Miasma theory - Knowledge (XXG)

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especially such as are common to all countries, and then such as are peculiar to each locality. We must also consider the qualities of the waters, for as they differ from one another in taste and weight, so also do they differ much in their qualities. In the same manner, when one comes into a city to which he is a stranger, he ought to consider its situation, how it lies as to the winds and the rising of the sun; for its influence is not the same whether it lies to the north or the south, to the rising or to the setting sun. These things one ought to consider most attentively, and concerning the waters which the inhabitants use, whether they be marshy and soft, or hard, and running from elevated and rocky situations, and then if saltish and unfit for cooking; and the ground, whether it be naked and deficient in water, or wooded and well watered, and whether it lies in a hollow, confined situation, or is elevated and cold; and the mode in which the inhabitants live, and what are their pursuits, whether they are fond of drinking and eating to excess, and given to indolence, or are fond of exercise and labor, and not given to excess in eating and drinking.

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sources. Though his research supported his hypothesis that contaminated water, not foul air, was the source of cholera epidemics, a review committee concluded that Snow's findings were not significant enough to warrant change, and they were summarily dismissed. Additionally, other interests intervened in the process of reform. Many water companies and civic authorities pumped water directly from contaminated sources such as the Thames to public wells, and the idea of changing sources or implementing filtration techniques was an unattractive economic prospect. In the face of such economic interests, reform was slow to be adopted.

163: 673:, the miasma theory helped establish the connection between poor sanitation and disease. That encouraged cleanliness and spurred public health reforms which, in Britain, led to the Public Health Acts of 1848 and 1858, and the Local Government Act of 1858. The latter of those enabled the instituting of investigations into the health and sanitary regulations of any town or place, upon the petition of residents or as a result of death rates exceeding the norm. Early medical and sanitary engineering reformers included Henry Austin, 2266: 40: 2816: 716:. Encouraged by the Great Stink, Parliament sanctioned Bazalgette to design and construct a comprehensive system of sewers, which intercepted London's sewage and diverted it away from its water supply. The system helped purify London's water and saved the city from epidemics. In 1866, the last of the three great British cholera epidemics took hold in a small area of 826:

which attributed high numbers of cholera cases to water sources that were contaminated with human waste. Snow used statistical data to show that citizens who received their water from upstream sources were considerably less likely to develop cholera than those who received their water from downstream

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were caused by miasma, emanating from rotting organic matter. Though miasma theory is typically associated with the spread of contagious diseases, some academics in the early nineteenth century suggested that the theory extended to other conditions as well, e.g. one could become obese by inhaling the

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in anthrax bacteria, which could remain dormant under specific conditions. However, under optimal conditions, the spores were activated and caused disease. To determine this causative agent, he dry-fixed bacterial cultures onto glass slides, used dyes to stain the cultures, and observed them through

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In the early 19th century, the living conditions in industrialized cities in Britain were increasingly unsanitary. The population was growing at a much faster rate than the infrastructure could support. For example, the population of Manchester doubled within a single decade, leading to overcrowding

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The idea of "contagion", as explaining the spread of disease, appears to have been adopted at a time when, from the neglect of sanitary arrangements, epidemics attacked whole masses of people, and when men had ceased to consider that nature had any laws for her guidance. Beginning with the poets and

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Fear of miasma registered in many early nineteenth-century warnings concerning what was termed "unhealthy fog". The presence of fog was thought to strongly indicate the presence of miasma. The miasmas were thought to behave like smoke or mist, blown with air currents, wafted by winds. It was thought

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was considered dangerous in most Western cultures. Throughout the 19th century, the medical community was divided on the explanation for disease proliferation. On one side were the contagionists, believing disease was passed through physical contact, while others believed disease was present in the

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The ancient Chinese thought that miasma was related to the environment of parts of Southern China. The miasma was thought to be caused by the heat, moisture and the dead air in the Southern Chinese mountains. They thought that insects' waste polluted the air, the fog, and the water, and the virgin

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Miasma was considered to be a poisonous vapor or mist filled with particles from decomposed matter (miasmata) that caused illnesses. The miasmatic position was that diseases were the product of environmental factors such as contaminated water, foul air, and poor hygienic conditions. Such infection

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After careful inquiry, we see no reason to adopt this belief. We do not feel it established that the water was contaminated in the manner alleged; nor is there before us any sufficient evidence to show whether inhabitants of that district, drinking from that well, suffered in proportion more than

