634:. General mechanics can even present us with the empirical condition of this opposition in an à priori rule, as it directs its attention to the opposition in the direction of forces—a condition of which the transcendental conception of reality can tell us nothing. Although M. Leibnitz did not announce this proposition with precisely the pomp of a new principle, he yet employed it for the establishment of new propositions, and his followers introduced it into their Leibnitzio-Wolfian system of philosophy. According to this principle, for example, all evils are but consequences of the limited nature of created beings, that is, negations, because these are the only opposite of reality. (In the mere conception of a thing in general this is really the case, but not in things as phenomena.) In like manner, the upholders of this system deem it not only possible, but natural also, to connect and unite all reality in one being, because they acknowledge no other sort of opposition than that of contradiction (by which the conception itself of a thing is annihilated), and find themselves unable to conceive an opposition of reciprocal destruction, so to speak, in which one real cause destroys the effect of another, and the conditions of whose representation we meet with only in sensibility.
355:
corruption harms, but, less it could diminish goodness, it could not harm. Either, then, corruption harms not, which cannot be; or, what is most certain, all which is corrupted is deprived of good. But if they be deprived of all good, they will cease to be. For if they be, and cannot be at all corrupted, they will become better, because they shall remain incorruptibly. And what more monstrous than to assert that those things which have lost all their goodness are made better? Therefore, if they shall be deprived of all good, they shall no longer be. So long, therefore, as they are, they are good; therefore whatsoever is, is good. That evil, then, which I sought whence it was, is not any substance; for were it a substance, it would be good. For either it would be an incorruptible substance, and so a chief good, or a corruptible substance, which unless it were good it could not be corrupted. I perceived, therefore, and it was made clear to me, that Thou made all things good, nor is there any substance at all that was not made by You; and because all that You have made are not equal, therefore all things are; because individually they are good, and altogether very good, because our God made all things very good.
331:
with it, or have some community with it. This "non-being," however, is not absolute non-being. Its difference from being resembles the difference between being and movement or rest; but only as its image, or something still more distant from reality. Within this non-being are comprised all sense-objects, and all their passive modifications; or, evil may be something still more inferior, like their accident or principle, or one of the things that contribute to its constitution. To gain some conception of evil it may be represented by the contrast between measure and incommensurability; between indetermination and its goal; between lack of form and the creating principle of form; between lack and self-sufficiency; as the perpetual unlimited and changeableness; as passivity, insatiableness, and absolute poverty. Those are not the mere accidents of evil, but its very essence; all of that can be discovered when any part of evil is examined. The other objects, when they participate in the evil and resemble it, become evil without however being absolute Evil.
467:, they indicate no positive quality in things regarded in themselves, but are merely modes of thinking, or notions which we form from the comparison of things one with another. Thus one and the same thing can be at the same time good, bad, and indifferent. For instance, music is good for him that is melancholy, bad for him that mourns; for him that is deaf, it is neither good nor bad. Nevertheless, though this be so, the terms should still be retained. For, inasmuch as we desire to form an idea of man as a type of human nature which we may hold in view, it will be useful for us to retain the terms in question, in the sense I have indicated.
551:
are indistinguishable from the blank unconsciousness of an oyster. Indeed, it would seem that this whole theory has been advanced solely because of the unconscious bias in favour of optimism, and that its opposite is logically just as tenable. We might urge that evil consists in existence, and good in non-existence; that therefore the sum-total of existence is the worst thing there is, and that only non-existence is good. Indeed, Buddhism does seem to maintain some such view. It is plain that this view is false; but logically it is no more absurd than its opposite.
517:…it is possible that one thing in relation to another may be evil, and at the same time within the limits of its proper being it may not be evil. Then it is proved that there is no evil in existence; all that God created He created good. This evil is nothingness; so death is the absence of life. When man no longer receives life, he dies. Darkness is the absence of light: when there is no light, there is darkness. Light is an existing thing, but darkness is nonexistent. Wealth is an existing thing, but poverty is nonexisting.
368:
elsewhere: they altogether cease to exist; for the wound or disease is not a substance, but a defect in the fleshly substance,—the flesh itself being a substance, and therefore something good, of which those evils—that is, privations of the good which we call health—are accidents. Just in the same way, what are called vices in the soul are nothing but privations of natural good. And when they are cured, they are not transferred elsewhere: when they cease to exist in the healthy soul, they cannot exist anywhere else.
