310:
in the dialects ancestral to Old
English and Old Norse, hence in Old English the phenomenon is subject to many exceptions and apparent inconsistencies which are usually attributed to a mixture of paradigmatic leveling and phonetic context.
1145:
by systemic analogy". Cercignani, on the other hand, argued that "no 'umlaut' phenomena can be assumed for Proto-Germanic", preferring to ascribe these changes to "the prehistory of the individual languages."
762:, the old Germanic languages had almost always generalised one vowel or the other throughout the paradigm, although there does occur in Old Swedish (especially in the laws of
1627:
914:
as a nasal stop followed by another consonant. The effect occurs in other West
Germanic languages, though more erratically, and sometimes in Old Norse.
2164:
542:
have been cited in other West
Germanic languages, with Old High German showing the greatest number of examples, including doublets such as
1121:"as a P-G phenomenon has always been contested." Lloyd, for example, proposed an alternative explanation for all apparent instances of
1493:
1461:
366:, at the eastern end of the territory where Old Norse evolved, resembles Gothic in this respect. But there is some suggestion that
1620:
2549:
56:
38:
3443:
677:. Other exceptions, in particular where there is disagreement between dialects, may be due to the word having once been a
3473:
2643:
2605:
2590:
1917:
626:
150:, are generally restricted in use to other unrelated sound-changes which later affected individual Germanic languages.)
3582:
3453:
3313:
2663:
2622:
2612:
1613:
1829:
3170:
1281:); see Cercignani 1980, p. 127, fn. 7. However, this reconstruction is unlikely; the more common descent is PGmc
591:-mutation has failed to occur in Old Norse can mostly be explained as analogical forms, although a palatal stop
3448:
3402:
3397:
3321:
2931:
2915:
2794:
2653:
759:
3229:
665:
contexts. Specifically, a tendency has been observed for the mutation not to occur next to initial or medial
3387:
3331:
3326:
3246:
2919:
2869:
2627:
2169:
1987:
1671:
1659:
327:
3392:
2874:
2840:
2458:
2274:
2134:
1974:
1869:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1118:
1114:
1044:
911:
907:
903:
881:
877:
873:
869:
850:
846:
842:
822:
811:
771:
767:
755:
751:
698:
694:
690:
686:
674:
670:
666:
658:
654:
646:
642:
638:
630:
622:
618:
600:
596:
592:
539:
535:
359:
355:
307:
303:
205:
201:
193:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
52:
48:
34:
3577:
3550:
3514:
2782:
2775:
2727:
2497:
2468:
2437:
2400:
2325:
2174:
2082:
1995:
1856:
1818:
419:
3015:
1890:
3519:
3499:
3468:
3341:
3201:
3175:
3076:
2947:
2765:
2357:
2184:
2146:
2141:
2015:
1962:
1720:
709:
163:
354:, where the distinction between the short high and mid vowels had become allophonic (Proto-Germanic
3572:
3005:
2850:
2694:
2648:
2582:
2335:
2097:
1982:
1895:
1693:
803:
3504:
3356:
3346:
3301:
3063:
2990:
2887:
2732:
2707:
2702:
2595:
2423:
2308:
2129:
1907:
1902:
1881:
1842:
1646:
1636:
331:
3428:
763:
2347:
3478:
3277:
3193:
3186:
3141:
3085:
2845:
2835:
2818:
2813:
2717:
2479:
2279:
2240:
2220:
2058:
1950:
1932:
1784:
1489:
1467:
1457:
3433:
3224:
3158:
3114:
3109:
3058:
3050:
2855:
2823:
2770:
2759:
2672:
2544:
2539:
2381:
2320:
2110:
2092:
1927:
1688:
1680:
1499:
662:
343:
3463:
3256:
3163:
3146:
3131:
3126:
3119:
2828:
2737:
2722:
2677:
2529:
2492:
2484:
2463:
2450:
2430:
2416:
2179:
2156:
2087:
2077:
2069:
1849:
1595:
785:
351:
339:
323:
3423:
322:-mutation is more evident in some Germanic languages than others. It is widely found in
3544:
3438:
3418:
3370:
3262:
3136:
2806:
2573:
2512:
2291:
2248:
2205:
2122:
2117:
2006:
1956:
1807:
1758:
1713:
1706:
371:
75:
3566:
3509:
3494:
3336:
3092:
3043:
2860:
2799:
2712:
2658:
2617:
2555:
2502:
2386:
2313:
1743:
1600:
661:
but also subject to many exceptions. In some dialects, the change may be blocked in
3363:
2787:
2751:
2684:
2507:
2330:
2303:
2286:
2230:
2189:
1771:
1750:
1504:
Die dialektgeographische
Stellung des Krimgotischen und die krimgotische cantilena.