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However, Southern China was highly developed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The environment changed rapidly, and after the 19th century, western science and medical knowledge were introduced into China, and people knew how to distinguish and deal with the disease. The concept of miasma therefore

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London was the first city to create a complex civic administration which could coordinate modern urban services, from public transport to housing, clean water to education. London's County Council was acknowledged as the most progressive metropolitan government in the world. Fifty years earlier,

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The miasma theory did contribute to containing disease in urban settlements, but did not allow the adoption of a suitable approach to the reuse of excreta in agriculture. It was a major factor in the practice of collecting human excreta from urban settlements and reusing them in the surrounding

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Similar topics and feelings toward the miasma-infected south are often reflected in early Chinese poetry and records. Most scholars of the time agreed that the geological environments in the south had a direct impact on the population composition and growth. Many historical records reflect that

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In descriptions by ancient travelers, soldiers, or local officials (most of them are men of letters) of the phenomenon of miasma, fog, haze, dust, gas, or poison geological gassing were always mentioned. The miasma was thought to have caused a lot of diseases such as the cold, influenza, heat

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Whoever wishes to investigate medicine properly, should proceed thus: in the first place to consider the seasons of the year, and what effects each of them produces for they are not at all alike, but differ much from themselves in regard to their changes. Then the winds, the hot and the cold,

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Many people, especially the weak or infirm, avoided breathing night air by going indoors and keeping windows and doors shut. In addition to ideas associated with zymotic theory, there was also a general fear that cold or cool air spread disease. The fear of night air gradually disappeared as

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That is possible; but I believe that the poison of the cholera is either swallowed in water, or got directly from some other person in the family, or in the room; I believe it is quite an exception for it to be conveyed in the air; though if the matter gets dry it may be wafted a short

379:, scholars-bureaucrats sent to be the local officials recorded and investigated miasma. As a result, the government became concerned about the severe cases and the causes of miasma by sending doctors to the areas of epidemic to research the disease and heal the patients. In the 561:

To assume the method of propagation by touch, whether by the person or of infected articles, and to overlook that by the corruption of the air, is at once to increase the real danger, from exposure to noxious effluvia, and to divert attention from the true means of remedy and

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was not passed between individuals but would affect individuals within the locale that gave rise to such vapors. It was identifiable by its foul smell. It was also initially believed that miasmas were propagated through worms from ulcers within those affected by a plague.

137:: specific germs, not miasma, caused specific diseases. However, cultural beliefs about getting rid of odor made the clean-up of waste a high priority for cities. It also encouraged the construction of well-ventilated hospital facilities, schools and other buildings. 449:

females were less prone to miasma infection, and mortality rates were much higher in the south, especially for the men. This directly influenced agriculture cultivation and the southern economy, as men were the engine of agriculture production. Zhou Qufei (

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For when the morning breezes blow toward the town at sunrise, if they bring with them mist from marshes and, mingled with the mist, the poisonous breath of creatures of the marshes to be wafted into the bodies of the inhabitants, they will make the site

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which showed dramatic increases in both morbidity and mortality rates since the beginning of urbanization in the early 19th century. Though Chadwick proposed reform on the basis of the miasma theory, his proposals did contribute to improvements in

279:(1820–1910) was a proponent of the theory and worked to make hospitals sanitary and fresh-smelling. It was stated in 'Notes on Nursing for the Labouring Classes' (1860) that Nightingale would "keep the air breathes as pure as the external air." 472:

This inherent environmental threat also prevented immigration from other regions. Hence, development in the damp and sultry south was much slower than in the north, where the dynasties' political power resided for much of early Chinese history.

321:) is an old concept of illness, used extensively by ancient Chinese local chronicles and works of literature. Miasma has different names in Chinese culture. Most of the explanations of miasma refer to it as a kind of sickness, or poison gas. 608:

Chadwick saw the problem of cholera and typhoid epidemics as being directly related to urbanization, and he proposed that new, independent sewerage systems should be connected to homes. Chadwick supported his proposal with reports from the

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The miasma theory was consistent with the observation that disease was associated with poor sanitation, and hence foul odours, and that sanitary improvements reduced disease. However, it was inconsistent with the findings arising from

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In 1846, the Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Act was passed to identify whether the transmission of cholera was by air or by water. The act was used to encourage owners to clean their dwellings and connect them to sewers.

