861:(1742) and it is the most memorable of the "answers" to Richardson. First, it inaugurated the rivalry between the two authors. Second, beneath the very loose and ribald satire, there is a coherent and rational critique of Richardson's themes. In Fielding's satire, Pamela, as Shamela, writes like a country peasant instead of a learned Londoner (as Pamela had), and it is her goal from the moment she arrives in Squire Booby's (as Mr. B is called) house to become lady of the place by selling her "vartue." Fielding also satirizes the presumption that a woman could write of dramatic, ongoing events ("He comes abed now, Mama. O Lud, my vartu! My vartu!"). Specifically, Fielding thought that Richardson's novel was very good, very well written, and very dangerous, for it offered serving women the illusion that they might sleep their way to wealth and an elevated title. In truth, Fielding saw serving women abused and lords reneging on both their spiritual conversions and promises.
1460:
proximal cause for polarized literature and thereby the rise of parodic satire. For one thing, the parodic structure allowed an author to indict another without directly mentioning a name. For another thing, such a satire allowed the author to criticize without offering up a corrective. Swift, for example, does not directly tell his readers what is of value. Instead, like Hume later, he criticizes the gullibility, naivety, and simplicity of others. The parodic satire takes apart the cases and plans of policy without necessarily contrasting a normative or positive set of values. Therefore, it was an ideal method of attack for ironists and conservatives—those who would not be able to enunciate a set of values to change toward but could condemn present changes as ill-considered.
1335:(1703–1705). That satire introduced an ancients/moderns division that would serve as a handy distinction between the old and new conception of value. The "moderns" sought trade, empirical science, the individual's reason above the society's, and the rapid dissemination of knowledge, while the "ancients" believed in inherent and immanent value of birth, the society over the individual's determinations of the good, and rigorous education. In Swift's satire, the moderns come out looking insane and proud of their insanity, dismissive of the value of history, and incapable of understanding figurative language because unschooled. In Swift's most significant satire,
1159:). Smollett's characters are desperately working to attain relief from imposition and pain, and they have little choice but to travel and strive. The plot of the novel drives the theme, and not the theme the plot. In the 19th century, novelists would have plots much nearer to Smollett's than either Fielding's or Sterne's or Richardson's, and his sprawling, linear development of action would prove most successful. However, Smollett's novels are not thematically tightly organized, and action appears solely for its ability to divert the reader, rather than to reinforce a philosophical point. The exception to this is Smollett's last novel,
986:, who is a man of great good nature. This squire is benevolent and salutary to his community and his family. Allworthy's sister has a child who is born to a high position but who has a vicious nature. Allworthy, in accordance with Christian principles, treats the boys alike. Tom falls in love with Sophia, the daughter of a neighboring squire, and then has to win her hand. It is society that interferes with Tom, and not personified evil. Fielding answers Richardson by featuring a similar plot device (whether a girl can choose her own mate) but by showing how family and village can complicate and expedite matches and felicity.
140:'s "essais" were available to English authors in the 18th century, both in French and in translation, and he exerted an influence on several later authors, both in terms of content and form, but the English essay developed independently from continental tradition. At the end of the Restoration, periodical literature began to be popular. These were combinations of news with reader's questions and commentary on the manners and news of the day. Since periodicals were inexpensive to produce, quick to read, and a viable way of influencing public opinion, their numbers increased dramatically after the success of
1155:." He thought that Smollett's novels always paid undue attention to the basest and most common elements of life, that they emphasized the dirt. Although this is a superficial complaint, it points to an important difference between the two as authors. Sterne came to the novel from a satirical background, while Smollett approached it from journalism. Sterne's pose is ironic, detached, and amused. For Sterne, the novel itself is secondary to the purpose of the novel, and that purpose was to pose difficult problems, on the one hand, and to elevate the reader, on the other (with his
721:, who was a rather brutish individual who had been stranded in South America on an island for some years. Defoe took the actual life and, from that, generated a fictional life. Instead of an expelled Scotsman, Crusoe became a devout Puritan. Instead of remaining alone the entire time, Crusoe encountered a savage named Friday, whom he civilized. The actual Selkirk had been a slave trader, and Crusoe becomes a far more enlightened teacher and missionary. Travel writing sold very well during the period, and tales of extraordinary adventures with
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Lovelace is sophisticated and manipulative. Most of
Clarissa's letters are to her childhood friend, Anna Howe. Lovelace is not consciously evil, for he will not simply rape Clarissa. He desires her free consent, which Clarissa will not give. In the end, Clarissa dies by her own will. The novel is a masterpiece of psychological realism and emotional effect, and, when Richardson was drawing to a close in the serial publication, even Henry Fielding wrote to him, begging him not to kill Clarissa. There are many themes in play in
1316:
117:
need for every
Christian to read the Bible, and instructions to landlords indicated that it was their duty to teach servants and workers how to read and to have the Bible read aloud to them. Furthermore, literacy does not appear to be confined to men, though rates of female literacy are very difficult to establish. Even where workers were not literate, however, some prose works enjoyed currency well beyond the literate, as works were read aloud to the illiterate.
1075:. In other words, the biography moves backward rather than forward in time, only to then jump forward years, hit another knot, and move backward again. Further, Sterne provides "plot diagrams" for his readers that look like a ball of yarn. When a character dies, the next page of the book is black, in mourning. At one point, there is an end paper inserted into the text as a false ending to the book. It is a novel of exceptional energy, of multi-layered
208:
815:(1740) is the next landmark development in the English novel. Richardson was, like Defoe, a dissenter. Unlike Defoe, however, his profession was as a printer rather than a journalist. Therefore, his generic models were quite distinct from those of Defoe. Instead of working from the journalistic biography, Richardson had in mind the dramatic cautionary tales of abused women and the books of improvement that were popular at the time.
490:
542:(1751). It was reprinted again in 1755. Although there was a serious political and economic philosophy that derived from Mandeville's argument, it was initially written as a satire on the Duke of Marlborough's taking England to war for his personal enrichment. Mandeville's work is full of paradox and is meant, at least partially, to problematize what he saw as the naive philosophy of human progress and inherent virtue.
