement a specific mechanism of interest for study. Common types of neurorobots are those used to study motor control, memory,
141:
Another study has produced a robot based on the proposed learning paradigm of barn owls for orientation and localization based on primarily auditory, but also visual stimuli. The hypothesized method involves synaptic plasticity and
31:. It is the science and technology of embodied autonomous neural systems. Neural systems include brain-inspired algorithms (e.g. connectionist networks), computational models of biological neural networks (e.g. artificial
181:
that are used extensively by organisms. For example, researchers have used the depth information that emerges during replication of human head and eye movements to establish robust representations of the visual scene.
223:
issue at hand. They also have the benefit of being accessible at all times, while it is more difficult to monitor large portions of a brain while the human or animal is active, especially individual neurons.
500:
Eskiizmirliler S, Forestier N, Tondu B, Darlot C (May 2002). "A model of the cerebellar pathways applied to the control of a single-joint robot arm actuated by McKibben artificial muscles".
370:. Proceedings of the EuroAsianPacific Joint Conference on Cognitive Science/4th European Conference on Cognitive Science/11th International Conference on Cognitive Science. Torino, Italy
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1960:
473:
Giszter SF, Moxon KA, Rybak IA, Chapin JK (November 2001). "Neurobiological and neurorobotic approaches to control architectures for a humanoid motor system".
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are not officially neurorobots in that they are not neurologically inspired AI systems, but actual neuron tissue wired to a robot. This employs the use of
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assessment of the degree of robustness of the neural model. It is well known that changes in the sensory signals produced by motor activity provide useful
138:
of the environment, including recognizing landmarks and associating behaviors with them, allowing them to predict the upcoming obstacles and landmarks.
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associated with cranial surgeries. Neurorobots can improved the range of tests and experiments that can be performed in the study of neural processes.
210:
An area of concern with the biological robots is ethics. Many questions are raised about how to treat such experiments. The central question concerns
270:
Chiel HJ, Beer RD (December 1997). "The brain has a body: adaptive behavior emerges from interactions of nervous system, body and environment".
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is modeled by a number of neurologically inspired theories on the action of motor systems. Locomotion control has been mimicked using models or
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Doya K, Uchibe E (June 2005). "The cyber rodent project: Exploration of adaptive mechanisms for self-preservation and self-reproduction".
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Matarić MJ (March 1998). "Behavior-based robotics as a tool for synthesis of artificial behavior and analysis of natural behavior".
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neural nets). Such neural systems can be embodied in machines with mechanic or any other forms of physical actuation. This includes
134:, which fire for a specific location that has been learned. Systems modeled after the rat hippocampus are generally able to learn
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619:
Rucci M, Bullock D, Santini F (January 2007). "Integrating robotics and neuroscience: brains for robots, bodies for brains".
838:
Santini F, Rucci M (February 2007). "Active estimation of distance in a robotic system that replicates human eye movement".
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Kuang X, Gibson M, Shi BE, Rucci M (July 2012). "Active vision during coordinated head/eye movements in a humanoid robot".
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Beyond brain-inspired algorithms for robots neurorobotics may also involve the design of brain-controlled robot systems.
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or wearable systems but also, at smaller scale, micro-machines and, at the larger scales, furniture and infrastructures.
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Rucci M, Edelman GM, Wray J (February 1999). "Adaptation of orienting behavior: From the barn owl to a robotic system".
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1133:"Theoretical aspects of sensory substitution and of neurotransmission-related reorganization in spinal cord injury"
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Another method for motor control uses learned error correction and predictive controls to form a sort of simulated
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Jalaleddini K, Minos Niu C, Chakravarthi Raja S, Joon Sohn W, Loeb GE, Sanger TD, Valero-Cuevas FJ (April 2017).
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Hasselmo ME, Hay J, Ilyn M, Gorchetchnikov A (2002). "Neuromodulation, theta rhythm and rat spatial navigation".