991:(v) Evil does not exist because it is privative; it is merely the absence of goodness, and in itself it is nothing at all. This was a standard Christian view advanced by the church fathers in their endeavour to formulate a theodicy. The view was repeated by John Damascene – 'Evil is nothing else than a lack of the good' – and by Western theologians too. To be sure, this doctrine had to be reconciled with the existence of the Devil, who plays so prominent a role in the New Testament.
600:, repeated the counter-example of cruelty, also mentioned by Russell: "The idea that evil is privative, that is, it consists in the absence of good, stripped of its theological trappings, is unconvincing. There is nothing privative about taking pleasure in the agony of others, or feeling joy at the sight of their torment."
630:, exists everywhere, an opposition, that is, in which one reality united with another in the same subject annihilates the effects of the other—a fact which is constantly brought before our eyes by the different antagonistic actions and operations in nature, which, nevertheless, as depending on real forces, must be called
625:
The principle: "Realities (as simple affirmations) never logically contradict each other," is a proposition perfectly true respecting the relation of conceptions, but, whether as regards nature, or things in themselves (of which we have not the slightest conception), is without any the least meaning.
1448:
Eveʼs acquisition of knowledge is consistent with what God says about the fruit. Eve and Adam gain knowledge, but not of Godʼs creation. They gain knowledge of the darkness into which creation falls when it is deprived of Godʼs goodness. Saint
Augustine had argued that evil has no real existence but
550:
the belief that, as a matter of fact, nothing that exists is evil, is one which no one would advocate except a metaphysician defending a theory. Pain and hatred and envy and cruelty are surely things that exist, and are not merely the absence of their opposites; but the theory should hold that they
330:
As these are real beings, and as the first
Principle is their superior, evil could not exist in such beings, and still less in Him, who is superior to them; for all these things are good. Evil then must be located in non-being, and must, so to speak, be its form, referring to the things that mingle
583:
supposing the presence of something saddening or painful, it is a sign of goodness if a man is in sorrow or pain on account of this present evil. For if he were not to be in sorrow or pain, this could only be either because he feels it not, or because he does not reckon it as something unbecoming,
458:
I mean the same thing. For we are wont to refer all the individual things in nature to one genus, which is called the highest genus, namely, to the category of Being, whereto absolutely all individuals in nature belong. Thus, in so far as we refer the individuals in nature to this category, and
354:
And it was made clear unto me that those things are good which yet are corrupted, which, neither were they supremely good, nor unless they were good, could be corrupted; because if supremely good, they were incorruptible, and if not good at all, there was nothing in them to be corrupted. For
367:
For what is that which we call evil but the absence of good? In the bodies of animals, disease and wounds mean nothing but the absence of health; for when a cure is effected, that does not mean that the evils which were present—namely, the diseases and wounds—go away from the body and dwell
664:
One problem with the privation theory's solution to the problem of evil is that it provides only a partial solution to the problem of evil since even if God creates no evil we must still explain why God allows privation evils to exist (See Calder 2007a; Kane
655:
Even if evil is privative like darkness, it is unclear why that relieves God of the responsibility of allowing it – after all, he could presumably have created a universe of light or not have created the universe at
449:
Perfection and imperfection, then, are in reality merely modes of thinking, or notions which we form from a comparison among one another of individuals of the same species; hence I said above (II. Def. vi.), that by
1093:
567:
article on "The
Concept of Evil", written by philosopher Todd Calder, also says that "it seems that we cannot equate the evil of pain with the privation of pleasure or some other feeling. Pain is a distinct
409:(book 2, chapter 4) that "evil is nothing else than absence of goodness, just as darkness also is absence of light. For goodness is the light of the mind, and, similarly, evil is the darkness of the mind."
530:, where he says that a "sound theory of value" requires "that good should be able to exist on its own while evil requires the good on which it is parasitic in order to continue its parasitic existence."
497:, also believed in the theory; John Leonard's introduction to the same poem also uses the theory to interpret one of its passages. Both Lewis and Leonard cite Augustine as a source on the theory.
538:
Various philosophers have proposed that the privation theory of evil is inadequate in some respect, so that non-privative evils must be admitted in at least some cases. A typical example is
611:
believed that, while the doctrine is true of concepts of the understanding, it is nevertheless false about the world as it appears to the senses. In a remark to the section of the
459:
comparing them one with another, find that some possess more of being or reality than others, we, to this extent, say that some are more perfect than others. As for the terms
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1167:
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266:"), of good. This also means that everything that exists is good, insofar as it exists; and is also sometimes stated as that evil ought to be regarded as
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both of which are manifest evils. Consequently it is a condition of goodness, that, supposing an evil to be present, sorrow or pain should ensue.
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is only the privation of good. Adam and Eve gain knowledge of privation. Put simply, they come to realize what it is that they have lost.