770:) in the water. He suggested this before and in response to a cholera epidemic on Broad Street in central London in 1854. Because of the miasmatic theory's predominance among Italian scientists, the discovery in the same year by 364:. In his book, he discussed dysentery in another chapter, and malaria in a single chapter. He also claimed that miasma caused various diseases, so he suggested that one should find apt and specific ways to resolve problems. 752:. If infectious diseases were spread by noxious gases emitted from decaying organic matter, that included decaying corpses. The public health argument for cremation faded with the eclipsing of the miasma theory of disease. 574:

historians, the word finally made its way into scientific nomenclature, where it has remained ever since a satisfactory explanation for pestilence and an adequate excuse for non-exertion to prevent its recurrence.

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By 1866, eight years after the death of John Snow, William Farr publicly acknowledged that the miasma theory on the transmission of cholera was wrong, by his statistical justification on the death rate.

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comes from ancient Greek and though conceptually, there is no word in English that has the same exact meaning, it can be loosely translated as 'stain' or 'pollution'. The idea also gave rise to the name

255:, the assistant commissioner for the 1851 London census, was an important supporter of the miasma theory. He believed that cholera was transmitted by air, and that there was a deadly concentration of 375:, there was no description of miasma. During the Eastern Jin, large numbers of northern people moved south, and miasma was then recognized by men of letters and nobility. After the Sui and the 760:

Although the connection between germ and disease was proposed quite early, it was not until the late 1800s that the germ theory was generally accepted. The miasmatic theory was challenged by

618:, such as preventing the reflux of noxious air from sewers back into houses by using separate drainage systems in the design of sanitation. That led, incidentally, to decreased outbreaks of 741:

scheme was common in major cities in the 19th century before the introduction of sewer-based sanitation systems. Nowadays, the reuse of excreta, when done in a hygienic manner, is known as

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Throughout the 19th century, concern about public health and sanitation, along with the influence of the miasma theory, were reasons for the advocacy of the then-controversial practice of

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is notable for helping to make the connection between cholera and typhoid epidemics and contaminated water sources, which contributed to the eventual demise of miasma theory. During the

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In 1855, John Snow made a testimony against the Amendment to the "Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Act" that regularized air pollution of some industries. He claimed that:

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The terrifying miasma diseases in the southern regions of China made it the primary location for relegating officials and sending criminals to exile since the Qin-Han dynasty. Poet

650:" in London in the summer of 1858, led proponents of the theory to observe that sewers enclosed the refuse of the human bowel, which medical science had discovered could teem with 1808: 3885: 1469: 1428: 904:) in 1876 while working in Wöllstein. His publication in 1877 on the structure of anthrax bacterium marked the first photography of a bacterium. He discovered the formation of 605:, asserted that "all smell is disease", and maintained that a fundamental change in the structure of sanitation systems was needed to combat increasing urban mortality rates. 820:. Snow convinced the local government to remove the pump handle, which resulted in a marked decrease in cases of cholera in the area. In 1857, Snow submitted a paper to the 2355: 228: 720:. However, the area was not yet connected to Bazalgette's system, and the confined area of the epidemic acted as testament to the efficiency of the system's design. 597:

and a significant increase in waste accumulation. The miasma theory of disease made sense to the sanitary reformers of the mid-19th century. Miasmas explained why

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air in the form of miasma, and thus could proliferate without physical contact. Two members of the latter group were Dr. Thomas S. Smith and Florence Nightingale.

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Valenčius, Conevery B. The Health of the Country: How American Settlers Understood Themselves and Their Land. New York: Basic Books, 2002. pp. 115–17. Print.

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that miasma did not simply travel on air but changed the air through which it propagated; the atmosphere was infected by miasma, as diseased people were.

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a microscope. His work with anthrax is notable in that he was the first to link a specific microorganism with a specific disease, rejecting the idea of

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in urbanized areas. The wide acceptance of miasma theory during the cholera outbreaks overshadowed the partially correct theory brought forth by

2854: 2302: 1282: 973: 333:, or dysentery. In the medical history of China, malaria had been referred to by different names in different dynasty periods. Poisoning and 1612: 3406: 2348: 1524: 1046:

Hippocrates in Context: Papers Read at the XIth International Hippocrates Colloquium (University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 27-31 August 2002)

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that cholera was spread through water. This slowed the response to the major outbreaks in the Soho district of London and other areas. The

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The prevalent belief and predominant fear of the southern region with its "poisonous air and gases" is evident in historical documents.