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Therefore, most neurorobots are required to function in the real world, as opposed to a simulated environment.
1858:
764:"Machine psychology: autonomous behavior, perceptual categorization and conditioning in a brain-based device"
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and whether or not the rat brain experiences it. There are many theories about how to define consciousness.
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to study brain development or neural interactions. These typically consist of a neural culture raised on a
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Warwick K (September 2010). "Implications and consequences of robots with biological brains".
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Bentzen MM (2014). "Brains on Wheels: Theoretical and
Ethical Issues in Bio-Robotics.".
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and control systems, and have proved their merit in developing controllers for robots.
35:, large-scale simulations of neural microcircuits) and actual biological systems (e.g.
1203:
Neurorobotics Lab, Control
Systems Lab, NTUn of Athens (Prof. Kostas J. Kyriakopoulos)
1017:
Niu CM, Jalaleddini K, Sohn WJ, Rocamora J, Sanger TD, Valero-Cuevas FJ (April 2017).
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902:"The Neurally Controlled Animat: Biological Brains Acting with Simulated Bodies"
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417:"From swimming to walking with a salamander robot driven by a spinal cord model"
131:
127:
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1019:"Neuromorphic meets neuromechanics, part I: the methodology and implementation"
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Cox BR, Krichmar JL (September 2009). "Neuromodulation as a robot controller".
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systems. Many studies examine the memory system of rats, particularly the rat
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Neurorobotics on
Scholarpedia (Jeff Krichmar (2008), Scholarpedia, 3(3):1365)
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2015 IEEE-RAS 15th
International Conference on Humanoid Robots (Humanoids)
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1076:"Neuromorphic meets neuromechanics, part II: the role of fusimotor drive"
95:, which progressively integrate from simple sensory input into a complex
80:
24:
2406:
1987:
1198:
Neurorobotics: an experimental science of embodiment by
Frederic Kaplan
705:
2461:
2012:
2007:
361:, Walter F, Bohte S, Falotico E, Tolu S, Ulbrich S (September 2015).
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determine its location and direction to navigate in its environment.
123:
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signals, or from complex motor programs to simple controls for each
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sensing theories that are involved in many of the learning models.
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1979:
44:
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1212:
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A lab that focuses on neurorobotics at
Northwestern University.
1207:
415:
Ijspeert AJ, Crespi A, Ryczko D, Cabelguen JM (March 2007).
391:"A Basic Neurorobotics Platform Using the Neurosky Mindwave"
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Demarse TB, Wagenaar DA, Blau AW, Potter SM (2001).
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1978:
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107:signals, forming a similar hierarchical structure.
987:Sociable Robots and the Future of Social Relations
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364:Brain-Supported Learning Algorithms for Robots
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614:
612:
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8:
1763:Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring
694:IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation
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650:
146:, a mostly chemical effect in which reward
122:Robots designed to test theories of animal
2598:Interdisciplinary branches of neuroscience
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79:Neurorobots are often used to study motor
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1208:Neurorobotics in the Human Brain Project
762:Krichmar JL, Edelman GM (August 2002).
659:IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine
262:
2300:Simultaneous localization and mapping
7:
1853:
545:The hippocampus as a cognitive map
159:Action selection and value systems
14:
1743:Development of the nervous system
951:Ethics and Information Technology
430:(5817). New York, N.Y.: 1416–20.
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990:. IOS Press. pp. 245–251.
840:Robotics and Autonomous Systems
475:Robotics and Autonomous Systems
389:Arrowsmith E (2 October 2012).
326:10.1109/HUMANOIDS.2015.7363512
1:
1584:Social cognitive neuroscience
1080:Journal of Neural Engineering
1023:Journal of Neural Engineering
996:10.3233/978-1-61499-480-0-245
867:IEEE Transactions on Robotics
774:(8). New York, N.Y.: 818–30.
