889:, but many of them did not produce studies using environmentally relevant levels of the pollutant, and no studies have been published assessing the combined toxicity of microplastics and harmful chemicals such as UV filters. In order to accurately predict and manage risk, we need further studies on plastic pollution and harmful chemicals impact on marine life. Priority should be given to large scale, rapid screening of common organic pollutants and realistically weathered micro and nanoplastics to replicate oceanic conditions as closely as is possible in an ecotoxicological assay. Detailed studies aimed at the size and concentration of plastics and other emerging contaminants in the ocean are thus highly valuable to inform risk to coastal communities and the environment once they deposit.
520:. Within governance, it incorporates the influence of non-state actors, i.e. stakeholders, NGOs and so forth, therefore the state is not the only acting power in policy making. However, ocean governance is complex because much of the ocean is a commons that is not âownedâ by any single person or nation/state. There is a belief more strongly in the US than other countries that the âinvisible handâ is the best method to determine ocean governance factors. These include factors such as what resources we consume, what price we should pay for them, and how we should use them. The underlying reasoning behind this is the market has to have the desire in order to promote environmental protection, however this is rarely the case. This term is referred to as a
706:âThe governance model proposed for Integrated Management is one of collaboration. It involves ocean management decisions based on shared information, on consultation with stakeholders, and on their advisory or management participation in the planning process. It is also based on institutional arrangements that bring together all stakeholders. Participants take an active part in designing, implementing and monitoring the effectiveness of coastal and ocean management plans, and partners enter into agreements on ocean management plans with specific responsibilities, powers and obligations. It is also recognized that in specific cases, Integrated Management and planning may be achieved through co-management.â
769:. This Declaration highlights that states need to recognize the importance that Indigenous and local communities play in sustainable environmental policy making. Also the stakeholders should play a responsible role with the government in a form of co-management to manage ocean resources. The stakeholders should play a responsible role for the government in a form of co-management to manage the ocean as the Community-based management in the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development recognizes the importance of community based play. In addition, the local communities should also be given a role of management for sustainable environmental policy making.
784:
successful integrated ocean policy requires political leadership and oversight. Because ocean governance depends on the integrated management process within one state, the engagement of all corporations and government ministries should function at a national level with focus directed to the oceans. The issue of ocean development at a national level is currently low on a political agenda as mentioned above, but for there to be a successful integration of ocean policies leading to developments, the oversight in creating new structures and integrations must be sustainable.
623:,â that via an international organization would allow them to benefit from a sharing of these resources. However, the developed world, in particular the United States, was not in favor of this and preferring a first-come, first-served approach, with some suggesting this position was based on self-economic interest. Only in 1994 did the United States renounce their objections so that the Convention could be enacted.
68:
27:
847:
shareholders (individual/corporation, community or fishersâ collective) that are linked directly to the productivity and value of the resource. Consequently shareholders appreciate the resource more and overfishing may be reduced. When shareholders have an individual fishery share that they depend on and benefit from, competition may be reduced and sustainability improved.
130:
858:(MSC) introduced such incentives through a fishery certification program, with the incentive that the consumer will buy fish only caught by sustainable fisheries. This in turn creates a cycle that encourages the producer to abide by sustainable practices. To date (December 2011) there are currently 135 certified fisheries in the MSC Program.
850:
There is a focus on rights-based approaches in current development programs, which have an emphasis on creating (or recreating) and supporting local institutions for the fishery. While rights may result in economic benefits, there is a possibility of monopolization by larger and powerful shareholders
606:
UNCLOS was first established under the Third UNCLOS in 1973 and fully ratified in 1982. The main aim was to adopt a regime of national seas and international waters on a global scale. It was agreed that the jurisdictional boundaries of individual states were to be enlarged to 200 nautical miles off a
690:
Since participatory governance can be time and resource-intensive, it is challenging to expand this approach to regional levels and beyond. It is also important to carefully consider which stakeholders to involve, as there may be a âparticipation paradoxâ. This paradox suggests that as the number of
729:
The ESSIM relies on the
Stakeholders Roundtable (lead stakeholders and government) and the Planning Office drafting up a management plan which is then reviewed at the ESSIM Forum (an annual stakeholdersâ meeting), community meetings and the general public. Overall, an agreement then must be reached
892:
Microplastic prevalence is overwhelmingly documented in the scientific literature yet has been the recipient of limited policy action. However, macroplastic pollution policy has some success in the US and abroad, and we can use similar methodology to incite interest in the implementation of policy
812:
is seen as the leading international body for global ocean governance. It functions with the
Secretary General making recommendations through the Consultative Process of ocean matters and the Law of the Sea, which are then annually reviewed by The General Assembly. At this scale, the international
587:
The IMO sees the regulation of marine pollution as one of its most important responsibilities. In particular, the MARPOL convention is regarded as one of its greatest successes. The result of MARPOL has meant that oil pollution has decreased due to a change in equipment standards of oil tankers to
846:
may be overcome by transitioning to rights-based fishing and self-governance, which incorporates participatory governance approaches. For this approach to work, there needs to be financial incentives that align with sustainability goals. Under such policies, âsharesâ are distributed between the
826:
Fishing is a vitally important activity, linked to food security. In 2009, 79.9 million tonnes of fish were caught from marine environments. The FAO has stated that over half (53%) of fish stocks are at full exploitation, with current catches close to the maximum sustainable production levels.