795:
3010:
200:
followed by a consonant of any kind also blocked the process (and raised original
3270:
3180:
3153:
3025:
2971:
2879:
2561:
2522:
2105:
1800:
1764:
1699:
933:
363:
135:
3020:
3000:
2365:
2035:
1736:
1590:
999:
242:
197:
114:). Thus, since the change was produced by other vowels besides */a/, the term
91:
1129:; he suggested that "the partial overlapping in Germanic of the two phonemes
1105:
A number of scholars have questioned the traditional model of Proto-Germanic
3206:
3069:
2954:
2600:
2517:
2298:
2253:
2225:
2051:
854:
841:"step-" (Epinal Glossary 726, 1070); but in other branches of West Germanic
721:
682:
71:
3030:
17:
2995:
2343:
603:
in a short-root syllable has a tendency to block or reverse the process.
119:
44:
3036:
2632:
2534:
196:
intervened between it and the following non-high vowel. An intervening
102:) was lowered when the following syllable contained a non-high vowel (
2339:
1605:
1430:
Cercignani (1980), p. 127, and see footnote 9 for further references.
347:
1137:(with the allophones and ) led to the occasional development of an
1066:
1006:
969:
927:
549:
543:
393:
134:-umlaut", "velar umlaut" and, formerly, "Brechung." (This last was
2257:
1273:
708:-mutation are perhaps most noticeable in certain verb types, e.g.
1488:
Second
Edition revised by A. R. Taylor. Oxford University Press.
302:-mutation seems to have preceded the raising of unstressed final
1253:
1078:
1072:
1024:
987:
960:
836:
830:
744:
738:
731:
725:
529:
523:
517:
453:
447:
441:
435:
429:
423:
408:
387:
381:
338:-mutation is less extensive in Old East Norse (the precursor of
288:
263:
236:
221:
181:
166:
3299:
2913:
1657:
1609:
1532:
Kock, Axel (1890). "Några bidrag till fornnordisk grammatik",
1527:
Beiträge zur
Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur 23
1470:(1980). "Early 'umlaut' phenomena in the Germanic languages",
821:-mutation did not affect the second element of the diphthong
1539:
902:
Old
English derives from a type of Germanic in which single
817:
In the West
Germanic variety that gave rise to Old English,
1316:
1308:
1299:
1290:
1266:
1239:
1237:
1399:
1397:
1378:
1376:
1109:-mutation in whole or in part. In particular, the rare
1543:, herausgegeben von Herman Paul. Strassburg, Trübner.
350:
and its colonies). There is no trace of it at all in
1477:
Collitz, Hermann (1918), "Early
Germanic vocalism",
1282:
1259:
1173:
1171:
617:
While Proto-Germanic inherited both of the phonemes
277:
256:
229:
214:
174:
156:
43:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
3487:
3411:
3380:
3312:
3244:
3102:
2983:
2939:
2930:
2750:
2693:
2581:
2572:
2477:
2449:
2408:
2399:
2374:
2356:
2267:
2239:
2213:
2204:
2155:
2068:
2043:
2034:
1973:
1868:
1817:
1792:
1783:
1679:
1670:
1161:
1159:
1043:-mutation was also sometimes blocked before single
798:) "woman". As can be seen from the examples above,
1084:
1012:
975:
942:
936:
697:appears, eliminating all traces of a-mutation of
407:"copse, wood" : Old English, Old Icelandic
57:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
1090:
1060:
1054:
1030:
1018:
993:
981:
954:
948:
921:
889:
863:
857:
825:(for which the earliest Old English texts have
582:
576:
570:
564:
558:
516:is limited in Old English to just three words:
489:
483:
477:
471:
465:
459:
1621:
1338:
1047:, again with much variation among languages.
789:
779:
402:
74:process supposed to have taken place in late
8:
1332:
418:Variation is found within dialects too with
269:
192:The high vowel was not lowered, however, if
1326:
1276:
868:"fidelity." In most variants of Old Norse,
3309:
3296:
2936:
2927:
2910:
2578:
2405:
2210:
2040:
1789:
1676:
1667:
1654:
1628:
1614:
1606:
1252:Cercignani suggested another possibility:
1133:(represented in all environments by ) and
693:, so that in Middle and Modern Dutch only
1391:Cercignani 1980, p. 130, and footnote 28.
1403:Kluge (1889) p. 122-23, and Anmerkung 6.
766:) traces of regular alternation between
557:The mutation is rare in Old Norse, e.g.
1155:
716:in the past participle alternates with
1513:-umlaut und der Wechsel der endvocale
1541:Grundriss der germanischen Philologie
370:-mutation may have been preserved in
7:
47:. For the distinction between ,
2190:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German
1525:) in den altnordischen sprachen",
1186:Collitz (1918), p. 322, footnote 2.
898:Effects of a single nasal consonant
534:"man." More plentiful instances of
3549:Languages between parentheses are
1569:in Old Norse monosyllabic stems",
645:had already become Proto-Germanic
633:in the later languages arose from
25:
906:had the same effect on preceding
758:would originally have alternated
724:plural. For example, Old English
657:is much more common than that of
346:) than Old West Norse (spoken in
1578:Grammar of the Gothic Language.