741:10.1016/s0893-6080(02)00057-6
585:10.1016/s1364-6613(98)01141-3
487:10.1016/S0921-8890(01)00159-2
284:10.1016/s0166-2236(97)01149-1
218:Implications for neuroscience
1559:Molecular cellular cognition
573:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
75:Locomotion and motor control
2310:Vision-guided robot systems
1778:Neurodevelopmental disorder
1753:Neural network (biological)
1748:Neural network (artificial)
1193:Frontiers in Neurorobotics.
1131:Bach-y-Rita P (July 1999).
852:10.1016/j.robot.2006.07.001
547:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
543:O'Keefe J, Nadel L (1978).
118:Learning and memory systems
2619:
2530:Technological unemployment
1305:Computational neuroscience
817:10.1177/105971230501300206
633:10.1163/156855307781389428
404:– via wordpress.com.
252:Wirehead (science fiction)
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89:central pattern generators
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2518:Workplace robotics safety
1967:
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1773:Neurodegenerative disease
1617:Evolutionary neuroscience
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963:10.1007/s10676-010-9218-6
514:10.1007/s00422-001-0302-1
19:is the combined study of
1738:Brain–computer interface
1687:Neuromorphic engineering
1612:Educational neuroscience
1519:Nutritional neuroscience
1424:Clinical neurophysiology
1320:Integrative neuroscience
1100:10.1088/1741-2552/aa59bd
1043:10.1088/1741-2552/aa593c
879:10.1109/TRO.2012.2204513
247:Neuromorphic engineering
237:Brain–computer interface
201:cultured neural networks
2593:Artificial intelligence
2366:Human–robot interaction
1549:Behavioral neuroscience
918:10.1023/a:1012407611130
781:10.1093/cercor/12.8.818
671:10.1109/mra.2009.933628
444:10.1126/science.1138353
272:Trends in Neurosciences
62:Major classes of models
33:spiking neural networks
29:artificial intelligence
1544:Affective neuroscience
1325:Molecular neuroscience
1280:Behavioral epigenetics
502:Biological Cybernetics
320:. pp. 1179–1184.
2472:Starship Technologies
1607:Cultural neuroscience
1602:Consumer neuroscience
1444:Neurogastroenterology
1300:Cellular neuroscience
1150:10.1038/sj.sc.3100873
2422:Energid Technologies
1579:Sensory neuroscience
1419:Behavioral neurology
1390:Systems neuroscience
205:multielectrode array
2513:Powered exoskeleton
1722:Social neuroscience
1622:Global neurosurgery
1499:Neurorehabilitation
1469:Neuro-ophthalmology
1454:Neurointensive care
1285:Behavioral genetics
1092:2017JNEng..14b5002J
1035:2017JNEng..14b5001N
436:2007Sci...315.1416I
2482:Universal Robotics
2457:Intuitive Surgical
2447:Harvest Automation
2412:Barrett Technology
2194:Robotic spacecraft
2040:Audio-Animatronics
1798:Neuroimmune system
1692:Neurophenomenology
1632:Neural engineering
1355:Neuroendocrinology
1335:Neural engineering
242:Experience machine
172:Sensory perception
71:, and perception.
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2523:Robotic tech vest
2452:Honeybee Robotics
2268:Electric unicycle
2221:remotely-operated
1868:
1867:
1717:Paleoneurobiology
1652:Neuroepistemology
1627:Neuroanthropology
1593:Interdisciplinary
1479:Neuropharmacology
1439:Neuroepidemiology
906:Autonomous Robots
805:Adaptive Behavior
706:10.1109/70.744606
627:(10): 1115–1129.
621:Advanced Robotics
554:978-0-19-857206-0
335:978-1-4799-6885-5
197:Biological robots
186:Biological robots
148:neurotransmitters
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2540:Fictional robots
2508:Critique of work
2157:Unmanned vehicle
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873:(6): 1423–1430.
