36:
1295:: according to Holisky (1987), there are 31 intransitive verbs for which the argument is always marked as patientive and refer to uncontrollable states ("be hungry", "tremble", etc.), and 78 intransitive verbs with an agentive argument ("walk", "talk", "think"). They form a split-S subset of the verbs. The rest of the verbs form a fluid-S system; for instance, a single verb root can be interpreted as "slip" when it is used with a patientive argument and as "slide" with an agentive argument.
1341:, its direct descendant, shows many features known to correlate with active alignment like the animate vs. inanimate distinction, related to the distinction between active and inactive or stative verb arguments. Even in its descendant languages, there are traces of a morphological split between volitional and nonvolitional verbs, such as a pattern in verbs of perception and cognition where the argument takes an oblique case (called
1264:
has claimed that it shows active alignment in some verb paradigms (namely, that the ergative marker appears to apply to active-intransitive verbs; also stative experiencers take a different case marking and agreement pattern). However, even that is complicated by the existence of apparently-inactive
686:
Specifically, ergative languages with split case marking are more likely to use ergative rather than accusative marking for NPs lower down the hierarchy (to the right), whereas active languages are more likely to use active marking for NPs higher up the hierarchy (to the left), like first and second
493:
For example, if one tripped and fell, an active–stative language might require one to say the equivalent of "fell me." To say "I fell" would mean that the person had done it on purpose, such as taking a fall in boxing. Another possibility is empathy; for example, if someone's dog were run over by a
604:
In other languages, the marking of the intransitive argument is decided by the speaker, based on semantic considerations. For any given intransitive verb, the speaker may choose whether to mark the argument as agentive or patientive. In some of these languages, agentive marking encodes a degree of
699:
used to be not recognized as such, and it was treated mostly as an interesting deviation from the standard alternatives (nominative–accusative and ergative–absolutive). Also, active languages are few and often show complications and special cases ("pure" active alignment is an ideal).
613:
used as the default case; in others, patientive marking encodes a lack of volition or control, suffering from or being otherwise affected by the action, or sympathy on the part of the speaker, with the agentive used as the default case. These two subtypes
560:
For most such languages, the case of the intransitive argument is lexically fixed for each verb, regardless of the actual degree of volition of the subject, but often corresponding to the most typical situation. For example, the argument of
1326:
According to Castro Alves (2010), a split-S alignment can be safely reconstructed for Proto-Northern Jê finite clauses. Clauses headed by a non-finite verb, on the contrary, would have been aligned
675:
Cross-linguistically, the agentive argument tends to be marked, and the patientive argument tends to be unmarked. That is, if one case is indicated by zero-inflection, it is often the patientive.
1529:
Nash, L. (2017). The structural source of split ergativity and ergative case in georgian. In L. D. Travis, D. Massam & J. Coon (Eds.), (1st ed., ) Oxford
University Press.
406:
687:
person pronouns. Dixon states that "In active languages, if active marking applies to an NP type a, it applies to every NP type to the left of a on the nominal hierarchy."
65:
2084:
1368:. Other possible relics from a structure, in descendant languages of Indo-European, include conceptualization of possession and extensive use of particles.
399:
2167:
467:) but other times in the same way as a direct object (such as "me" or "her" in English). Languages with active–stative alignment are often called
327:
322:
317:
305:
300:
295:
678:
Additionally, active languages differ from ergative languages in how split case marking intersects with
Silverstein's (1976) nominal hierarchy:
2051:
1937:
1876:
1857:
1827:
1627:
1600:
213:
1792:
Gamkrelidze, Thomas V.; Ivanov, Vjačeslav V. (1995) . "The grammatical syntagmatics of Proto-Indo
European in typological perspective".
597:
is defined as agentive, it will be always marked so even if the action of swallowing is involuntary. This subtype is sometimes known as
392:
176:
1765:
1746:
1563:
87:
1327:
188:
494:
car, one might say the equivalent of "died her." To say "she died" would imply that the person was not affected emotionally.
344:
1288:
218:
1338:
203:
48:
486:) depends on semantic or lexical criteria particular to each language. The criteria tend to be based on the degree of
768:
312:
290:
58:
52:
44:
354:
1169:
1141:
247:
181:
1112:
Western North
America (in Canada, Alaska, Southern Rocky Mountains, Pacific shore of the US including California)
1377:
696:
645:
are marked by using the agentive case for the subject and the patientive case for the object. The argument of an
436:
171:
703:
Thus, the terminology used is rather flexible. The morphosyntactic alignment of active languages is also termed
69:
635:
162:
2071:
Residues of Pre-Indo-European Active
Structure and their Implications for the Relationships among the Dialects
1775:
Gamkrelidze, Thomas V.; Ivanov, Vjačeslav V. (1995) . "Proto-Indo
European as a Language of the Active Type".