783:
At a national level, ocean governance depends on an integrated management process within one state. Such processes depend on the engagement and cooperation of all government ministries with functions or authority related to ocean sectors. Ocean issues may be low on a political agenda, therefore
682:
Agenda 21 clearly states that the public needs to be more actively involved in environmental governance, along with the other stakeholders and authoritative bodies. This notion stems from the democratic principles whereby people are empowered to choose their own government and have input into
742:
Ocean governance can be carried out at a local, national, regional or international level. However, there needs to be a link between all levels of implementation for âgoodâ ocean governance to grow from participatory governance at these different levels. However organizations frequently lack
527:
Effective ocean governance requires robust international agreements. In short, there is a need for some form of governance to maintain the ocean for its various uses, preferably in a sustainable manner. Over the years, a number of international treaties have been signed in order to regulate
796:
creates programs to be managed and coordinated by countries that share a common body of water. These Action Plans range from chemical waste to conservation of marine ecosystems. These however need to be strengthened along with The Global
Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine
524:. Market failures and government failures are the leading causes of ocean governance complications. As a result, humankind has tended to overexploit marine resources, by treating them as shared resources while not taking equal and collective responsibilities in caring for them.
851:
that will squeeze out small-scaled operations. While it may be more equitable for fisher folk to have more rights, they may lack the skills to manage fisheries information, assessment, management and negotiation; and they also lack sufficient funding to carry out these roles.
686:
Ocean governance depends on scientific knowledge, but often âlay-knowledgeâ is equally important for resource management, for example in a fishery. By relying on public participation, it's possible to come to an equitable environmental decision with the community in mind.
618:
However, the
Convention did not come into full effect despite some progress between 1973 and 1982. This was mainly due to a dispute over mineral resources, particularly manganese nodules in the deep-oceans. Developing countries preferred treating these minerals as
564:
726:. It incorporates maintaining existing jurisdictional responsibilities, inclusion, consensus, accountability, dispute resolution, networking, evolution, and learning by doing, which are all part of the governance principles in the Oceans Strategy.
1215:
BL Smith
Workgroup Inc. (2004) Eastern Scotia Shelf Integrated Management Initiative: Proposed Collaborative Planning Model. A Discussion Paper. In: ââOceans and Coastal Management Report 2004â2005ââ: Nova Scotia: Fisheries and Oceans
734:. It has been seen as fairly successful in improving communication and cooperation within government agencies, but there is room for greater inclusion of coastal community participation to fully fulfill the participatory theory.
838:
vessels violating fisheries laws, misreporting catches to authorities or fishing outside their proper jurisdiction. Illegal fishing frequently targets certain fish species with a high economic value, for example
Bluefin Tuna.
1595:
Gonzålez-Fernåndez, Carmen; Toullec, Jordan; Lambert, Christophe; Le Goïc, Nelly; Seoane, Marta; Moriceau, Brivaela; Huvet, Arnaud; Berchel, Mathieu; Vincent, Dorothée; Courcot, Lucie; Soudant, Philippe (July 2019).
635:(ISA) â An independent international institution that came into force in 1994, with the aim of acting as a custodian of ocean commons (the Common Heritage of Mankind). However its main purpose is to regulate deep
1280:
United
Nations (1992) Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Rio de Janeiro, 3â14 June 1992. Annex I âRio Declaration on Environment and Developmentâ Available at: <
660:
In addition to international bodies managing ocean resources, it has been argued that sustainable governance depends on participatory decision making. Participatory governance was first highlighted in
882:
and nanoplastic pollution. While the policy is limited, there are a few examples including the
Microbead-Free Waters Act and the Ocean Protection Council: Statewide Microplastics Strategy.
827:
Therefore, there is a need for improved international and national policies. While approximately 99% of all fishery resources are within national jurisdiction, overexploitation continues.