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2402:Amazon Robotics
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2295:Motion planning
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2152:Continuum robot
2135:Classifications
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1993:Anthropomorphic
1974:
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1961:AI competitions
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1813:Neuroplasticity
1808:Neuromodulation
1803:Neuromanagement
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1990:
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1976:
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1968:
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1554:Chronobiology
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1358:
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1199:
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1168:
1164:
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1143:(7): 465–74.
1142:
1138:
1134:
1127:
1124:
1119:
1115:
1110:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1086:(2): 025002.
1085:
1081:
1077:
1070:
1067:
1062:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1029:(2): 025001.
1028:
1024:
1020:
1013:
1010:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
988:
980:
977:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
945:
942:
937:
933:
928:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
896:
893:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
861:
858:
853:
849:
845:
841:
834:
831:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
799:
796:
791:
787:
782:
777:
773:
769:
765:
758:
755:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
723:
720:
715:
711:
707:
703:
700:(1): 96–110.
699:
695:
688:
685:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
653:
651:
647:
642:
638:
634:
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613:
611:
607:
602:
598:
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586:
582:
578:
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556:
550:
546:
539:
536:
531:
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523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
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496:
493:
488:
484:
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476:
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453:
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429:
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396:
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385:
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366:
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345:
341:
337:
331:
327:
323:
319:
318:
309:
306:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
278:(12): 553–7.
277:
273:
266:
263:
257:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
234:
230:
228:
224:
217:
215:
213:
212:consciousness
208:
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202:
198:
193:
185:
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169:
165:
158:
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149:
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139:
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133:
129:
125:
117:
115:
113:
112:muscle memory
108:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
74:
72:
70:
61:
59:
56:
52:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
18:
17:Neurorobotics
2569:
2557:
2326:Evolutionary
2273:Robotic fins
2226:Robotic fish
2211:Telerobotics
2184:Nanorobotics
2174:Mobile robot
2111:Food service
2106:Agricultural
1956:Competitions
1941:Hall of Fame
1857:
1845:
1793:Neuroimaging
1788:Neurogenesis
1706:
1672:Neurohistory
1637:Neurobiotics
1536:neuroscience
1504:Neurosurgery
1429:Epileptology
1411:neuroscience
1380:Neurophysics
1370:Neurometrics
1345:Neurobiology
1340:Neuroanatomy
1310:Connectomics
1244:Neuroscience
1140:
1136:
1126:
1083:
1079:
1069:
1026:
1022:
1012:
986:
979:
954:
950:
944:
909:
905:
895:
870:
866:
860:
843:
839:
833:
808:
804:
798:
771:
767:
757:
732:
728:
722:
697:
693:
687:
665:(3): 72–80.
662:
658:
624:
620:
576:
572:
544:
538:
505:
501:
495:
478:
474:
468:
427:
423:
410:
398:. Retrieved
394:
384:
372:. Retrieved
363:
357:Röhrbein F,
352:
316:
308:
275:
271:
265:
225:
221:
209:
195:
175:
166:
162:
153:
140:
121:
109:
101:muscle fiber
78:
65:
57:
53:
40:
36:
21:neuroscience
16:
15:
2346:Open-source
2199:Space probe
2189:Necrobotics
2179:Microbotics
2142:Biorobotics
2071:Educational
2054:Articulated
2035:Animatronic
2020:Claytronics
1662:Neuroethics
1509:Neurotology
1137:Spinal Cord
579:(3): 82–6.