1083:
1020:
1464:
1101:, where a low-born character would go through a practically endless series of adventures that would carry him into various cities and circles of high life and achieve either a great gain (in a comic ending) or a great loss. Unlike Sterne, who only published two novels, or Fielding, who died before he could manage more than four novels, Smollett was prolific. He wrote the following and more:
1443:(1719 for last authorial revision) was another satire that attempted to offer entertainment, rather than a specific bit of political action. D'Urfey (or "Durfey" as he was born) was a stutterer whose clownishness and willingness to be the butt of a joke so long as a joke was told made him a favorite of the nobility and court, and his career straddles the Restoration and Augustan period.
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observes and perceives those things that are absent or undiscovered. For
Berkeley, the persistence of matter rests in the fact that God is perceiving those things that humans are not, that a living and continually aware, attentive, and involved God is the only rational explanation for the existence of objective matter. In essence, then, Berkeley's skepticism leads inevitably to faith.
24:
81:
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1341:(1726), autobiography, allegory, and philosophy mix together in the travels. Under the umbrella of a parody of travel writing (such as Defoe's, but more particularly the fantastic and oriental tales that were circulating in London), Swift's Gulliver travels to Liliput, a figurative London beset by a figurative Paris, and sees all of the factionalism and
1250:
447:
551:
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essay, as it set out a ground wherein
Addison and Steele could comment and meditate upon manners and events, rather than campaign for specific policies or persons (as had been the case with previous, more political periodical literature) and without having to rely upon pure entertainment (as in the question and answer format found in
1288:, with its imitation of form and style of another, and satire in prose. Swift's works would pretend to speak in the voice of an opponent and imitate the style of the opponent and have the parodic work itself be the satire: the imitation would have subtle betrayals of the argument but would not be obviously absurd. For example, in
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1151:(1748). These two translated works show to some degree Smollett's personal preferences and models, for they are both rambling, open-ended novels with highly complex plots and comedy both witty and earthy. Sterne's primary attack on Smollett was personal, for the two men did not like each other, but he referred to Smollett as "
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to sell a collection of sermons to a bookseller in order to feed his large family. Since the term "fanny" had obscene implications in the 18th century, Joseph's longings for "my Fanny" survive as satirical blows, and the inversion of sexual predation strips bare the essentials of
Richardson's valuation of virginity. However,
1555:(1731) were in the next generation. Additionally and perhaps primarily, satire was a part of political and religious debate. Every significant politician and political act had satires to attack it. Few of these were parodic satires, but parodic satires, too, emerged in political and religious debate.
1349:
in
Brobdingnag, where Gulliver's own London is summed up in the king's saying, "I cannot but conclude the bulk of your natives to be the most pernicious race of odious little vermin Nature ever suffered to crawl upon the face of the earth." Gulliver then moves beyond the philosophical kingdom to the
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and was popular enough to require sequels. Like her brother, Sarah propounds a theory of good nature. David Simple is, as his name suggests, an innocent. He is possessed of a benevolent disposition and a desire to please, and the pressures and contradictory impulses of society complicate the plot.
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is not a parody of
Richardson. In that novel, Fielding proposed for the first time his belief in "good nature." Parson Adams, although not a fool, is a naif. His own basic good nature blinds him to the wickedness of the world, and the incidents on the road (for most of the novel is a travel story)
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wrote "letters" to the paper (the letters were generally not actual letters but, instead, contributions from guest authors). The highly
Latinate sentence structures and dispassionate view of the world (the pose of a spectator, rather than participant) was essential for the development of the English
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sheet of paper, printed front and back, sometimes with advertisements, and issues were not only read throughout London, but also were carried out to the countryside. Up to twenty years after publication stopped, people were counting collections of the issues among their inheritable goods. Addison's
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novels surpassed drama as entertainment and as an outlet for serious authors, and prose was serving every conceivable function in public discourse. It is the age that most provides the transition from a court-centered and poetic literature to a more democratic, decentralized literary world of prose.
886:
is the tale of
Shamela's brother, Joseph, who goes through his life trying to protect his own virginity. Women, rather than men, are the sexual aggressors, and Joseph seeks only to find his place and his true love, Fanny, and accompany his childhood friend, Parson Adams, who is travelling to London
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of perception. When Samuel
Johnson flippantly kicked a rock and "thus...refute(d) Berkeley," his kick only affirmed Berkeley's position, for by perceiving the rock, Johnson had given it greater reality. However, Berkeley's empiricism was designed, at least partially, to lead to the question of who
107:
was truly begun as a serious art form. At the outset of the Augustan age, essays were still primarily imitative, novels were few and still dominated by the Romance, and prose was a rarely used format for satire, but, by the end of the period, the English essay was a fully formed periodical feature,
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which is a mock-biography of a man who has learned all the worst lessons of classicism. Martinus Scribblerus is a Don Quixote figure, a man so deeply read in Latin and Greek poetry that he insists on living his life according to that literature. The resulting work is not quite a novel, as it is a
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but its purpose is to illustrate a single chapter in the life of a poor country girl. Pamela Andrews enters the employ of a "Mr. B." As a dutiful girl, she writes to her mother constantly, and as a Christian girl, she is always on guard for her "virtue" (i.e. her virginity), for Mr. B lusts after
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facing the expense of purchase. Inasmuch as books were still regarded principally as tools for work, any book that existed merely for entertainment was subject to a charge of frivolity. Therefore, the sales of novels and light entertainments testify to a very strong demand for these books indeed.