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and other diseases were epidemic in places where the water was stagnant and foul-smelling. A leading sanitary reformer, London's

3597: 3093: 2820: 2341: 1871: 1155: 418: 514:) rose from the soil and spread diseases. Miasmata were believed to come from rotting vegetation and foul water—especially in 162: 2692: 732:

London had been the worst slum city of the industrialized world: over-crowded, congested, polluted and ridden with disease...

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Particularly notable in 19th century sanitation reform is the work of Joseph Bazalgette, chief engineer to London's

413:, for example, wrote to his nephew who came to see him off after his banishment to the Chao Prefecture in his poem, 2847: 2687: 2672: 686: 527: 1738:"Sanitary Legislation. No. VII. Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Acts Consolidation and Amendment Bill". 1576: 368: 3890: 3126: 2933: 2667: 2593: 610: 1832:"The road not taken: how traditional excreta and greywater management may point the way to a sustainable future" 187:

In the fifth or fourth century BC, Hippocrates wrote about the effects of the environs over the human diseases:

3577: 3386: 3354: 3166: 3088: 2954: 2938: 2765: 2677: 2364: 2274: 2253: 1561: 1109: 698: 764:, suggesting that there was some means by which the disease was spread via a poison or morbid material (orig: 2318: 1274: 3900: 3421: 3411: 3281: 2707: 2583: 2428: 1892:"USA." Encyclopedia of Cremation. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing, 2005. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012. 822: 52: 2265: 2233:

Ed. Brenda Wilmoth Lerner and K. Lee Lerner. Detroit: Gale, 2006. Biography in Context. Web. 14 April 2013.

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Ed. Brenda Wilmoth Lerner and K. Lee Lerner. Detroit: Gale, 2007. Biography in Context. Web. 14 April 2013.

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were also called miasma in ancient China because they did not accurately understand the cause of disease.

134: 2249:"Bad Air: Pollution, Sin, and Science Fiction in William Delisle Hay's The Doom of the Great City (1880)" 3835: 3679: 3582: 3103: 3083: 2923: 2918: 2840: 2598: 2573: 2127:"Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis" 1667: 761: 742: 456: 268: 3627: 1958: 39: 2087: 1768: 1662:

Gill, Geoff (Summer 2000). "Cholera and the fight for public health reform in mid-Victorian England".

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Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, Begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis

3910: 3674: 3396: 2964: 2563: 2558: 2543: 2413: 1504: 566: 276: 3754: 3719: 3571: 3017: 2588: 2483: 1351: 80: 485:, there was also a miasma theory. Gambir was considered the first antimiasmatic application. This 3895: 3865: 3510: 3391: 3291: 3062: 2608: 2523: 2508: 2488: 2418: 2385: 1803: 1747: 1604: 1596: 942: 890: 3632: 3587: 2328: 3769: 3531: 3523: 3427: 3136: 2991: 2717: 2654: 2629: 2578: 2518: 2453: 2298: 2054:"Report of the Committee for Scientific Inquiries in Relation to the Cholera-Epidemic of 1854" 1717: 1638: 1485: 1444: 1221: 1117: 1050: 1025: 969: 738: 674: 591: 167: 1044: 3870: 3830: 3789: 3764: 3749: 3739: 3729: 3704: 3699: 3527: 3490: 3480: 3438: 3360: 3186: 3131: 3047: 2997: 2788: 2755: 2513: 2498: 2463: 2390: 2184: 2138: 1843: 1707: 1699: 1588: 1182: 1015: 1007: 927: 817: 706: 694: 292: 1903:"On Continuous Molecular Changes, More Particularly in Their Relation to Epidemic Diseases" 1355: 857:

The more formal experiments on the relationship between germ and disease were conducted by

3860: 3684: 3663: 3541: 3519: 3211: 2959: 2902: 2796: 2745: 2730: 2725: 2643: 2533: 2528: 1928: 1257: 1245: 905: 862: 682: 503: 251:. The disease was said to be preventable by cleansing and scouring of the body and items. 902:

The Etiology of Anthrax Disease, Based on the Developmental History of Bacillus Anthracis

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understanding about disease increased as well as with improvements in home heating and

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in Northern China. However, in his opinion, miasma was different from malaria and

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Years later, the influence of those sanitary reforms on Britain was described by

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accounts for disease proliferation by both direct and indirect physical contact.