136:mental maps
132:place cells
128:hippocampus
2587:Categories
2386:Ubiquitous
2376:Perceptual
2283:Navigation
2238:Locomotion
2216:Underwater
2101:Disability
2049:Industrial
1823:Neurotoxin
1524:Psychiatry
258:References
190:See also:
85:Locomotion
49:prosthetic
2437:Figure AI
2395:Companies
2371:Paradigms
2356:Adaptable
2336:Simulator
2030:Automaton
2025:Companion
1936:Geography
1768:Neurochip
1534:Cognitive
1459:Neurology
344:206713899
2603:Robotics
2559:Category
2477:Symbotic
2427:FarmWise
2381:Situated
2351:Software
2319:Research
2263:Climbing
2086:Military
2081:Juggling
2066:Domestic
1998:Humanoid
1921:Glossary
1902:Robotics
1847:Category
1731:Concepts
1677:Neurolaw
1409:Clinical
1159:10438112
1118:28094764
1061:28084217
1004:67790806
936:18584059
887:17969004
825:35959217
790:12122030
749:12371520
679:16807722
641:18575829
601:17860567
593:21227083
522:11984652
452:17347441
359:Laschi C
231:See also
105:efferent
97:afferent
81:feedback
41:in vitro
25:robotics
2571:Outline
2501:Related
2492:Yaskawa
2407:Anybots
2287:mapping
2256:Hexapod
2251:Walking
2096:Service
2091:Medical
2003:Android
1988:Aerobot
1931:History
1916:Outline
1859:Commons
1272:science
1260:History
1255:Outline
1167:8419555
1109:5394229
1088:Bibcode
1052:5540665
1031:Bibcode
971:1263639
927:2440704
714:8061163
530:8051621
460:3193002
432:Bibcode
424:Science
400:9 April
374:9 April
300:5634365
292:9416664
37:in vivo
2462:IRobot
2246:Tracks
2167:ground
2162:aerial
2116:Retail
2013:Gynoid
2008:Cyborg
1946:Ethics
1595:fields
1165:
1157:
1116:
1106:
1059:
1049:
1002:
969:
934:
924:
885:
823:
788:
747:
712:
677:
639:
599:
591:
551:
528:
520:
458:
450:
342:
332:
298:
290:
192:Hybrot
124:memory
45:robots
27:, and
2432:FANUC
2341:Suite
2206:Swarm
1980:Types
1926:Index
1270:Basic
1163:S2CID
1000:S2CID
967:S2CID
883:S2CID
821:S2CID
710:S2CID
675:S2CID
637:S2CID
597:S2CID
526:S2CID
456:S2CID
420:(PDF)
368:(PDF)
340:S2CID
296:S2CID
2467:KUKA
2331:Kits
2285:and
1951:Laws
1155:PMID
1114:PMID
1057:PMID
932:PMID
786:PMID
745:PMID
589:PMID
549:ISBN
518:PMID
448:PMID
402:2017
376:2017
330:ISBN
288:PMID
39:and
2059:arm
1145:doi
1104:PMC
1096:doi
1047:PMC
1039:doi
992:doi
959:doi
922:PMC
914:doi
875:doi
848:doi
813:doi
776:doi
737:doi
702:doi
667:doi
629:doi
581:doi
510:doi
483:doi
440:doi
428:315
322:doi
280:doi
103:in
2589::
1161:.
1153:.
1141:37
1139:.
1135:.
1112:.
1102:.
1094:.
1084:14
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1055:.
1045:.
1037:.
1027:14
1025:.
1021:.
998:.
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955:12
953:.
930:.
920:.
910:11
908:.
904:.
881:.
871:28
869:.
844:55
842:.
819:.
809:13
807:.
784:.
772:12
770:.
766:.
743:.
733:15
731:.
708:.
698:15
696:.
673:.
663:16
661:.
649:^
635:.
625:21
623:.
609:^
595:.
587:.
575:.
563:^
524:.
516:.
506:86
504:.
479:37
477:.
454:.
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438:.
426:.
422:.
393:.
338:.
328:.
294:.
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276:20
274:.
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1894:e
1887:t
1880:v
1236:e
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1222:v
1169:.
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1098::
1090::
1063:.
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1006:.
994::
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938:.
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889:.
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854:.
850::
827:.
815::
792:.
778::
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