116:
Literacy rates in the early 18th century are difficult to estimate accurately. However, it appears that literacy was much higher than school enrollment would indicate and that literacy passed into the working classes, as well as the middle and upper classes (Thompson). The churches emphasized the
1236:
McKeon viewed the novel as emerging as a constant battleground between two developments of two sets of world view that corresponded to Whig/Tory, Dissenter/Establishment, and Capitalist/Persistent Feudalist. The "novel," for him, is the synthesis of competing and clashing theses and antitheses of
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In the midst of this development of the novel, other trends were taking place. The novel of sentiment was beginning in the 1760s and would experience a brief period of dominance. This type of novel emphasized sympathy. In keeping with the philosophy of Hartley (see above), the sentimental novel
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written during Smollett's final illness. That novel adopts the epistolary framework previously seen in Richardson, but to document a long journey taken by a family. All of the family members and servants get a coach and travel for weeks, experiencing a number of complications and set-backs. The
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had removed one of their prime rallying points, for it was now somewhat sure that England would not become Roman Catholic. Therefore, dissenter literature moved from the offensive to the defensive, from revolutionary to conservative. Thus, Defoe's infamous volley in the struggle between high and
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reminds us that officially there were no political parties in England at this time, even though those living in London referred to them quite often) and coalitions of politicians very quickly realized the power of the press, and they began funding newspapers to spread rumors. The Tory ministry of
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he worries that nothing in his life can be understood without understanding its context. For example, he tells the reader that at the very moment he was conceived, his mother was saying, "Did you wind the clock?" To explain how he knows this, he explains that his father took care of winding the
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in 1776. What it held in common with de Mandeville, Hume, and Locke was that it began by analytically examining the history of material exchange, without reflection on morality. Instead of deducing from the ideal to the real, it examined the real and tried to formulate inductive rules. However,
524:
Mandeville argued that wastefulness, lust, pride, and all the other "private" vices (those applying to the person's mental state, rather than the person's public actions) were good for the society at large, for each led the individual to employ others, to spend freely, and to free capital to flow
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acting as a petty tyrant to a "little senate" of sycophants.) Addison's essays, and to a lesser extent Steele's, helped set the critical framework for the time. Addison's essays on the imagination were highly influential as distillations and reformulations of aesthetic philosophy. Mr. Spectator
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is a critique of human vanity, of pride. Book one begins with the world as it is. Book two shows that an ideal philosopher kingdom is no home for a contemporary Englishman. Book three shows the uselessness and actual evil of indulging the passions of science without connection to the realm of
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named Lovelace. Lovelace is far more wicked than Mr. B. He imprisons Clarissa and tortures her psychologically in an effort to get her consent to marriage. Eventually, Clarissa is violated (whether by Lovelace or the household maids is unclear). Her letters to her parents are pleading, while
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of the former's escapes (and fate) and the latter's life. Defoe, unlike his competition, seems to have been a scrupulous journalist. Although his fictions contained great imagination and a masterful shaping of facts to build themes, his journalism seems based on actual investigation. From his
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However, particularly after Swift's success, parodic satire had an attraction for authors throughout the 18th century. A variety of factors created a rise in political writing and political satire (see above for some), and Robert Walpole's success and domination of Commons was a very effective
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of the members of the entourage, and not just the patriarch or matriarch. They exhibit numerous voices, from the witty and learned Oxford University student, Jerry (who is annoyed to accompany his family), to the eruptive patriarch Matthew Bramble, to the nearly illiterate servant Wynn Jenkins
433:
Bishop Berkeley extended Locke's emphasis on perception to argue that perception entirely solves the Cartesian problem of subjective and objective knowledge by saying "to be is to be perceived." Only, Berkeley argued, those things that are perceived by a consciousness are real. If there is no
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in 1725, but they spread very rapidly. Libraries purchased sermon collections and books on manners, and they were open to all, but they were associated with female patronage and novel reading. Circulating libraries were a way for women, in particular, to satisfy their desire for books without
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and features a narrator who is virtually another character in the novel itself. Fielding constantly disrupts the illusionary identification of the reader with the characters by referring to the prose itself and uses his narrative style to posit antitheses of characters and action. Tom is a
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He interviewed famed criminals and produced accounts of their lives. Whenever a celebrated criminal was hanged, the newspapers and journals would offer up an account of the criminal's life, the criminal's last words, the criminal's gallows speech, etc., and Defoe wrote several of these. In
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clock and "other family business" on one day a month. To explain why the clock had to be wound then, he has to explain his father. To explain his father, he must explain a habit of his uncle's (referred to as "My Uncle Toby"), and that requires knowing what his uncle did during the
1418:
took up the position of an observer and uncomprehendingly reporting back. Thereby, Ward records and satirizes the vanity and exaggerated spectacle of London life in a lively prose style. Ward is also important for his history of secret clubs of the Augustan age. These included
144:(flourished in the 1690s but published in book form in 1709). In the early years of the 18th century, most periodicals served as a way for a collection of friends to offer up a relatively consistent political point of view, and these periodicals were under the auspices of a
352:
The work is satirical, attacking all of the worries of Establishment figures over the challenges of dissenters. It is, therefore, an attack upon attackers and differs subtly from the literature of dissent found fifteen years earlier. For his efforts, Defoe was put in the
187:" (a character borrowed from Jonathan Swift ). Both authors developed fictions to surround their narrators. For example, Roger de Coverley came from Coverley Hall, had a family, liked hunting, and was a solid squire. The effect was something similar to a lighthearted
1447:
is a collection of witty and bawdy songs, mainly drinking songs, with popular favorites such as "The Famous Fart." Although Pope satirized Durfey, he also wrote, in a letter in 1710, that Durfey had a power that he himself did not, for, years after the publication of
1277:. Swift wrote poetry as well as prose, and his satires range over all topics. Critically, Swift's satire marked the development of prose parody away from simple satire or burlesque. A burlesque or lampoon in prose would imitate a despised author and quickly move to
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was a stylistic and formal revolution for the novel. Like Swift's satires, it begins with radical skepticism and a willingness to break apart figurative language and commonplace assumptions. The novel in three books is virtually all narrative voice, with a few
770:, returns to England, and repents of her sins. She returns to the new land of promise for all Puritans of Maryland, where she lives honestly, with a great sum of money (derived from her licentious life). In the same year, Defoe produced a flatly journalistic
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and the other radical Whig authors (including Daniel Defoe), it also did not begin with a desired outcome and work backward to deduce policy. Smith instead worked from a strictly empiricist basis to create the conceptual framework for an analytical economics.