39:International Phonetic Alphabet
3553:of the language on their left.
1546:Lloyd L. (1966). "Is there an
888:-mutation, e.g. Old Icelandic
142:, and its English equivalents
1:
3444:Germanic substrate hypothesis
1565:-umlaut of the radical vowel
1486:An Introduction to Old Norse.
712:of classes 2, 3 and 4, where
681:-stem. Most dialects of late
3474:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
2165:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
641:, since Proto-Indo-European
575:"from below" in contrast to
118:-mutation is something of a
3454:High German consonant shift
1534:Arkiv för nordisk filologi.
1506:Oslo, Universitetsforlaget.
1258:"even" < Proto-Germanic
802:-mutation is also found in
122:. It has also been called "
3599:
1992:Westlauwers–Terschellings
1645:According to contemporary
1439:Cercignani (1980), p. 129.
599:immediately preceding the
581:"down(wards)" and perhaps
458:"to knock"; Old Icelandic
138:term, but nowadays German
3536:
3308:
3295:
3217:
3171:Southern Schleswig Danish
2926:
2909:
1666:
1653:
1643:
1456:Oxford University Press.
1265:< Proto-Indo-European
1243:Campbell 1959, § 114 (b).
1204:Campbell 1959, § 111 (b).
3449:West Germanic gemination
3403:Ancient Belgian language
3398:Germanic parent language
3342:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
2464:Austrian Standard German
1580:Oxford University Press.
1561:Sturtevant (1956). "The
1509:Kock, Axel (1898). "Der
1352:Cercignani 1980, p. 130.
587:"even." Instances where
392: : Old High German
1573:71:3, pp. 194–200.
1558:42:4, pp. 738–745.
1536:Ny följd. Andra bandet.
1481:33:6, pp. 321–333.
1474:56:1, pp. 126–136.
1317:
1310:
1301:
1292:
1284:
1268:
1261:
1254:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1055:
1031:
1025:
1019:
1013:
1007:
994:
988:
982:
976:
970:
961:
955:
949:
943:
937:
928:
922:
890:
864:
858:
837:
831:
746:
739:
733:
726:
583:
577:
571:
565:
559:
550:
544:
530:
524:
518:
508:According to Campbell,
490:
484:
478:
472:
466:
460:
454:
448:
442:
436:
430:
424:
409:
403:
394:
388:
382:
328:West Germanic languages
289:
279:
264:
258:
237:
231:
222:
216:
182:
176:
167:
158:
35:phonetic transcriptions
27:Historical sound change
3510:Preterite-present verb
3393:Proto-Germanic grammar
3347:North Sea (Ingvaeonic)
2459:German Standard German
2135:East Frisian Low Saxon
1484:Gordon, E. V. (1957).
1370:Kluge (1889), p. 545).
1339:
1333:
1327:
1277:
1222:Wright 1917, §§ 66-72.
790:
780:
685:underwent a merger of
270:
241:"to gild" (with later
32:This article contains
3515:Grammatischer Wechsel
2498:Namibian Black German
2469:Swiss Standard German
2438:Early New High German
1996:Mainland West Frisian
1857:Harlingerland Frisian
1571:Modern Language Notes
1479:Modern Language Notes
1452:Campbell, A. (1959).
1421:Campbell 1959, § 117.
1382:Campbell 1959, § 115.
1195:Campbell 1959, § 116.
1177:Lloyd (1966), p. 738.
3520:Indo-European ablaut
3500:Germanic strong verb
3469:Germanic spirant law
2606:Southeast Limburgish
2102:Gelders-Overijssels
1731:Irish Middle English
1721:Early Modern English
1454:Old English Grammar.
1071: : Old English
959: : Old English
884:, without regard to
673:in association with
422:such as Old English
3488:Synchronic features
3459:Germanic a-mutation
3412:Diachronic features
2762:in the broad sense
2695:East Central German
2649:Lorraine Franconian
2623:Transylvanian Saxon
2583:West Central German
2358:East Low Franconian
2268:West Low Franconian
1529:, pp. 484–554.
1412:Kock (1890), p. 14.
1213:Gordon 1957, § 193.
1011:"man", Old Frisian
849:unless followed by
750:. Otherwise, where
629:, all instances of
627:Proto-Indo-European
326:, less so in other
315:Dialectal variation
90:-mutation, a short
82:General description
3583:Germanic languages
3505:Germanic weak verb
3314:Language subgroups
2664:Pennsylvania Dutch
2613:Moselle Franconian
2591:Central Franconian
2424:Middle High German
2175:Central Pomeranian
2130:Northern Low Saxon
1843:Wangerooge Frisian
1637:Germanic languages
1468:Cercignani, Fausto
1361:Sturtevant (1956).
1165:Gordon 1957, § 32.