3840: 3794: 3709: 3602: 3561: 3557: 3547: 3537: 3515: 3494: 3433: 3322: 3256: 3181: 3176: 3161: 3156: 2622: 2173:"Verfahren zur Untersuchung, zum Konservieren und Photographieren der Bakterien" 2080:"On the extension of the germ theory to the etiology of certain common diseases" 1671: 881: 779: 717: 647: 372: 341: 334: 272: 264: 219: 114: 84: 44: 3875: 3850: 3804: 3657: 3617: 3607: 3449: 3443: 3337: 3261: 3241: 2568: 1011: 932: 866: 615: 1635:

Miasmas and disease: Public health and environment in the pre-industrial age.

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The concept of miasma developed in several stages. First, before the Western

3825: 3592: 3381: 3271: 3221: 3206: 3201: 3146: 3116: 2662: 2438: 2405: 1546:龔勝生，〈2000年來中國瘴病分布變遷的初步研究〉，《地理學報》，第48卷第4期，(西安：陜西師範大學中國歷史地理研究所，1993)，頁305–312。 1463:牟重行，王彩萍，〈中國歷史上的「瘴氣」考釋〉，《國立臺灣師範大學地理研究報告》，(第38期，台北：國立臺灣師範大學地理學系，2003)，頁25–26。 1240: 1179:

Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert - Collaborative Translation Project

805: 749: 702: 639: 387:, versions of local chronicles record different miasma in different places. 361: 197: 130: 126: 106: 31: 2333: 1721: 1703: 1029: 778:

that caused the disease was completely ignored. It was not until 1876 that

263:' banks. Such a belief was in part accepted because of the general lack of 171: 3845: 3376: 3332: 3286: 3022: 3007: 2897: 2882: 2740: 2548: 2503: 2172: 2126: 1422:牟重行，王彩萍，〈中國歷史上的「瘴氣」考釋〉，《國立臺灣師範大學地理研究報告》，(第38期，台北：國立臺灣師範大學地理學系，2003)，頁25。 775: 666: 535: 441:

And lovingly gather my bones, on the banks of that plague-stricken river.

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Obsolete medical theory about the transmission of disease through bad air

17: 1848: 1831: 1751: 530:. Particularly important was the understanding that the agent spreading 371:, the concept of miasma was gradually forming; at least, in the Eastern 3551: 3196: 3171: 3141: 3012: 2778: 2395: 1600: 1083:

Inescapable Ecologies: A History of Environment, Disease, and Knowledge

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in the later 19th century, which eventually led to the adoption of the

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Striving on behalf of a noble dynasty to expel an ignoble government,

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But I know that you will come from afar, to fulfil your set purpose,

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Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke, and Culture in Britain since 1800

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Bracken, P.; Wachtler, A.; Panesar, A.R.; Lange, J. (March 2007).

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spent many years comparing the miasmatic theory to contagionism.

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At dawn I sent a single warning to the throne of the Nine Steps;

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other inhabitants of the district who drank from other sources.

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At evening I was banished to Chao Yang, eight thousand leagues.

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from the original on October 4, 2023 – via academia.edu.

968:. Westminster College, Pennsylvania: Oxford University Press. 117:

in the fourth century B.C. and accepted from ancient times in

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for 'pollution'), a noxious form of "bad air", also known as

92: 1799:"European Sanitary Reform; The British Sanitary Legislation" 435:

The snow bars the passes of Lan, my horse cannot go forward.

30:"Night air" redirects here. For the song by Jamie Woon, see 996:"Death and Miasma in Victorian London: An Obstinate Belief" 962:

John M. Last, ed. (2007). "A Dictionary of Public Health".

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to kill these microorganisms before and after confinement.

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The clouds gather on Ch'in Mountains, I cannot see my home;

356:). He thought that miasma in Southern China was similar to 865:

and the pyogenic vibrio in the blood, and suggested using

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between 1860 and 1864. He discovered the pathology of the

3500: 3486: 3476: 3466: 2107: 2105: 2068:– via The John Snow Archive and Research Companion. 1917:– via The John Snow Archive and Research Companion. 812:, Snow traced high mortality rates among the citizens of 665:

Even though eventually disproved by the understanding of

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forest harbored a great environment for miasma to occur.