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of 1759 attempted to strike out a new ground for moral action. His emphasis on "sentiment" was in keeping with the era, as he emphasized the need for "sympathy" between individuals as the basis of fit action. The idea, first rudimentally presented in Locke's
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land of the Houyhnhnms, a society of horses ruled by pure reason, where humanity itself is portrayed as a group of "yahoos" covered in filth and dominated by base desires. Swift later added a new third book to the satire, a heterogeneous book of travels to
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but more primitive and more native), Smith argued that moral sentiment is communicated, that it is spread by what might be better called empathy. These ideas had been satirized already by wits like Jonathan Swift (who insisted that readers of his
367:. The Hanoverian kings distanced themselves from church politics and polity and themselves favored low church positions. Anne took few clear positions on church matters. The most majestic work of the era, and the one most quoted and read, was
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There were other satirists who worked in a less virulent way. Jonathan Swift's satires obliterated hope in any specific institution or method of human improvement, but some satirists instead took a bemused pose and only made lighthearted fun.
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held a personal dislike for one another, and their works similarly offered up oppositional views of the self in society and the method of the novel. Laurence Sterne was a clergyman, and he consciously set out to imitate Jonathan Swift with his
1169:(whose writing contains many malapropisms). The title character doesn't appear until over halfway through the novel, and he is only a coachman who turns out to be better than his station (and is revealed to be Matt Bramble's bastard son).
843:, like its author, presents a dissenter's and a Whig's view of the rise of the classes. It emphasizes duty and perseverance of the saint, and the work was an enormous popular success. It also drew a nearly instantaneous set of satires.
1358:, whose reports Swift read. "Projectors" of all sorts live in the Academy of Lagado, a flying island (London) that saps all the nourishment from the land below (the countryside) and occasionally crushes, literally, troublesome cities (
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abhorrent, and it can only be acceptable if one regards the Irish as kine. The parody of an enemy is note-perfect, and the satire comes not from grotesque exaggerations of style, but in the extra-literary realm of morality and ethics.
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of the close of the 17th century in its depiction of a woman as a victim. However, Pamela triumphs. She acts as an angel for the reformation of Mr. B, and the novel ends with her marriage to her employer and rising to the position of
466:. (E.g. has anyone ever seen energy as energy? Are related events demonstrably causal instead of coincident?) Hume doggedly refused to enter into questions of his faith in the divine, but his assault on the logic and assumptions of
179:
prose style was magisterial, placid, and with perfect balance of clauses. Steele's prose style was more direct than Addison's, and more worldly. The journal developed a number of pseudonymous characters, including "Mr. Spectator,"
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that they had learned in school by stating the case, establishing that they have no interest in the outcome, and then offering a solution before enumerating the profits of the plan. Swift does the same, but the proposed solution
1220:. This feature, he argued, would continue on and influence the novel as it has been known in the 20th century, and therefore those novels that created it are, in fact, the true progenitors of the novel. Although Watt thought
1079:, of multiple satires, and of frequent parodies. It was so experimental that Samuel Johnson later famously used it as an example of a fad when he said that nothing novel can sustain itself, for "Tristram Shandy did not last."
668:(1605, 1615), which had been quickly translated from Spanish into other European languages including English. It would never go out of print, and the Augustan age saw many free translations in varying styles, by journalists (
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by having the victim say things coarse or idiotic. On the other hand, other satires would argue against a habit, practice, or policy by making fun of its reach or composition or methods. What Swift did was to combine
311:(1710–1714) reportedly spent over 50,000 pounds sterling on creating and bribing the press. Politicians wrote papers, wrote into papers, and supported papers, and it was well known that some of the periodicals, like
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agrees substantially in the power of the individual to be more or less than his or her class, but it again emphasizes the place of the individual in society and the social ramifications of individual choices. While
1294:(1729), Swift imitates the "projector." As indicated above, the book shops were filled with single sheets and pamphlets proposing economic panacea. These projectors would slavishly write according to the rules of
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it is not a tale of virtue rewarded. Instead, it is a highly tragic and affecting account of a young girl whose parents try to force her into an uncongenial marriage, thus pushing her into the arms of a scheming
1543:
was a prose satire that was extremely popular and generated the term "John Bull" for Englishmen. Further, satire was present in drama. Many plays had satirical scenes or characters, but some plays, like Gay's
782:(1724). Thematically, Defoe's works are consistently Puritan. They all involve a fall, a degradation of the spirit, a conversion, and an ecstatic elevation. This religious structure necessarily involved a
1224:
was the finest novel of the century, he also regarded it as being a stylistic cul-de-sac. Since Watt's work, numerous theorists and historians have attempted to answer the limitations of his assumptions.
1201:(1752) and many others. These novels do not generally follow a strict line of development or influence. However, they were popular works that were celebrated by both male and female readers and critics.
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allow Fielding to satirize conditions for the clergy, rural poverty (and squires), and the viciousness of businessmen. Fielding's novels arise out of a satirical model, and the same year that he wrote
762:(1722). As with the transformation of a real Selkirk into a fictional Crusoe, the fictional Moll is everything that the real prostitute was not. She pursues a wild career of material gain, travels to
604:
504:
In social and political philosophy, economics underlies much of the debate. Charles Davenant, writing as a radical Whig, was the first to propose a theoretical argument on trade and virtue with his
454:
David Hume, on the other hand, was the most radically empiricist philosopher of the period. He attacked surmise and unexamined premises wherever he found them, and his skepticism pointed out
1506:. These men together formed the "Scribbleran Club," and they had as their common goal a satire of the "abuses of learning" of all sorts. Pope, Gay, Arbuthnot, and Swift wrote a series of
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and it is a thorough-going assault on the Whig party. It pretends to tell of the greatness of Jonathan Wild, but Wild is a stand-in for Robert Walpole, who was known as "the Great Man."
219:
One of the cultural innovations of the late Restoration had been the coffee house and chocolate house, where patrons would gather to drink coffee or chocolate (which was a beverage like
279:
began soon after. Some of these journals featured news more than commentary, and others featured reviews of recent works of literature. Many periodicals came from the area of the
944:
Richardson emphasizes the individual over the social and the personal over the class. His work was part of a general valuation of the individual over and against the social good.
1137:(1771). Smollett depended upon his pen for his livelihood, and so he also wrote history and political tracts. Smollett was also a highly valued translator. He translated both
572:
of a natural coherence between sensible beings being necessary for communication not only of words, but of emotions and states of being, was here brought out more fully. While
1006:. The genuine compassion and desire for goodness of David Simple were affecting for contemporary audiences, David Simple is a forerunner of the heroes of later novels such as
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simple production and consumption. Book four shows that, indeed, the very desire for reason may be undesirable, and humans must struggle to be neither Yahoos nor Houhynymns.