1065:, Old High German
1017: : Old Norse
980: : Old Norse
926:, Old High German
845:eventually became
3560:
3559:
3545:extinct languages
3532:
3531:
3528:
3527:
3479:Great Vowel Shift
3291:
3290:
3287:
3286:
3240:
3239:
3086:Greenlandic Norse
2905:
2904:
2901:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2836:Southern Bavarian
2819:Northern Bavarian
2795:Highest Alemannic
2746:
2745:
2480:standard variants
2395:
2394:
2241:Standard variants
2200:
2199:
2059:Middle Low German
2030:
2029:
2026:
2025:
1830:Saterland Frisian
1101:Alternative ideas
835:"faithlessness",
743:"they flew" <
287:> Old English
262:> Old English
235:> Old English
220:> Old English
180:> Old English
16:(Redirected from
3590:
3337:Elbe (Irminonic)
3310:
3297:
3225:Mainland Gutnish
3115:Swedish dialects
3077:Middle Icelandic
3051:Middle Norwegian
2940:Historical forms
2937:
2928:
2911:
2870:South Franconian
2856:Hutterite German
2824:Central Bavarian
2644:Rhine Franconian
2579:
2409:Historical forms
2406:
2321:Surinamese Dutch
2214:Historical forms
2211:
2044:Historical forms
2041:
1793:Historical forms
1790:
1677:
1668:
1655:
1630:
1623:
1616:
1607:
1440:
1437:
1431:
1428:
1422:
1419:
1413:
1410:
1404:
1401:
1392:
1389:
1383:
1380:
1371:
1368:
1362:
1359:
1353:
1350:
1344:
1342:
1336:
1330:
1320:
1313:
1304:
1295:
1287:
1280:
1271:
1264:
1257:
1250:
1244:
1241:
1232:
1229:
1223:
1220:
1214:
1211:
1205:
1202:
1196:
1193:
1187:
1184:
1178:
1175:
1166:
1163:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1120:
1116:
1094:
1088:
1082:
1076:
1070:
1064:
1058:
1046:
1034:
1028:
1022:
1016:
1010:
1005:Old High German
997:
991:
985:
979:
973:
968:Old High German
964:
958:
952:
946:
940:
931:
925:
913:
909:
905:
893:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
861:
852:
848:
844:
840:
834:
824:
813:
793:
783:
778:-mutation, e.g.
773:
769:
757:
753:
749:
742:
737:alternated with
736:
729:
700:
696:
692:
688:
676:
672:
668:
660:
656:
648:
644:
640:
632:
624:
620:
602:
598:
594:
586:
580:
574:
568:
562:
553:
547:
541:
537:
533:
527:
521:
493:
487:
481:
475:
469:
463:
457:
451:
445:
439:
433:
427:
412:
406:
397:
391:
385:
361:
357:
309:
305:
292:
282:
273:
267:
261:
240:
234:
225:
219:
207:
203:
195:
185:
179:
170:
161:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
54:
50:
21:
3598:
3597:
3593:
3592:
3591:
3589:
3588:
3587:
3563:
3562:
3561:
3556:
3524:
3483:
3464:Germanic umlaut
3429:Holtzmann's law
3407:
3376:
3304:
3283:
3236:
3213:
3147:South Jutlandic
3132:Danish dialects
3098:
2979:
2922:
2893:
2875:East Franconian
2829:Viennese German
2742:
2723:Silesian German
2689:
2678:Central Hessian
2568:
2493:Namibian German
2482:
2473:
2451:Standard German
2445:
2431:New High German
2417:Old High German
2391:
2370:
2352:
2263:
2235:
2196:
2180:East Pomeranian
2170:Brandenburgisch
2157:East Low German
2151:
2078:Dutch Low Saxon
2070:West Low German
2064:
2022:
1988:Schiermonnikoog
1969:
1864:
1850:Wursten Frisian
1813:
1779:
1662:
1649:
1639:
1634:
1596:Germanic umlaut
1587:
1576:Wright (1917).
1554:in Germanic?",
1449:
1444:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1429:
1425:
1420:
1416:
1411:
1407:
1402:
1395:
1390:
1386:
1381:
1374:
1369:
1365:
1360:
1356:
1351:
1347:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1235:
1231:Grønvik (1983).