1413:(隋)巢元方撰，曹赤電炳章圈點，《巢氏諸病源候論》，(台北：國立中國醫藥研究所，1996)，頁30、47–51。 218:

The miasmatic theory of disease remained popular in the

1181:. Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library. 431:

How should I, withered and worn, deplore my future lot?

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In the 1850s, miasma was used to explain the spread of

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In the 1st century BC, the Roman architectural writer

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Perceptions of religious imagery in natural phenomena

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Gale, 2006. Biography in Context. Web. 14 April 2013.

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faded out due to the progress of medicine in China.

3818: 3459: 3305: 3076: 2983: 2947: 2911: 2870: 2787: 2764: 2716: 2653: 2607: 2404: 2371: 790:, which brought a definitive end to miasma theory. 1348:AS Science for Public Understanding. Teacher Notes 745:, and is promoted as a way of "closing the loop". 249:Haussmann's later renovation of the French capital 1096:Chasing Dirt: The American Pursuit of Cleanliness 1733: 1731: 229:Suspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air 845: 832: 729: 571: 559: 423: 211: 189: 209:) from fetid swamplands when visiting a city: 154:(literally 'bad air') through medieval Italy. 2848: 2349: 894:. He published the discovery in a booklet as 450: 404: 316: 310: 8: 895: 1341:"Development of the Germ Theory of Disease" 913:and supporting the germ theory of disease. 765: 204: 200:described the potential effects of miasma ( 174:in 1613 about prevention against "bad air". 2855: 2841: 2833: 2356: 2342: 2334: 2319:Prevailing theories before the germ theory 1836:Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 1577:"How Night Air Became Good Air, 1776-1930" 1383:Notes on Nursing for the Labouring Classes 489:is found in Southern India and Sri Lanka. 1847: 1763: 1761: 1711: 1019: 586:Influence on sanitary engineering reforms 125:. The theory was eventually abandoned by 2131:Cohns Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen 1177:Malouin, Paul-Jacques (1765). "Miasma". 538:(active at night) rather than miasmata. 2137:(2). Robert Koch-Institut: 277 (1–22). 954: 622:and thus helped to support the theory. 2195:from the original on February 27, 2020 1490:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 1483: 1449:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 1442: 1219: 1208:from the original on November 29, 2021 506:theory, people believed vapors called 493:Developments from 19th century onwards 2247:Beasley, Brett (September 30, 2015). 2231:World of Microbiology and Immunology. 2113:World of Microbiology and Immunology. 2060:from the original on January 10, 2018 2034:from the original on October 26, 2017 1969:from the original on January 25, 2016 1909:from the original on January 10, 2018 1811:from the original on February 7, 2017 1657: 1655: 1653: 1651: 1289:from the original on January 17, 2017 1283:UCLA Fielding School of Public Health 1158:from the original on February 8, 2018 462:Representative Answers from the South 7: 3407:Russian traditions and superstitions 1779:from the original on October 2, 2013 989: 987: 985: 646:, and brought to prominence by the " 2282:Bulletin of the History of Medicine 2275:"A Brief History of Miasmic Theory" 1939:from the original on March 10, 2016 1874:from the original on August 3, 2020 1527:from the original on March 19, 2012 1472:from the original on March 25, 2012 1431:from the original on March 25, 2012 1275:"Brief History During the Snow Era" 2177:Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen 2152:from the original on June 10, 2016 1615:from the original on March 5, 2009 1128:from the original on June 17, 2023 1063:from the original on June 25, 2021 884:is widely known for his work with 800:1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak 794:1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak 113:The miasma theory was advanced by 25: 3906:Superstitions in Muslim societies 2698:Medical community of ancient Rome 2683:Food and diet in ancient medicine 2203:– via Robert Koch-Institut. 