335:, the literature of dissenting religious in the first half of the 18th century was spent. One of the names usually associated with the novel is perhaps the most prominent in
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would be incapable of understanding it unless, like him, they were poor, hungry, had just had wine, and were located in a specific garret), but they were, through Smith and
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658:(1511) had established long fictions subservient to a philosophical purpose. However, the most important single satirical source for the writing of novels came from
323:
In contrast to the Restoration period, the Augustan period showed less literature of controversy. Compared to the extraordinary energy that produced Richard Baxter,
1518:), 1727, a satire of manuals of the sublime and a manual of how to write bad poetry. Pope picked verses from his contemporaries, and especially his longtime rival,
1325:(1705), showing the ancient authors doing battle with the moderns, while a spider and a bee argue in a corner above the scene and fame blows her "posterior trumpet."
857:
1452:
Durfey's songs were still on the lips of thousands, while no other poet had such popularity or persistence. Indeed, ten of Durfey's tunes were used in John Gay's
1181:
At the same time, women were writing novels and moving away from the old romance plots that had dominated before the Restoration. There were utopian novels, like
622:
As has been indicated above, the ground for the novel had been laid by journalism. It had also been laid by drama and by satire. Long prose satires like Swift's
1487:
430:. All of these figures can be considered empiricists, for they all begin with the relative certainty of perception, but they reach vastly different conclusions.
308:
204:). Further, the pose of the Spectator allowed author and reader to meet as peers, rather than as philosopher and student (which was the case with Montesquieu).
406:
that few other voices are remembered today, the 18th century had a vigorous competition among followers of Locke, and philosophical writing was strong. Bishop
1533:
Satire was present in all genres during the Augustan period. In poetry, all of the literary members of the Scribblerus Club produced verse satires. Gay's
379:, his book was orthodox to all Protestants in England at the time and moved its readers to contemplate and practice their Christianity more devoutly. The
1216:(1957) still dominates attempts at writing a history of the novel. Watt's view is that the critical feature of the 18th-century novel is the creation of
1097:, on the other hand, wrote more seemingly traditional novels (although the novel was still too new to have much of a tradition). He concentrated on the
969:
cloisters its characters geographically to a house imprisonment and isolates them to their own subjective impressions in the form of letters, Fielding's
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her. The plot is somewhat melodramatic, and it is pathetic: the reader's sympathies and fears are engaged throughout, and the novel comes close to the
1558:
So omnipresent and powerful was satire in the Augustan age that more than one literary history has referred to it as the "Age of satire" in literature.
758:
reportage on the prostitutes and criminals, Defoe may have become familiar with the real-life Mary Mollineaux, who may have been the model for Moll in
137:
1601:
680:, 1755). In general, one can see these three axes, drama, journalism, and satire, as blending in and giving rise to three different types of novel.
1706:
1115:
1503:
1608:
628:(1726) had a central character who goes through adventures and may (or may not) learn lessons. In fact, satires and philosophical works like
599:
movement. If sympathetic sentiment communicated morality, would it not be possible to induce morality by providing sympathetic circumstances?
1127:
953:
1510:
all mislabeled (the "third part" was the first, the "first part" was the second). In them were several satirical pieces, including Pope's
531:
in 1732). In 1729, when a new edition appeared, the book was prosecuted as a public nuisance. It was also denounced in the periodicals.
299:
would self-consciously recreate the pose of Mr. Spectator to give a platform for musings and philosophy, as well as literary criticism.
1383:
were all satirists in prose whose works appeared in the early part of the Augustan age. Tom Brown's most famous work in this vein was
703:(1709) comes closest to an inheritor of Behn's, but her novel, while political and satirical, was a minor scandal. On the other hand,
1109:
1133:
1103:
67:
1522:, and collated them into a full schematic of how to make bad verse, how to sink in poetry. The Scribbleran Club also produced the
395:'s sermon style. They were works for the individual, rather than for the community. They were non-public and concentrated on the
34:
414:
are the best remembered major philosophers of 18th-century England, but other philosophers adapted the political ramifications of
538:
151:
However, one periodical outsold and dominated all others and set out an entirely new philosophy for essay writing, and that was
573:
1666:
1524:
357:. He would continue his Puritan campaigning in his journalism and novels, but never again with public satire of this sort.
231:
there. However, Button's and Will's coffee shops attracted writers, and Addison and Steele became the center of their own
1068:
387:
remained popular as well. Both of these works called for revivalism, and they set the stage for the later development of
740:
Defoe would continue to draw from life and news for his next novels. In the 1720s, Defoe wrote "Lives" of criminals for
512:
became a centerpoint of controversy regarding trade, morality, and social ethics. It was initially a short poem called
686:
had written literary novels before the turn of the 18th century, but there were not many immediate successors. Behn's
1035:
Two other novelists should be mentioned, for they, like Fielding and Richardson, were in dialog through their works.
588:
396:
940:
and against arranged marriages. Clarissa will marry, but she wishes to have her own say in choice of mate. As with
269:
49:
211:
Rowlandson's caricature "Mad Dog in a Coffee-House," showing "stock jobbers" in a panic as they are terrorized by a
811:
797:
563:
725:
and savages were devoured by the public, and Defoe satisfied an essentially journalistic market with his fiction.
713:(1719) was the first major novel of the new century. Defoe had written political and religious polemics prior to
45:
1432:
697:
508:(1701). However, Davenant's work was not directly very influential. On the other hand, Bernard de Mandeville's
1002:
On the one hand, this novel emphasizes the role of society, but, on the other, it is a novel that sets up the
644:
275:
273:. He was the first to use the term "magazine" on the analogy of a military storehouse of varied material. The
191:
novel, intermixed with meditations on follies and philosophical musings. The paper's politics were generally
235:
and exerted a powerful influence over which authors rose or fell in reputation. (This would be satirized by
1059:, such as "Slawkenbergius's Tale." Tristram seeks to write his autobiography, but like Swift's narrator in
1056:
343:. After the coronation of Anne, dissenter hopes of reversing the Restoration were at an ebb. Further, the
974:
344:
244:
would comment upon fashions, the vanity of women, the emptiness of conversation, and the folly of youth.