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1413:
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217:
344:, with whom the doctrine is most associated. Augustine gave an argument for the theory in chapter 12 (paragraph 18) of book 7 of his
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262:, is insubstantial, so that thinking of it as an entity is misleading. Instead, evil is rather the absence, or lack ("
59:
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210:
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281:: if some things in the world were to be admitted to be evil, this could be taken to reflect badly on the
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376:, where he wrote that "evil has no positive nature; but the loss of good has received the name 'evil.'"
306:. While Plato never directly stated the doctrine, it was developed, based on his remarks on evil, by the
289:. The merit of the doctrine in serving as a response to this version of the problem of evil is disputed.
441:
510:
506:
54:
1311:
693:
445:, part II, definition VI). He clarified this definition in the preface to part IV of the same work:
169:
643:
Some criticisms focus on the merit of the privation theory of evil as a response to the so-called
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and sorrow, mentioned by
Russell in the quote above, are popular alleged counterexamples. The
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164:
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74:
23:
1512:"Summa Theologiae: The goodness and malice of sorrow or pain (Prima Secundae Partis, Q. 39)"
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621:
school of philosophy for not acknowledging this possibility of merely phenomenal opposition:
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414:
402:
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380:
363:, Augustine explained the doctrine differently, by analyzing different examples of evils:
286:
278:
179:
174:
109:
894:
Pseudo-Dionysius : a commentary on the texts and an introduction to their influence
575:
Thomas
Aquinas, a proponent of the privation theory, argued against this opinion in his
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1100:, Cambridge Critical Guides, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 192–221,
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1287:"CHURCH FATHERS: An Exposition of the Orthodox Faith, Book II (John of Damascus)"
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251:
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94:
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1246:
Augustine. "What Is Called Evil in the
Universe Is But the Absence of Good".
1198:
1184:
Plotinos: Complete Works, v. 1In
Chronological Order, Grouped in Four Periods
875:
617:
entitled the "Amphiboly of the
Conceptions of Reflection", he criticized the
911:
322:. The following quotation from that tractate, in which evil is described as
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69:
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419:, that "goodness and being are really the same, and differ only in idea".
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315:
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247:
154:
139:
33:
1536:
1336:
1094:"Evil as privation: the Neoplatonic background to Aquinas's De malo, 1"
860:. Watts, V. E. (Victor Ernest) (Rev. ed.). London: Penguin Books.
1272:
Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers: Series I/Volume II/City of God/Book XI
700:(Summer 2020 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
379:
Through the influence of
Augustine, this doctrine influenced much of
303:
1072:"188. The Privation Theory of Evil, Part 1 – PHILOSOPHICAL EGGS"
560:
474:
adhered to the doctrine as well, and employed it as part of his
259:
255:
413:
concluded, in article 1 of question 5 of the First Part of his
572:
experience which is positively bad and not merely not good."
397:
also states that all being is good, in Chapter 4 of his work
1138:. Dillon, John M.; Mackenna, Stephen. London. p. 109.
798:"SUMMA THEOLOGIAE: Goodness in general (Prima Pars, Q. 5)"
285:
of the world, who would then be difficult to admit to be
372:
Augustine also mentioned the doctrine in passing in his
1541:. Translated by Meiklejohn, J. M. D. (John Miller Dow).
1223:"CHURCH FATHERS: Confessions, Book VII (St. Augustine)"
1028:(1 ed.). Chichester, West Sussex. pp. 87–88.
1341:. Translated by Elwes, R. H. M. (Robert Harvey Monro).
1098:
Aquinas's Disputed Questions on Evil: A Critical Guide
746:. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Pub. p. 136.
971:(1 ed.). Chichester, West Sussex. p. 87.
896:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 148.
431:also agreed with the doctrine, when he said: "By
1092:O’Rourke, Fran (2015), Dougherty, M. V. (ed.),
1025:The moral powers : a study of human nature
968:The moral powers : a study of human nature
548:
515:
365:
302:The doctrine is sometimes said to be rooted in
1490:. Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. p. 266.
383:thought on the subject of evil. For instance,
1484:Root, Jerry; Martindale, Wayne (2012-03-12).
277:It is often associated with a version of the
211:
8:
771:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. p. 45.
717:Aquinas, Thomas (1990). Peter Kreeft (ed.).
1461:ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. "The Nonexistence of Evil.".
767:Teichman, Jenny; Katherine C Evans (1999).
742:Menssen, Sandra; Thomas D Sullivan (2007).
542:, who criticized the doctrine in his essay
1386:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1358:(First ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom.