2000:from the original on June 3, 2017 2815: 2814: 2703:Nutrition in classical antiquity 2264: 2216:"Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch." 1870:. Heritage Council of Victoria. 1864:"Market Gardeners Tram Plateway" 1506:, Translated by Arthur Waley in 1354:. March 25, 2009. Archived from 546:Prior to the late 19th century, 3094:Superstition in the Philippines 2024:"Competing Theories of Cholera" 1687:"'The insidious foe'—sewer gas" 1108:Anthes, Emily (June 17, 2023). 455:), a local magistrate from the 55:emanating a deadly black cloud. 2693:Mental illness in ancient Rome 2218:World of Scientific Discovery. 1929:"John Snow's Cholera Map Maps" 1746:(131): 619–621. July 6, 1855. 1380:Nightingale, Florence (1861). 1285:, Department of Epidemiology. 542:Contagionism versus miasmatism 305: 226:contributed to Robert Boyle's 1: 3881:Obsessive–compulsive disorder 3638:End-of-the-day betting effect 3402:Ravens of the Tower of London 3318:Barbary macaques in Gibraltar 1637:Yale University Press, 1992. 1202:"On Airs, Waters, and Places" 348:mentioned miasma in his book 3505:Seventh son of a seventh son 853:Experiments by Louis Pasteur 459:, described in his treatise 133:after 1880, replaced by the 2539:Quintus Gargilius Martialis 1868:Victorian Heritage Database 1740:Association Medical Journal 1043:van der Eijk, P.J. (2005). 714:Metropolitan Board of Works 395:Influence in Southern China 3968: 3292:Numbers in Chinese culture 2688:Gynecology in ancient Rome 2673:Disability in ancient Rome 2111:"Germ theory of disease." 1575:Baldwin, Peter C. (2003). 1256:December 14, 2023, at the 994:Halliday, Stephen (2001). 797: 782:proved that the bacterium 756:Replacement by germ theory 611:London Statistical Society 589: 93: 29: 3937:Obsolete medical theories 3891:Post hoc ergo propter hoc 3127:Ghosts in Bengali culture 2810: 2668:Dentistry in ancient Rome 2297:. Ohio University Press. 2293:Thorsheim, Peter (2006). 2273:Sterner, Carl S. (2007). 1959:"Robert Koch (1843–1910)" 1187:2027/spo.did2222.0000.369 1012:10.1136/bmj.323.7327.1469 451: 405: 350:On Pathogen and Syndromes 317: 311: 296: 3578:Auspicious wedding dates 3355:Icelandic magical staves 3167:Puppy pregnancy syndrome 3089:Superstition in Pakistan 2955:Superstition in Ethiopia 2939:Theatrical superstitions 2678:Disease in Imperial Rome 2365:Medicine in ancient Rome 2254:The Public Domain Review 1963:www.sciencemuseum.org.uk 1556:Satti, Jahangir (2009). 1226:: CS1 maint: location ( 1110:"The New War on Bad Air" 810:cholera epidemic of 1854 69:abandoned medical theory 53:robed, skeletal creature 3901:Superstition in Judaism 3422:Spilling water for luck 3412:Superstition in Britain 2708:Surgery in ancient Rome 2429:Asclepiades of Bithynia 1685:Whorton, James (2001). 1309:"Who was William Farr?" 1152:www.merriam-webster.com 1000:British Medical Journal 823:British Medical Journal 737:farmland. That type of 105:. The theory held that 3670:Four eleven forty-four 3417:Superstition in Serbia 3099:Japanese superstitions 2934:Sailors' superstitions 2929:List of bad luck signs 2434:Aulus Cornelius Celsus 2171:Koch, Robert (2010) . 2125:Koch, Robert (2010) . 2084:ebooks.adelaide.edu.au 1704:10.1136/ewjm.175.6.427 1537:, 宋周去非, 嶺外代答, 卷十, 276. 1148:"Definition of MIASMA" 923:Germ theory of disease 911:spontaneous generation 896: 850: 837: 766: 734: 636:germ theory of disease 576: 564: 555:Thomas Southwood Smith 443: 216: 205: 194: 175: 135:germ theory of disease 56: 3836:Astrology and science 3583:Baseball superstition 3104:Superstition in Korea 3084:Superstition in India 2924:List of lucky symbols 2919:List of superstitions 2574:Charmis of Marseilles 1581:Environmental History 1386:. Harrison. p. 7 1049:. BRILL. p. 17. 