1217:
1072:
717:
and he worked as a journalist during and after its composition. Thus, Defoe encountered the memoirs of
532:
494:
419:
295:
1351:
1337:
624:
525:
through the economy. William Law attacked the work, as did Bishop Berkeley (in the second dialogue of
1354:, Balnibarbi, Glubdubdribb, Luggnagg, and Japan. This book's primary satire is on empiricism and the
223:
and was unsweetened). Each coffee shop in the city was associated with a particular type of patron.
174:
was far and away the most successful and significant periodical of the era. Each issue was a single,
84:
An engraved ticket for Francis Noble's circulating library in London from some time after mid-century.
1658:
1372:
1279:
1178:
concentrated on characters who are quickly moved to labile swings of mood and extraordinary empathy.
1142:
228:
1572:
1321:
659:
188:
96:
1237:
individual novels. I.e. the "novel" is the process of negotiation and conflict between competing
1567:
1012:
654:
634:
360:
Instead of wild battles of religious controversy, the early 18th century was a time of emergent,
328:
192:
1423:(1706), which sought humorously to expose the silly exploits of radicals. Ward also translated
1315:
489:
1589:
1546:
1342:
1300:
1290:
1003:
806:
718:
592:
392:
184:
180:
1682:
The Cambridge history of English and American literature: An encyclopedia in eighteen volumes
1624:
1393:
1346:
1194:
1098:
983:
928:
820:
610:
527:
423:
376:
95:
relies primarily upon changes in taste in poetry. However, the general time represented by
207:
1577:
1519:
1468:
1331:
1094:
1087:
1061:
1046:
1040:
1036:
1028:
1024:
1007:
709:
677:
583:
459:
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in areas that other empiricists had assumed were material. Hume attacked the weakness of
407:
402:
Also in contrast to the Restoration, when philosophy in England was so fully dominated by
303:
263:(note that none of these periodicals continued to the present day without interruption).
1435:'s imitation of Cervantes, now became the fit medium for a translation of the original (
350:
The Shortest Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church.
1711:
1617:
The Shortest Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church
1582:
1499:
1495:
1483:
1425:
The Life &Adventures of Don Quixote de la Mancha, translated into Hudibrastic Verse
1380:
1274:
1266:
1190:
1082:
1019:
990:
870:
844:
483:
364:
284:
236:
163:
159:
125:
788:, for each character had to learn a lesson about him or herself and emerge the wiser.
1700:
1535:
1355:
1262:
937:
901:
848:
784:
750:
746:
673:
280:
220:
170:
began, there was already a thriving industry of periodical literature in London, but
153:
104:
1421:
The Secret History of the Calves-Head Club, Complt.{SIC} or, The Republican Unmask'd
1679:
Ward, A.W., A.R. Waller, W. P. Trent, J. Erskine, S.P. Sherman, and C. Van Doren.
1551:
were parodic satires early in the period (1728), and others, like Henry Fielding's
1463:
1258:
979:
733:
704:
384:
340:
332:
259:
253:
232:
1654:
1639:
1539:(1716) and many poems by Pope were satires first and foremost. John Arbuthnot's
1428:
1182:
829:
664:
629:
455:
368:
289:
264:
462:
and the apparently mystical assumptions behind key concepts such as energy and
1152:
1076:
801:
showing Mr. B intercepting Pamela's first letter to her mother and reading it.
683:
577:
558:
427:
415:
411:
403:
324:
175:
145:
434:
perception of a thing, then that thing cannot exist. Further, it is not the
1399:
1241:, rather than a definable and fixed set of thematic or generic conventions.
596:
475:
471:
463:
388:
80:
1031:, showing him in a pose of considering a witticism or of ironic detachment.
251:
more political periodicals of comment appeared, including the vaguely Tory
1646:
728:
1491:
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1238:
1209:
1147:
914:
763:
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as trifles of small men. He travels then to an idealized nation with a
896:
he also wrote a work that parodied Daniel Defoe's criminal biographies:
791:
506:
A Discourse on Grants and Resumptions and Essays on the Balance of Power
283:, which had been associated with a bohemian lifestyle since the 1670s.
99:
saw a rise in prose writing as high literature. The essay, satire, and
1388:
1249:
1229:
649:
479:
446:
354:
336:
224:
195:, but never sharply or pedantically so, and thus a number of prominent
121:
805:
Although there were other novels and novelistic works in the interim,
550:
1616:
1515:
1385:
Amusements Serious and Comical, Calculated for the Meridian of London
1359:
1285:
767:
722:
212:
124:
in England began in the Augustan period. The first was probably at
52:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
1273:
A single name overshadows all others in 18th-century prose satire:
516:
in 1705. However, in 1714 he published it with its current title,
1640:"The Contemplator's Short Biography of Thomas D'Urfey (1653–1723)"
1462:
1314:
1248:
1081:
1018:
790:
727:
561:
is remembered by lay persons as the father of capitalism, but his
549:
488:
445:
206:
79:
778:(1722). His last novel returned to the theme of fallen women in
576:
had presupposed a separate sense in humans for morality (akin to
1691:
The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding
1387:(1700). For poetry, Brown was important for his translation of
1254:
834:
196:
774:(1722), and an attempted tale of a working class male rise in
605:
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
17:
1609:"Publishing in the Eighteenth Century: Popular Print Genres"
1193:'s works, female adaptations of older, male motifs, such as
858:
Shamela, or an Apology for the Life of Miss Shamela Andrews
375:(1728) (see his online works, below). Although Law was a
518:
The Fable of the Bees: or, Private Vices, Public Benefits
267:
created the first general-interest magazine in 1731 with
103:(in philosophy and religion) thrived in the age, and the
847:'s response was to link Richardson's virtuous girl with
41:
957:
of 1749 offers up the other side of the argument from
951:, he was also writing a counter to its messages. His
482:. Later philosophers have seen in Hume a basis for
227:
merchants favored Lloyd's, for example, and founded
1052:
The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, gentleman
936:Most obviously, the novel is a strong argument for
1307:wrong with the proposal, but it is unquestionably
912:In 1747 through 1748, Samuel Richardson published
1232:approach to the history of the novel in his 1986
878:had appeared anonymously, but Fielding published
696:(1688) had come from her theatrical experience.