1234:
Kearney, J., Berkes, F., Charles, A., Pinkerton, E. and Wiber, M. (2007) The Role of
Participatory Governance and Community-Based Management in Integrated Coastal Management in Canada.
757:, that "international and regional conventions do exist, but fragmentation and the lack of strict mechanisms of regulation, control and penalization end up undermining these efforts".
651:
The
Meeting of the State Parties (SPLOS) - carried out to conform with the article 319, paragraph 2 (e) to the LOSC Convention and is concerned with administrative matters.
546:
There are two major international legal organizations that are involved in ocean governance on a global scale, the International Maritime Organization and the UNCLOS. The
1173:
De Vivero, J., Mateos, J. and del Corral, D. (2008) The paradox of public participation in fisheries governance. The rising number of actors and the devolution process.
589:
464:
992:
Birnie, P.W. (1993) The Law of the Sea and the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. In: N. Ginsburg, E. Mann Borgese and J. R. Morgan (eds.)
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To be effective Regional Development Banks (RDBs) and Regional Governmental Organizations (RGOs) participate to provide reinforcement to national organizations.
1268:
642:
Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) â Assists states in affairs to do with the establishment of outer limits of their continental shelf.
730:
with the Stakeholder Roundtable and a final plan given to appropriate federal and provincial government agencies, before acquiring final approval under the
588:
prevent operational discharge of oil. However, the main organisation concerned with the economic, environmental, ethical, peace and security issues is the
455:
813:
body for global ocean governance is responsible for reducing pressure on the oceans and seas and creating the conditions for a sustainable blue economy.
1789:"Are the primary characteristics of polystyrene nanoplastics responsible for toxicity and ad/absorption in the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum?"
866:
The proliferation of synthetic plastics and polymers continues to cause devastation to marine life. However, regulation can expedite the removal of
1787:
Sendra, Marta; Staffieri, Eleonora; Yeste, MarĂa Pilar; Moreno-Garrido, Ignacio; Gatica, JosĂ© Manuel; Corsi, Ilaria; Blasco, JuliĂĄn (June 2019).
1431:"A revisited conceptualization of plastic pollution accumulation in marine environments: Insights from a social ecological economics perspective"
550:(IMO), which was ratified in 1958 is responsible mainly for maritime safety, liability and compensation and they have held some conventions on
1496:
1103:
373:
1860:
Seoane, Marta; GonzĂĄlez-FernĂĄndez, Carmen; Soudant, Philippe; Huvet, Arnaud; Esperanza, Marta; Cid, Ăngeles; Paul-Pont, Ika (August 2019).
500:
1255:
907:
547:
675:âOne of the fundamental prerequisites for the achievement of sustainable development is broad public participation in decision-making.â
528:
international ocean governance. Current international policy goals to create more sustainable relations with the ocean are captured in
792:
At this scale, the scope of challenges expands and greater numbers of organizations have jurisdiction. The Regional Seas Programme of
608:
583:
2000 â Protocol on Preparedness, Response and Cooperation to Pollution Incidents by Hazardous and Noxious Substances (HNS Protocol).
424:
254:
187:
169:
111:
54:
40:
78:
1978:
Mao, Yufeng; Ai, Hainan; Chen, Yi; Zhang, Zhenyu; Zeng, Peng; Kang, Li; Li, Wei; Gu, Weikang; He, Qiang; Li, Hong (October 2018).
1204:
The Eastern Scotia Shelf Integrated Management (ESSIM) Initiative: Development of a Collaborative Management and Planning Process
429:
1225:
Government of Canada (1996) Canada Oceans Act, RSC 1996: Bill C-26, Chapter 31, 2nd Session, 35th Parliament, 45, Eliz. 2, 1996
809:
529:
691:
stakeholders increases in decision making, the involvement of each one and their effectiveness may be reduced in the process.
570:
1969 â International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties (INTERVENTION).
1724:
VenĂąncio, CĂĄtia; Ferreira, InĂȘs; Martins, Manuel A.; Soares, Amadeu M.V.M.; Lopes, Isabel; Oliveira, Miguel (November 2019).
632:
348:
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There are even studies that have demonstrated the toxic effects of microplastics on our oceans and marine organisms such as
1022:
1187:
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policies affecting their lives. With the inclusion of people in a decision-making process, policy legitimacy improves.