1230:
1226:
1221:
1217:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1199:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1176:
1169:
1164:
1157:
1152:
1103:
1083:), Old Frisian
1023:, Old English
900:
815:
760:morphologically
704:The effects of
615:
506:
324:Old High German
317:
198:nasal consonant
84:
62:
61:
60:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3596:
3594:
3586:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3565:
3564:
3558:
3557:
3555:
3554:
3547:
3537:
3534:
3533:
3530:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3523:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3491:
3489:
3485:
3484:
3482:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3415:
3413:
3409:
3408:
3406:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3388:Proto-Germanic
3384:
3382:
3378:
3377:
3375:
3374:
3367:
3360:
3352:
3351:
3350:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3329:
3324:
3318:
3316:
3306:
3305:
3300:
3293:
3292:
3289:
3288:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3281:
3274:
3267:
3263:Crimean Gothic
3252:
3250:
3242:
3241:
3238:
3237:
3235:
3234:
3233:
3232:
3227:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3211:
3210:
3209:
3199:
3198:
3197:
3190:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3139:
3137:Insular Danish
3134:
3124:
3123:
3122:
3120:Rinkebysvenska
3117:
3106:
3104:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3096:
3089:
3082:
3081:
3080:
3073:
3061:
3056:
3055:
3054:
3047:
3040:
3034:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2987:
2985:
2981:
2980:
2978:
2977:
2976:
2975:
2968:
2966:Old East Norse
2963:
2961:Old West Norse
2951:
2943:
2941:
2934:
2924:
2923:
2914:
2907:
2906:
2903:
2902:
2899:
2898:
2895:
2894:
2892:
2891:
2884:
2883:
2882:
2872:
2867:
2866:
2865:
2864:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2841:South Tyrolean
2833:
2832:
2831:
2821:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2804:
2803:
2802:
2792:
2791:
2790:
2783:High Alemannic
2780:
2779:
2778:
2773:
2756:
2754:
2748:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2699:
2697:
2691:
2690:
2688:
2687:
2682:
2681:
2680:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2661:
2651:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2638:
2637:
2636:
2635:
2625:
2620:
2610:
2609:
2608:
2603:
2587:
2585:
2576:
2574:Central German
2570:
2569:
2567:
2566:
2565:
2564:
2559:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2532:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2515:
2513:Barossa German
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2489:
2487:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2455:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2444:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2427:
2420:
2412:
2410:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2393:
2392:
2390:
2389:
2384:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2371:
2369:
2368:
2362:
2360:
2354:
2353:
2351:
2350:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2295:
2294:
2292:French Flemish
2284:
2283:
2282:
2271:
2269:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2261:
2251:
2245:
2243:
2237:
2236:
2234:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2217:
2215:
2208:
2206:Low Franconian
2202:
2201:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2194:
2193:
2192:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2161:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2138:
2137:
2127:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2108:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2074:
2072:
2066:
2065:
2063:
2062:
2055:
2047:
2045:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2024:
2023:
2021:
2020:
2019:
2018:
2013:
2012:
2011:
2010:
2009:
2007:Westereendersk
2001:
1990:
1985:
1979:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1968:
1967:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1953:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1941:
1938:
1930:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1912:
1911:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1899:
1898:
1893:
1885:
1874:
1872:
1866:
1865:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1853:
1846:
1834:
1833:
1832:
1823:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1812:
1811:
1808:Middle Frisian
1804:
1796:
1794:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1777:
1776:
1775:
1768:
1756:
1755:
1754:
1747:
1740:
1728:
1727:
1726:
1725:
1724:
1714:Modern English
1710:
1707:Middle English
1703:
1696:
1685:
1683:
1674:
1664:
1663:
1658:
1651:
1650:
1644:
1641:
1640:
1635:
1633:
1632:
1625:
1618:
1610:
1604:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1586:
1583:
1582:
1581:
1574:
1559:
1544:
1537:
1530:
1507:
1500:Grønvik, Ottar
1497:
1482:
1475:
1465:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1432:
1423:
1414:
1405:
1393:
1384:
1372:
1363:
1354:
1345:
1245:
1233:
1224:
1215:
1206:
1197:
1188:
1179:
1167:
1154:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1141:-allophone of
1102:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1095:
1038:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1003:
998:"taken" (past
986:, Old English
974:, Old Frisian
966:
899:
896:
814:
810:The diphthong
808:
806:alternations.