1122:The Life and Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves
1530:sustained prose work that only serves satire.
688:Love Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister
91:is somewhat ill-defined, as the definition of
1189:(1762), autobiographical women's novels like
8:
438:of perception that lends existence, but the
1636:. 6 vol. London: Jacob Tonson, 1719–1720.
1634:Wit and Mirth: or Pills to Purge Melancholy
1441:Wit and Mirth: or Pills to Purge Melancholy
868:Fielding continued to bait Richardson with
522:An Enquiry into the Origin of Moral Virtue.
514:The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turn'd Honest
302:However, the political factions (historian
947:Even as Fielding was reading and enjoying
1398:as well as the scandalous Roman satirist
795:An illustration from the 1742 edition of
68:Learn how and when to remove this message
1693:. Los Angeles: U California Press, 1957.
1675:The Making of the English Working Class.
1648:A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life
1329:Jonathan Swift's first major satire was
1116:The Adventures of Ferdinand Count Fathom
690:(1684) had been bred in satire, and her
373:A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life
1406:). Ned Ward's most memorable work was
1228:Michael McKeon, for example, brought a
898:The History of Jonathan Wild the Great.
1623:de Mandeville, Bernard. Excerpts from
1128:The History and Adventures of an Atom
922:, it is an epistolary novel. Unlike
7:
1303:) is immoral. There is very little
982:and a foundling who is cared for by
399:notion of an individual revelation.
1686:New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1921.
882:under his own name, also in 1742.
1110:The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle
493:Title page to the 1705 edition of
474:was devastating. He was an anti-
14:
1629:, 1705. Retrieved 21 June 2005.
1456:five years after Durfey's death.
1234:The Origins of the English Novel.
1134:The Expedition of Humphry Clinker
1104:The Adventures of Roderick Random
1265:. It is an image that affected
319:Philosophy and religious writing
22:
1707:Early Modern English literature
1651:. 1728. Retrieved 20 June 2005.
1602:"Proceedings of the Old Bailey"
1525:Memoirs of Martinus Scribblerus
348:low church came in the form of
676:, 1712) as well as novelists (
554:Charcoal sketch of Adam Smith.
1:
1069:War of the Spanish Succession
570:Essay on Human Understanding,
539:Shaftesbury's Characteristics
120:For those who were literate,
1023:The most famous portrait of
993:, was also a novelist. Her
905:was published in Fielding's
772:A Journal of the Plague Year
745:particular, he investigated
478:without ever agreeing to be
112:The precondition of literacy
864:After the coarse satire of
397:priesthood of all believers
48:the claims made and adding
1728:
1661:. Retrieved 15 June 2005.
1655:The Millwall History Files
1642:. Retrieved 27 June 2005.
1620:. Retrieved 20 June 2005.
1611:. Retrieved 22 June 2005.
1450:Pills to Purge Melancholy,
1319:Illustration from Swift's
812:Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded
602:Smith's greatest work was
564:Theory of Moral Sentiments
1445:Pills to Purge Melancholy
1431:, which had been born in
1173:Later novels/other trends
989:Henry Fielding's sister,
1670:. Retrieved 1 July 2005.
1604:. Retrieved 1 July 2005.
645:Gargantua and Pantagruel
315:were party mouthpieces.
270:The Gentleman's Magazine
1205:Historians of the novel
1057:interpolated narratives
1482:Swift was a friend of
1479:
1326:
1270:
1091:
1032:
975:third person narrative
918:in serial form. Like
802:
737:
555:
501:
451:
345:Act of Settlement 1701
216:
85:
1626:The Fable of the Bees
1466:
1318:
1252:
1245:Satire (unclassified)
1218:psychological realism
1214:The Rise of the Novel
1085:
1022:
794:
731:
595:and even the nascent
591:, influential on the
553:
510:The Fable of the Bees
495:Bernard de Mandeville
492:
449:
420:Bernard de Mandeville
276:Gentleman's Quarterly
247:After the success of
210:
122:circulating libraries
83:
1659:Great Fire of London
1657:, an account of the
1553:Tragedy of Tragedies
1541:John Bull's Law Case
1280:reductio ad absurdum
1269:'s poetry and prose.
648:(1532–64), and even
202:The Athenian Mercury
142:The Athenian Mercury
133:The essay/journalism
1664:Sterne, Laurence.
1573:Augustan literature
1427:in 1711, where the
1394:Le Virgile travesti
1322:Battle of the Books
1157:Sentimental Journey
742:Applebee's Journal.
698:Delarivier Manley's
660:Miguel de Cervantes
535:attacked it in his
97:Augustan literature
1607:Davis, Caroline.
1568:English literature
1480:
1439:). Tom D'Urfey's
1364:Gulliver's Travels
1362:). Thematically,
1338:Gulliver's Travels
1327:
1271:
1199:The Female Quixote
1164:letters come from
1092:
1033:
1013:The Man of Feeling
803:
738:
655:In Praise of Folly
625:Gulliver's Travels
556:
502:
499:Fable of the Bees.
452:
329:Gerrard Winstanley
217:
86:
33:possibly contains
1673:Thompson, E. P.
1590:Restoration prose
1291:A Modest Proposal
1261:'s work with the
1143:Alain Rene LeSage
1004:sentimental novel
807:Samuel Richardson
719:Alexander Selkirk
593:sentimental novel
574:Francis Hutcheson
393:George Whitefield
365:latitudinarianism
229:Lloyd's of London
185:Isaac Bickerstaff
181:Roger de Coverley
166:. By 1711, when
78:
77:
70:
35:original research
1719:
1614:Defoe, Daniel.
1471:of a scene from
1347:philosopher king
1195:Charlotte Lennox
1161:Humphry Clinker,
1099:picaresque novel
984:Squire Allworthy
821:epistolary novel
715:Robinson Crusoe,
611:Charles Davenant
486:and naturalism.