1671:"Toxic effects of microplastic on marine microalgae Skeletonema costatum: Interactions between microplastic and algae"
472:
1925:"Effects of benzophenone-3 on the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa"
147:
140:
93:
2051:
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stateâs coastline. Coastal states were given greater rights to control these areas for protective purposes and the
368:
89:
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In 2002, Canada introduced the Oceans Strategy, which was heavily based on participatory governance principles:
493:
449:
398:
343:
239:
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plans that are a collaborative effort for ecosystem, social, economic and institutional sustainability of the
1598:"Do transparent exopolymeric particles (TEP) affect the toxicity of nanoplastics on Chaetoceros neogracile?"
1051:
902:
612:
229:
1293:
Vallejo, S.M. (1994) New structures for decision-making in integrated ocean policy. In: P. B. Payoyo (ed.)
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http://www.un.org/depts/los/nippon/unnff_programme_home/fellows_pages/fellows_papers/repetto_0506_peru.pdf
668:(United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. It was stated that:
419:
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383:
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46:
1129:
875:
1256:
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/ioc-oceans/priority-areas/rio-20-ocean/ocean-governance/
1068:
874:, has been successfully reversed by employing rapid environmental policy. Similar policy, such as the
1991:
1936:
1873:
1800:
1737:
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1387:
854:
An alternative approach has been introducing market incentives to encourage sustainable fishing. The
648:(ITLOS) â This was established to handle disputes with the application and interpretations of UNCLOS.
323:
1545:
646:
Regime for the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes and the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
1862:"Polystyrene microbeads modulate the energy metabolism of the marine diatom Chaetoceros neogracile"
731:
719:
486:
328:
318:
204:
1347:
Allison, E. H. (2001) Big laws, small catches: Global ocean governance and the fisheries crisis.
870:
from the marketplace. Historically, the use of chemicals, such as coolants in refrigerators under
695:
Importance of Participatory Governance to Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management in Canada (ICOM)
2023:
1905:
1842:
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1411:
912:
843:
615:(EEZ) and the legal framework concerning the continental shelf and territorial sea were altered.
358:
313:
264:
1519:
1281:
1186:
Government of Canada (2002) Canadaâs Ocean Strategy: Our Oceans, Our Future. Available at: <
611:. In total 38 million square nautical miles of ocean space was put under jurisdiction under the
580:
1990 â International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response, and Cooperation (OPRC).
1980:"Phytoplankton response to polystyrene microplastics: Perspective from an entire growth period"
2015:
2007:
1960:
1952:
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1999:
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1617:
1484:
1442:
1395:
878:, has been used to regulate macroplastics, but now a call to action is needed in regulating
551:
286:
830:
Since the mid-1980s, numerous fishery organizations emerged but struggle to prevent global
2046:
1726:"The effects of nanoplastics on marine plankton: A case study with polymethylmethacrylate"
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835:
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1995:
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1979:
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1023:
http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_historical_perspective.htm
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521:
234:
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2003:
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Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter
2040:
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2027:
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http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/cosframework-cadresoc/pdf/im-gi-eng.pdf
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Mao, Feijian; He, Yiliang; Kushmaro, Ariel; Gin, Karina Yew-Hoong (December 2017).
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Costanza, R. (1999) The ecological, economic and social importance of the oceans.
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1546:"Text - H.R.1321 - 114th Congress (2015-2016): Microbead-Free Waters Act of 2015"
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1446:
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authority and instruments to guarantee compliance and enforcement of these laws:
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1130:"United Nations Conference on Environment & Development , 3 to 14 June 1992"
831:
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The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of
1361:
1630:
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Case Study: The Eastern Scotian Shelf Integrated Management (ESSIM) Initiative
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2011:
1956:
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United Nations Environment Program (UNEP): Regional Seas, Available at: <
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2019:
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United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
893:
directed towards the reduction and prevention of microplastic pollution.
1821:
1477:"The Montreal Protocol â An Example for Successful Environmental Policy"
516:
is the conduct of the policy, actions and affairs regarding the world's
1570:
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1669:
Zhang, Cai; Chen, Xiaohua; Wang, Jiangtao; Tan, Liju (January 2017).
601:
517:
96:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
1069:
http://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/commission_purpose.htm#Purpose
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International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
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Towards an ocean governance framework and national policy for Peru
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Structural Conflict: The Third World Against Global Liberalism
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Boesch, D.F. (1999) The role of science in ocean governance.
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The aim of the ESSIM Initiative is to create integrated and
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Fishing and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
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Sustainable Ocean Governance: A geographical perspective
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Policy, actions and affairs regarding the world's oceans
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International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS)
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McNicholas, Grace; Cotton, Matthew (September 2019).
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Ocean governance: Sustainable development of the sea
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1331:http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1820e/i1820e.pdf
602:United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
590:United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
797:Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA).