614:
605:
505:
496:
416:
415:
414:
413:
399:
372:Crimean Gothic
316:
313:
297:
296:
295:
294:
275:
268:"dog" (German
254:
227:
190:
189:
188:
187:
172:
83:
80:
76:Proto-Germanic
55:⟩, see
31:
30:
29:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3595:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3552:
3548:
3546:
3542:
3539:
3538:
3535:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3495:Germanic verb
3493:
3492:
3490:
3486:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3434:Sievers's law
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3416:
3414:
3410:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3385:
3383:
3381:Reconstructed
3379:
3373:
3372:
3368:
3366:
3365:
3361:
3359:
3358:
3354:
3353:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3334:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3298:
3294:
3280:
3279:
3275:
3273:
3272:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3259:
3258:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3249:
3248:
3243:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3222:
3220:
3219:
3216:
3208:
3205:
3204:
3203:
3200:
3196:
3195:
3194:Middle Danish
3191:
3189:
3188:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3156:
3155:
3152:
3148:
3145:
3144:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3129:
3128:
3125:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3112:
3111:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3101:
3095:
3094:
3090:
3088:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3078:
3074:
3072:
3071:
3070:Old Icelandic
3067:
3066:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3053:
3052:
3048:
3046:
3045:
3044:Old Norwegian
3041:
3038:
3035:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2992:
2989:
2988:
2986:
2982:
2974:
2973:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2958:
2957:
2956:
2952:
2950:
2949:
2945:
2944:
2942:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2912:
2908:
2890:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2878:
2877:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2862:
2861:Gottscheerish
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2838:
2837:
2834:
2830:
2827:
2826:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2815:
2812:
2808:
2805:
2801:
2800:Walser German
2798:
2797:
2796:
2793:
2789:
2786:
2785:
2784:
2781:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2768:
2767:
2766:Low Alemannic
2764:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2755:
2753:
2749:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2728:High Prussian
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2713:Erzgebirgisch
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2700:
2698:
2696:
2692:
2686:
2683:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2674:
2671:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2642:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2618:Luxembourgish
2616:
2615:
2614:
2611:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2597:
2594:
2593:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2586:
2584:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2571:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2557:
2556:Klezmer-loshn
2553:
2551:
2550:Scots Yiddish
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2537:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2456:
2454:
2452:
2448:
2440:
2439:
2435:
2434:
2433:
2432:
2428:
2426:
2425:
2421:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2398:
2388:
2387:Meuse-Rhenish
2385:
2383:
2380:
2379:
2377:
2373:
2367:
2364:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2315:
2314:Kleverlandish
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2293:
2290:
2289:
2288:
2285:
2281:
2278:
2277:
2276:
2275:Central Dutch
2273:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2259:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2246:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2203:
2191:
2188:
2187:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2154:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2131:
2128:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2083:Stellingwarfs
2081:
2080:
2079:
2076:
2075:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2061:
2060:
2056:
2054:
2053:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2033:
2017:
2014:
2008:
2005:
2004:
2003:Wood Frisian
2002:
1999:
1998:
1997:
1994:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1921:
1920:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1878:
1876:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1870:North Frisian
1867:
1859:
1858:
1854:
1852:
1851:
1847:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1839:
1838:
1835:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1825:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1805:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1761:
1760:
1757:
1753:
1752:
1748:
1746:
1745:
1741:
1739:
1738:
1734:
1733:
1732:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1718:
1717:
1716:
1715:
1711:
1709:
1708:
1704:
1702:
1701:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1691:
1690:
1687:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1672:Anglo-Frisian
1669:
1665:
1661:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1642:
1638:
1631:
1626:
1624:
1619:
1617:
1612:
1611:
1608:
1602:
1601:Vowel harmony
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1584:
1579:
1575:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1535:
1531:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1505:
1501:
1498:
1495:
1494:0-19-811184-3
1491:
1487:
1483:
1480:
1476:
1473:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1462:0-19-811943-7
1459:
1455:
1451:
1450:
1446:
1436:
1433:
1427:
1424:
1418:
1415:
1409:
1406:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1388:
1385:
1379:
1377:
1373:
1367:
1364:
1358:
1355:
1349:
1346:
1341:
1335:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1315:> Gaulish
1314:
1312:
1305:
1303:
1296:
1294:
1286:
1279:
1275:
1270:
1263:
1256:
1249:
1246:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1228:
1225:
1219:
1216:
1210:
1207:
1201:
1198:
1192:
1189:
1183:
1180:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1162:
1160:
1156:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1140:
1125:-mutation of
1124:
1113:-mutation of
1112:
1108:
1100:
1093:
1087:
1081:
1075:
1069:
1063:
1057:
1052:
1051:
1050:
1049:
1048:
1042:
1033:
1027:
1021:
1015:
1009:
1004:
1001:
996:
990:
984:
978:
972:
967:
963:
957:
951:
945:
939:
935:
930:
924:
919:
918:
917:
916:
915:
897:
895:
892:
887:
866:
862:"breast" vs.