424:Charles Davenant
73:
66:
62:
59:
53:
50:inline citations
26:
25:
18:
1727:
1726:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1718:
1717:
1716:
1697:
1696:
1667:Tristram Shandy
1632:D'Urfey, Tom.
1598:
1578:Augustan poetry
1564:
1520:Ambrose Philips
1477:Beggar's Opera.
1469:William Hogarth
1454:Beggar's Opera,
1412:The London Spy,
1332:A Tale of a Tub
1247:
1222:Tristram Shandy
1207:
1175:
1095:Tobias Smollett
1088:Tobias Smollett
1073:Battle of Namur
1062:A Tale of a Tub
1047:Tristram Shandy
1041:Tobias Smollett
1037:Laurence Sterne
1029:Joshua Reynolds
1025:Laurence Sterne
1008:Henry Mackenzie
997:(1744) outsold
894:Joseph Andrews,
855:in the form of
710:Robinson Crusoe
678:Tobias Smollett
620:
584:A Tale of a Tub
548:
460:inductive logic
408:George Berkeley
321:
313:Mist's Journal,
304:Louis B. Namier
135:
114:
74:
63:
57:
54:
39:
27:
23:
12:
11:
5:
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1714:
1709:
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1677:
1671:
1662:
1652:
1645:Law, William.
1643:
1637:
1630:
1621:
1612:
1605:
1597:
1594:
1593:
1592:
1587:
1586:
1585:
1583:Augustan drama
1580:
1570:
1563:
1560:
1547:Beggar's Opera
1504:Henry St. John
1500:Thomas Parnell
1496:John Arbuthnot
1484:Alexander Pope
1467:A painting by
1416:The Spectator,
1408:The London Spy
1275:Jonathan Swift
1267:Jonathan Swift
1246:
1243:
1206:
1203:
1191:Frances Burney
1187:Millenium Hall
1174:
1171:
999:Joseph Andrews
991:Sarah Fielding
889:Joseph Andrews
884:Joseph Andrews
880:Joseph Andrews
871:Joseph Andrews
851:'s shamefaced
845:Henry Fielding
823:, like Behn's
619:
616:
547:
544:
484:Utilitarianism
320:
317:
285:Samuel Johnson
249:The Spectator,
237:Alexander Pope
164:Richard Steele
160:Joseph Addison
134:
131:
113:
110:
89:Augustan prose
76:
75:
30:
28:
21:
13:
10:
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3:
2:
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1713:
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1542:
1538:
1537:
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1528:
1526:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1508:Miscellanies,
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1488:Robert Harley
1485:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1433:Samuel Butler
1430:
1426:
1422:
1417:
1413:
1410:(1704–1706).
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1395:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1368:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1356:Royal Society
1353:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1339:
1334:
1333:
1324:
1323:
1317:
1313:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1297:
1293:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1281:
1276:
1268:
1264:
1263:Royal Society
1260:
1256:
1251:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1235:
1231:
1226:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
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1050:(1759–1767).
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939:
938:romantic love
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907:Miscellanies,
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902:Jonathan Wild
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849:Colley Cibber
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825:Love Letters,
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786:
785:bildungsroman
781:
777:
773:
769:
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761:
760:Moll Flanders
756:
755:True Accounts
752:
751:Jonathan Wild
748:
747:Jack Sheppard
743:
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724:
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674:Peter Motteux
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589:David Hartley
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520:and included
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1086:Portrait of
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734:Daniel Defoe
714:
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701:New Atlantis
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380:
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341:Daniel Defoe
333:William Penn
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1512:Peri Bathos
1429:Hudibrastic
1381:Tom D'Urfey
1301:cannibalism
1183:Sarah Scott
1139:Don Quixote
1077:digressions
830:She-tragedy
732:Woodcut of
672:, 1700 and
665:Don Quixote
630:Thomas More
537:Essay upon
456:metaphysics
381:Meditations
369:William Law
290:The Rambler
265:Edward Cave
158:written by
138:Montesquieu
1701:Categories
1596:References
1239:ideologies
1153:Smelfungus
973:employs a
766:, commits
753:and wrote
684:Aphra Behn
578:conscience
559:Adam Smith
546:After 1750
533:John Brown
450:David Hume
428:Adam Smith
416:empiricism
412:David Hume
404:John Locke
339:writing:
325:George Fox
239:later, as
146:bookseller
93:"Augustan"
42:improve it
1400:Petronius
1373:Tom Brown
1305:logically
971:Tom Jones
962:Tom Jones
959:Clarissa.
954:Tom Jones
934:Clarissa.
618:The novel
597:Methodist
528:Alciphron
476:apologist
472:cosmogeny
464:causality
440:actuality
436:potential
389:Methodism
377:non-juror
296:The Idler
287:'s later
58:July 2016
46:verifying
1562:See also
1492:John Gay
1473:John Gay
1377:Ned Ward
1296:rhetoric
1253:Image a
1210:Ian Watt
1148:Gil Blas
1125:(1762),
1119:(1753),
1113:(1751),
1107:(1748),
1016:(1771).
967:Clarissa
949:Clarissa
915:Clarissa
866:Shamela,
764:Maryland
693:Oroonoko
670:Ned Ward
640:Rabelais
638:(1516),
468:theodicy
362:de facto
101:dialogue
1414:before
1389:Scarron
1309:morally
1230:Marxist
1071:at the
980:bastard
942:Pamela,
924:Pamela,
876:Shamela
853:Apology
723:pirates
650:Erasmus
609:unlike
480:atheist
355:pillory
337:Puritan
241:Atticus
225:Puritan
215:animal.
183:, and "
40:Please
1536:Trivia
1516:Bathos
1502:, and
1379:, and
1360:Dublin
1352:Laputa
1343:schism
1286:parody
920:Pamela
841:Pamela
819:is an
817:Pamela
798:Pamela
780:Roxana
768:incest
635:Utopia
426:, and
331:, and
197:Tories
189:serial
1712:Prose
1514:(see
1257:from
213:rabid
176:folio
1437:CBEL
1404:CBEL
1255:flea
1141:and
1039:and
929:rake
835:lady
749:and
470:and
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293:and
257:and
193:Whig
162:and
126:Bath
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