1166:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1056:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1002:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
218:
204:
18:
393:, that "evil is nothing". The theologian
1355:Leibniz : a very short introduction
1187:. Translated by Guthrie, Kenneth Sylvan.
298:Ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophy
1408:. Oxford University Press. p. 66.
698:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
675:
32:
1379:
1159:
1049:
995:
478:argument that the actual world is the
407:Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith
336:Ancient and medieval Christian thought
1427:
1425:
1399:
1397:
1335:Spinoza, Benedictus de (2003-02-01).
1017:
1015:
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960:
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7:
1432:Milton, John; Leonard, John (2003).
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387:famously proved, in Book III of his
1199:"Platonism - Augustinian Platonism"
950:Five Proofs Of The Existence Of God
769:Philosophy : A Beginners Guide
565:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
423:Early modern philosophy and poetry
14:
721:. San Francisco: Ignatius Press.
513:stated to a French Baháʼí woman:
505:The doctrine is also held by the
340:Neoplatonism was influential on
1352:Antognazza, Maria Rosa (2016).
395:Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite
626:For real opposition, in which
604:Opposition between appearances
1:
1535:Kant, Immanuel (2003-07-01).
1404:Lewis, Clive Staples (1969).
858:The consolation of philosophy
696:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),
534:Criticism as a theory of evil
1106:10.1017/cbo9781107360167.010
1538:The Critique of Pure Reason
480:best of all possible worlds
60:Best of all possible worlds
1590:
1574:Bahá'í belief and doctrine
1406:A Preface to Paradise Lost
1134:Plotinus (30 June 2005).
1022:Hacker, P. M. S. (2021).
965:Hacker, P. M. S. (2021).
390:Consolation of Philosophy
830:"The Elements of Ethics"
439:I mean the same thing" (
314:, chiefly in the eighth
244:privation theory of evil
1564:Metaphysics of religion
1464:Some Answered Questions
1203:Encyclopedia Britannica
1181:Plotinus (2013-06-13).
614:Critique of Pure Reason
524:endorsed the theory in
401:. Further to the East,
952:( 2017, Ignatius Press
667:
658:
636:
586:
553:
544:The Elements of Ethics
519:
469:
370:
357:
342:St. Augustine of Hippo
333:
272:something non-existent
239:
1436:. New York: Penguin.
892:Rorem, Paul. (1993).
744:The Agnostic Inquirer
694:"The Concept of Evil"
692:Calder, Todd (2020),
662:
653:
639:Criticism as theodicy
632:realitates phaenomena
623:
581:
447:
352:
328:
242:), also known as the
930:www.encyclopedia.com
719:A Summa of the Summa
660:Todd Calder concurs:
501:Late modern religion
55:Augustinian theodicy
16:Theological doctrine
1569:Systematic theology
1074:. 28 September 2011
828:Russell, Bertrand.
326:, illustrates this:
1487:The Quotable Lewis
85:Inconsistent triad
65:Divine retribution
1516:www.newadvent.org
1497:978-1-4143-5674-7
1365:978-0-19-871864-2
1310:Spinoza, Baruch.
1291:www.newadvent.org
1227:www.newadvent.org
1115:978-1-107-62146-6
1035:978-1-119-65782-8
978:978-1-119-65782-8
867:978-0-14-192037-5
856:Boethius (1999).
802:www.newadvent.org
228:
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90:Irenaean theodicy
75:Epicurean paradox
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647:. For instance,
598:The Moral Powers
577:Summa Theologiae
570:phenomenological
540:Bertrand Russell
427:The philosopher
416:Summa Theologiae
403:John of Damascus
399:The Divine Names
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486:, according to
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287:completely good
279:problem of evil
232:absence of good
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50:Absence of good
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429:Baruch Spinoza
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492:preface to
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374:City of God
361:Enchiridion
347:Confessions
248:theological
1553:Categories
1521:2021-08-13
1470:2012-11-21
1321:2020-09-11
1296:2023-04-02
1255:2012-11-17
1249:Enchridion
1232:2023-05-01
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1121:2020-09-11
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926:"Nonbeing"
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778:063121321X
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670:References
619:Leibnizian
522:C.S. Lewis
488:C.S. Lewis
456:perfection
437:perfection
100:Moral evil
95:Misotheism
1382:cite book
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876:773581629
476:theodical
324:non-being
264:privation
258:, unlike
185:Swinburne
175:Plantinga
170:Nietzsche
80:Free will
70:Dystheism
912:65213301
385:Boethius
381:Catholic
316:tractate
312:Plotinus
270:, or as
140:Epicurus
34:Theodicy
25:a series
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