860:
856:
839:
833:
828:
820:
809:
807:
805:
801:
797:
792:
787:
782:
777:
774:in line with
765:
761:
748:
741:
735:
730:"flown" <
728:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
702:
684:
680:
664:
653:-mutation of
652:
637:-mutation of
636:
628:
613:
609:
606:
604:
590:
585:
579:
573:
567:
561:
555:
552:
546:
532:
528:"bacon," and
526:
520:
515:
512:-mutation of
511:
504:
500:
497:
495:
492:
486:
480:
474:
468:
462:
456:
450:
444:
438:
432:
426:
421:
411:
405:
400:
396:
390:
384:
379:
378:
377:
376:
375:
373:
369:
365:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
314:
312:
301:
291:
286:
281:
276:
272:
266:
260:
255:
252:
248:
244:
239:
233:
228:
224:
218:
213:
212:
211:
210:
209:
199:
184:
178:
173:
169:
165:
160:
155:
154:
153:
152:
151:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
93:
89:
81:
79:
77:
73:
69:
67:
58:
46:
42:
40:
36:
19:
3578:Vowel shifts
3540:
3458:
3424:Verner's law
3369:
3364:Gotho-Nordic
3362:
3355:
3276:
3269:
3261:
3255:
3245:
3230:Fårö Gutnish
3192:
3185:
3091:
3084:
3075:
3068:
3049:
3042:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2953:
2946:
2886:
2788:Swiss German
2752:Upper German
2685:Amana German
2659:Volga German
2628:Hunsrückisch
2554:
2508:Unserdeutsch
2503:Berlinerisch
2436:
2429:
2422:
2415:
2375:Cover groups
2331:Mohawk Dutch
2326:Jersey Dutch
2304:East Flemish
2287:West Flemish
2231:Middle Dutch
2185:Low Prussian
2057:
2050:
2016:Terschelling
2000:Clay Frisian
1975:West Frisian
1963:Wiedingharde
1955:
1943:
1903:Heligolandic
1880:
1855:
1848:
1841:
1836:
1819:East Frisian
1806:
1799:
1772:Middle Scots
1770:
1763:
1749:
1742:
1735:
1730:
1719:
1712:
1705:
1698:
1577:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1540:
1533:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1485:
1478:
1471:
1453:
1435:
1426:
1417:
1408:
1387:
1366:
1357:
1348:
1322:
1307:
1298:
1289:
1288:, from PIE *
1248:
1227:
1218:
1209:
1200:
1191:
1182:
1142:
1138:
1122:
1110:
1106:
1104:
1089:, Old Norse
1040:
1039:
1029:, Old Saxon
992:, Old Saxon
947:, Old Saxon
901:
885:
826:
818:
816:
799:
775:
764:Östergötland
717:
713:
710:strong verbs
705:
703:
678:
650:
634:
616:
611:
607:
588:
556:
513:
509:
507:
502:
498:
446:"to spurn",
417:
401:Old Gutnish
380:Old English
367:
335:
319:
318:
299:
298:
284:
250:
246:
191:
147:
143:
139:
131:
127:
123:
115:
87:
85:
65:
64:
63:
51:and ⟨
33:
3439:Kluge's law
3419:Grimm's law
3202:Dalecarlian
3181:Perkerdansk
3154:East Danish
2972:Old Gutnish
2948:Proto-Norse
2888:Langobardic
2880:Vogtlandian
2708:Upper Saxon
2562:Lachoudisch
2523:Lotegorisch
2401:High German
2147:Westphalian
2142:Eastphalian
2106:Achterhooks
1983:Hindeloopen
1918:Bökingharde
1887:Föhr–Amrum
1801:Old Frisian
1765:Early Scots
1700:Old English
1550:-umlaut of
1325:> Welsh
1077:(for older
934:Old Frisian
364:Old Gutnish
164:Old English
126:-umlaut", "
3573:Sound laws
3567:Categories
3271:Burgundian
3187:Old Danish
3176:Gøtudanskt
3159:Bornholmsk
3021:Vestlandsk
3001:Kebabnorsk
2738:Halcnovian
2703:Thuringian
2366:Limburgish
2336:Stadsfries
2309:Brabantian
2036:Low German
1882:Eiderstedt
1737:Fingallian
1591:I-mutation
1447:References
1337:, Cornish
1053:Old Saxon
1000:participle
920:Old Norse
832:treulesnis
243:i-mutation
92:high vowel
78:(c. 200).
72:metaphonic
18:A-mutation
3551:varieties
3543:indicate
3357:Northwest
3302:Philology
3207:Elfdalian
3142:Jutlandic
3064:Icelandic
3039:(written)
3033:(written)
3011:Trøndersk
2991:Norwegian
2955:Old Norse
2776:Coloniero
2760:Alemannic
2733:Wymysorys
2601:Colognian
2596:Ripuarian
2518:Rotwelsch
2348:Midslands
2299:Zeelandic
2280:Hollandic
2254:Afrikaans
2226:Old Dutch
2052:Old Saxon
1951:Karrharde
1933:Goesharde
1914:Mainland
1647:philology
1331:, Breton
1311:h₁ep-ónos
1293:h₁ébʰ-nos
965:"to take"
855:Old Saxon
788:) :
722:preterite
683:Old Dutch
569:"hence",
362:merged).
332:Old Norse
293:"to swim"
232:gulþijaną
68:-mutation
3278:Vandalic
3221:Gutnish
3026:Vikværsk
3006:Sognamål
2996:Bergensk
2846:Cimbrian
2814:Bavarian
2771:Alsatian
2718:Lusatian
2654:Palatine
2344:Amelands
2221:Frankish
2111:Sallaans
2093:Gronings
1944:Southern
1937:Northern
1928:Halligen
1877:Insular
1694:dialects
1585:See also
1556:Language
1502:(1983).
1472:Language
1302:h₁ép-nos
1068:hona(n)g
971:gi-noman
932: :
734:fluganaz
554:"ship".
548: :
522:"nest,"
494:"gold."