743:ecological sanitation 669:and the discovery of 654:, cholera, and other 457:Southern Song dynasty 344:(581–618 CE), doctor 165: 51:depicts cholera as a 42: 3952:Wetlands in folklore 3911:Traditional medicine 3397:Rabbit rabbit rabbit 2564:Crinas of Marseilles 2559:Athenaeus of Attalia 2544:Thessalus of Tralles 2414:Pedanius Dioscorides 2090:on September 8, 2017 1769:"Stanford Libraries" 1521:"嶺外代答 - 维基文库，自由的图书馆" 567:Florence Nightingale 309:; alternative names 277:Florence Nightingale 247:, partly justifying 3720:Maternal impression 3572:Number of the Beast 3343:The Goodman's Croft 3018:Curse of Tippecanoe 2484:Marcellus Empiricus 2022:Frerichs, Ralph R. 1988:Frerichs, Ralph R. 1849:10.2166/ws.2007.025 1352:Nuffield Foundation 1006:(7327): 1469–1471. 816:to a water pump in 3896:Questionable cause 3866:Magic and religion 3628:Davy Jones' Locker 3392:Powder of sympathy 3063:White lighter myth 2609:Medical literature 2524:Serenus Sammonicus 2509:Criton of Heraclea 2489:Caelius Aurelianus 2419:Soranus of Ephesus 1990:"Snow's Testimony" 1804:The New York Times 1773:Stanford Libraries 1666:(66). London: 10. 1633:Cipolla, Carlo M. 1114:The New York Times 943:Indoor air quality 891:Bacillus anthracis 784:Bacillus anthracis 291:In China, miasma ( 176: 87:—were caused by a 57: 3924: 3923: 3770:Sign of the horns 3675:Gambler's conceit 3532:triskaidekaphobia 3524:The Thirteen Club 3428:The Scottish Play 3137:Kuai Kuai culture 2992:Ascalapha odorata 2830: 2829: 2630:De materia medica 2579:Scribonius Largus 2519:Marcellus of Side 2454:Antiochis of Tlos 2304:978-0-8214-1681-5 2056:. July 14, 1855. 1807:. July 31, 1865. 1558:"Miasma Analysis" 1361:on March 25, 2009 1321:on March 25, 2009 1098:(1996) pp. 104–13 975:978-0-19-516090-1 739:resource recovery 681:, Frank Forster, 675:Joseph Bazalgette 592:Sanitary movement 168:Sebastian Petrycy 63:(also called the 16:(Redirected from 3959: 3871:Magical thinking 3831:Apotropaic magic 3765:Shoes on a table 3740:Numismatic charm 3705:Law of contagion 3700:Knocking on wood 3598:Bread and butter 3528:thirteenth floor 3491:Four-leaf clover 3481:Three on a match 3439:Tycho Brahe days 3361:In bocca al lupo 3187:Okiagari-koboshi 3048:Oscar love curse 2998:Bermuda Triangle 2857: 2850: 2843: 2834: 2818: 2817: 2756:Pneumatic school 2514:Sextus Empiricus 2499:Gessius of Petra 2464:Aurelius Opilius 2391:Spoon of Diocles 2358: 2351: 2344: 2335: 2324:Cholera theories 2308: 2289: 2279: 2269: 2268: 2262: 2234: 2227: 2221: 2214: 2205: 2204: 2202: 2200: 2168: 2162: 2161: 2159: 2157: 2151: 2122: 2116: 2109: 2100: 2099: 2097: 2095: 2086:. 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2367: 2362: 2329:Term definition 2315: 2305: 2292: 2277: 2272: 2263: 2246: 2243: 2241:Further reading 2238: 2237: 2229:"Robert Koch." 2228: 2224: 2215: 2208: 2198: 2196: 2170: 2169: 2165: 2155: 2153: 2149: 2124: 2123: 2119: 2110: 2103: 2093: 2091: 2078: 2077: 2073: 2063: 2061: 2052: 2051: 2047: 2037: 2035: 2028:www.ph.ucla.edu 2021: 2020: 2013: 2003: 2001: 1994:www.ph.ucla.edu 1987: 1986: 1982: 1972: 1970: 1957: 1956: 1952: 1942: 1940: 1927: 1926: 1922: 1912: 1910: 1901: 1900: 1896: 1891: 1887: 1877: 1875: 1862: 1861: 1857: 1829: 1828: 1824: 1814: 1812: 1797: 1796: 1792: 1782: 1780: 1767: 1766: 1759: 1737: 1736: 1729: 1684: 1683: 1679: 1661: 1660: 1649: 1632: 1628: 1618: 1616: 1593:10.2307/3986202 1574: 1573: 1569: 1555: 1554: 1550: 1545: 1541: 1530: 1528: 1519: 1518: 1514: 1503: 1499: 1482: 1475: 1473: 1466:"Archived copy" 1464: 1462: 1458: 1441: 1434: 1432: 1425:"Archived copy" 1423: 1421: 1417: 1412: 1408: 1403: 1399: 1389: 1387: 1379: 1378: 1374: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1343: 1339: 1338: 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