765:Community-based management is featured in the
1252:Ocean governance and institutional challenges
494:
8:
1362:http://www.msc.org/track-a-fishery/certified
656:Participatory Governance in Ocean Governance
1082:http://www.itlos.org/index.php?id=8&L=0
1038:, Berkeley: University of California Press.
968:http://www.imo.org/About/Pages/Default.aspx
966:International Maritime Organization (IMO),
55:Learn how and when to remove these messages
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1206:. Nova Scotia: Fisheries and Oceans Canada
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170:Learn how and when to remove this message
112:Learn how and when to remove this message
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1429:Gattringer, Clemens W. (October 2018).
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1730:Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety
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1047:International Seabed Authority (ISA),
817:Examples of marine resource governance
810:General Assembly of the United Nations
7:
1349:Journal of International Development
1544:Pallone, Frank (28 December 2015).
1202:Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2001)
908:The United Nations Ocean Conference
548:International Maritime Organization
1360:Marine Stewardship Council (MSC),
1139:. 3 June 1992. pp. Chapter 23
981:International Oil Pollution at Sea
627:Institutions established by UNCLOS
14:
2004:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.05.170
1518:Sullivan, Dan (11 October 2018).
955:Global Environmental Institutions
609:exploitation of natural resources
425:Sustainable Governance Indicators
36:This article has multiple issues.
558:IMO marine pollution conventions
430:Bertelsmann Transformation Index
128:
66:
25:
1067:Oceans and the Law of the Sea,
1021:Oceans and the Law of the Sea,
554:related to shipping incidents.
530:Sustainable Development Goal 14
44:or discuss these issues on the
1400:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.04.022
1049:http://www.isa.org.jm/en/about
633:International Seabed Authority
1:
1949:10.1016/j.aquatox.2017.09.029
983:. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
1886:10.1016/j.envpol.2019.04.142
1813:10.1016/j.envpol.2019.03.047
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1695:10.1016/j.envpol.2016.11.005
1622:10.1016/j.envpol.2019.04.093
1447:10.1016/j.marpol.2017.11.036
1489:10.1007/978-3-642-80180-8_8
473:Market governance mechanism
456:Governance, risk management
92:the claims made and adding
2068:
1135:. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil:
856:Marine Stewardship Council
834:. There are problems with
776:
599:
539:
465:Environmental, social, and
1162:Environmental Governance
738:Levels of implementation
613:exclusive economic zones
450:Chief governance officer
1866:Environmental Pollution
1793:Environmental Pollution
1675:Environmental Pollution
1602:Environmental Pollution
903:Earth system governance
979:Mitchell, R.B. (1994)
957:, Abingdon: Routledge.
953:DeSombre, E.R. (2006)
420:World Governance Index
1254:. Available at: <
1102:. Available at: <
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1034:Krasner, S.D. (1985)
872:The Montreal Protocol
747:observed in his 2015
724:Eastern Scotian Shelf
1380:Ecological Economics
1117:Ecological Economics
1009:. London: Routledge.
937:Ecological Economics
467:corporate governance
1996:2018Chmsp.208...59M
1941:2017AqTox.193....1M
1878:2019EPoll.251..363S
1805:2019EPoll.249..610S
1742:2019EcoES.18409632V
1687:2017EPoll.220.1282Z
1681:(Pt B): 1282â1288.
1614:2019EPoll.250..873G
1392:2019EcoEc.163...77M
1160:Evans, J.P. (2012)
1005:Vallega, A. (2001)
720:adaptive management
1929:Aquatic Toxicology
1631:20.500.12210/72167
1351:, 13, pp. 933â950.
1236:Coastal Management
1164:, Oxon: Routledge.
1119:, 31, pp. 199â213.
1054:2011-12-30 at the
939:, 31, pp. 189â198.
913:Ocean colonization
844:fishery management
532:"life below sea".
77:possibly contains
2052:International law
1498:978-3-642-80182-2
1329:. Available at:
1238:, 35, pp. 79â104.
1177:, 32, pp. 319â25.
918:Ocean Development
876:Save Our Seas Act
868:plastic pollution
862:Plastic Pollution
779:Ocean Development
749:encyclical letter
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1571:"Proposition 65"
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1550:www.congress.gov
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354:Information
260:Open-source
230:Algorithmic
2041:Categories
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1580:20 October
1555:20 October
1529:20 October
1504:20 October
924:References
732:Oceans Act
592:(UNCLOS).
540:See also:
394:Technology
384:Simulation
245:Electronic
213:Governance
152:footnoting
86:improve it
41:improve it
2012:0045-6535
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279:By level
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