488: :
476: :
470:"bird",
464: :
452: :
440: :
434:"spur",
428: :
420:doublets
285:swimmaną
280:swemmaną
148:fracture
144:breaking
140:Brechung
120:misnomer
49:/ /
45:Help:IPA
3541:Italics
3164:Scanian
3110:Swedish
3059:Faroese
3037:Nynorsk
3016:Valdris
2851:Mòcheno
2807:Swabian
2673:Hessian
2633:Hunsrik
2545:Western
2540:Eastern
2535:Yiddish
2485:creoles
2382:Bergish
2098:Drèents
2088:Tweants
1940:Central
1922:Mooring
1785:Frisian
1744:Kildare
1689:English
853:, e.g.
804:lexical
720:in the
563:"man",
482:"god",
455:cnucian
449:cnocian
443:spurnan
437:spornan
344:Swedish
290:swimman
136:Grimm's
37:in the
3257:Gothic
3127:Danish
3031:Bokmål
2530:Yenish
2340:Bildts
2123:Veluws
2118:Urkers
1957:Strand
1681:Anglic
1492:
1460:
1306:(cf. *
1269:iminos
1092:hunang
983:numinn
865:treuwa
859:breost
838:steup-
747:flugun
740:flugon
727:flogen
663:labial
398:"bird"
352:Gothic
348:Norway
340:Danish
283:> *
259:hundaz
238:gyldan
226:"gold"
171:"horn"
53:
3371:South
3322:North
2932:North
2916:North
2258:Kaaps
2249:Dutch
1896:Amrum
1837:Weser
1759:Scots
1309:*
1300:*
1291:*
1285:ebnaz
1283:*
1278:imago
1274:Latin
1272:(cf.
1267:*
1262:ibnaz
1260:*
1150:Notes
1086:hunig
1074:hunig
1056:honig
995:numan
989:numen
977:nomen
962:niman
956:neman
950:niman
929:neman
891:djúpr
882:/jo:/
878:/ju:/
876:>
874:/jɒu/
872:>
870:*/eu/
847:*/eo/
843:*/eu/
823:*/eu/
812:*/eu/
786:subj.
745:*
732:*
625:from
610:>
572:neðan
566:heðan
538:>
501:>
431:spura
425:spora
395:fogal
389:fugel
383:fugol
308:*/uː/
304:*/oː/
278:*
257:*
230:*
217:gulþą
215:*
186:"man"
177:wiraz
175:*
162:>
159:hurną
157:*
70:is a
41:(IPA)
3332:West
3327:East
3247:East
3103:East
3093:Norn
2984:West
2920:East
2918:and
2483:and
2478:Non-
1908:Sylt
1891:Föhr
1826:Ems
1751:Yola
1660:West
1490:ISBN
1458:ISBN
1328:iawn
1323:ianu
1318:iano
1255:efen
1127:*/i/
1119:*/e/
1115:*/i/
1045:*/n/
1032:gumo
1026:guma
1020:gumi
1014:gomo
1008:gomo
944:nema
938:nima
923:nema
912:*/e/
910:and
908:*/u/
904:*/m/
851:*/w/
796:obj.
791:kunu
781:kona
770:and
756:*/o/
754:and
752:*/u/
699:*/u/
689:and
675:*/l/
671:*/w/
667:*/f/
647:*/a/
643:*/o/
639:*/u/
631:*/o/
623:*/e/
621:and
619:*/i/
584:jafn
578:niðr
560:verr
551:skef
545:skif
540:*/e/
536:*/i/
525:spec
519:nest
491:gull
485:goll
467:fugl
461:fogl
410:holt
404:hult
358:and
342:and
330:and
271:Hund
265:hund
223:gold
206:*/i/
202:*/e/
194:*/j/
168:horn
146:and
112:/æː/
108:/oː/
104:*/a/
100:*/i/
96:*/u/
1340:ewn
1334:eün
1297:~ *
1135:/e/
1131:/i/
1117:to
1080:-æg
1062:-eg
880:or
829:):
772:/u/
768:/o/
695:/o/
691:/o/
687:/u/
669:or
659:/i/
655:/u/
601:/i/
597:/k/
595:or
593:/ɡ/
531:wer
479:guð
473:goð
360:/i/
356:/e/
306:to
249:to
245:of
208:).
204:to
183:wer
110:or
98:or
86:In
3569::
1517::
1396:^
1375:^
1343:).
1321:,
1236:^
1170:^
1158:^
1059:,
953:,
941:,
894:.
827:eu
701:.
649:.
386:,
374:.
334:.
253:).
106:,
3266:)
3260:(
2346:/
2342:/
2338:/
2260:)
2256:(
1629:e
1622:t
1615:v
1567:i
1563:a
1552:i
1548:a
1523:e
1521:(
1519:i
1515:a
1511:a
1496:.
1464:.
1143:i
1139:e
1123:a
1111:a
1107:a
1041:a
1002:)
886:a
819:a
800:a
794:(
784:(
776:a
718:u
714:o
706:a
679:u
651:a
635:a
612:o
608:u
589:a
514:i
510:a
503:e
499:i
368:a
336:a
320:a
300:a
274:)
251:y
247:u
132:o
130:/
128:a
124:a
116:a
94:(
88:a
66:A
59:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.