589:
are marked like transitive objects, as in ergative languages. In such language, if the subject of a verb like
1346:
1334:
1261:
1236:
840:
are active languages of the split-S type, with some verbs showing fluid-S alignment; Chol (Mayan) is Split-S
661:
334:
252:
151:
682:
pronouns (1st>2nd>3rd person) > proper nouns > common nouns (human > animate > inanimate)
1164:
1078:
606:
487:
146:
141:
110:
1159:
1153:
479:
380:
262:
257:
242:
585:
are marked like transitive agents, as in accusative languages, and arguments of inactive verbs such as
2130:
Seki, Lucy (1990). "Kamaiurá (Tupí-Guaraní) as an active–stative language". In Payne, Doris L. (ed.).
513:
of a transitive verb), active–stative languages can be described as languages that align intransitive
1266:
981:
787:
233:
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208:
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103:
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1457:
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1090:
943:
888:
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802:
131:
124:
814:
2057:
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1933:
1891:
1872:
1853:
1823:
1761:
1742:
1623:
1596:
1388:
1382:
1253:
1249:
1193:
1115:
1102:
1096:
1093:(southern Ontario, Tuscarora Reservation in northwestern New York, and eastern North Carolina)
1072:
1005:
865:
808:
718:
646:
610:
574:
541:
510:
460:
444:
223:
198:
136:
119:
2162:
2110:
1981:
1914:
1905:
1797:
1780:
1713:
1684:
1655:
1615:
1588:
1530:
1504:
1479:
1441:
1412:
1257:
1226:
1174:
1148:
1125:
1027:
1015:
960:
916:
906:
881:
876:
871:
760:
638:
475:
464:
193:
1534:
1547:
1136:
1084:
1069:(spoken in Six Nations Reserve, Ontario; central New York and around Green Bay, Wisconsin)
1066:
1054:
1048:
1033:
1021:
992:
986:
976:
965:
926:
902:
833:
712:
642:
578:
566:
502:
456:
452:
349:
267:
1572:
748:
1903:
Holisky, Dee Ann (1987). "The case of the intransitive subject in Tsova-Tush (Batsbi)".
1646:
Cunha de
Oliveira, Christiane (2003). "Lexical categories and descriptives in Apinajé".
17:
1886:
Hoijer, Harry (1946). "Charicahua Apache". In Hoijer, Harry; Osgood, Cornelius (eds.).
1342:
1230:
1120:
1060:
1010:
971:
954:
938:
921:
860:
1221:
many active languages of
Central branch of this family are spoken in Eastern Indonesia
1087:(spoken on Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation, Ontario, by around 100 people)
2156:
1993:
1927:
1918:
1696:
1667:
1516:
1461:
1292:
1274:
1130:
948:
775:
440:
339:
1310:
1278:
1270:
1265:
intransitive verbs taking such marking, such as the verb meaning 'to boil'. Other
1211:
932:
1002:
In the Great Plains (east of the Rocky
Mountains in the United States and Canada)
1735:
1619:
1985:
1839:
Haas, Mary R. (1946). "A grammatical Sketch of Tunica". In Hoijer, Harry (ed.).
1801:
1784:
1585:
Archaic Syntax in Indo- European: The Spread of
Transitivity in Latin and French
1215:
1972:
Klimov, Georgij A. (1974). "On the Character of Languages of Active Typology".
1483:
1445:
1416:
665:
657:
653:
375:
281:
272:
1495:
Mithun, Marianne (1991). "Active/agentive Case Marking and Its Motivations".
2101:
Mithun, Marianne (1991). "Active/agentive case marking and its motivation".
2035:
Morphologie und Syntax der Nominativ- und Akkusativkasus im Indogermanischen
1587:. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs. Vol. 125. de Gruyter.
1075:(Split-S type, spoken in Six Nations Reserve, Ontario, and western New York)
1592:
1508:
751:(split-S in finite clauses, central and north-eastern Brazil), including:
1453:
1429:
1796:. Translated by Nichols, Johanna. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 277–324.
1779:. Translated by Nichols, Johanna. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 233–276.
366:
2122:
1725:
1675:
de Castro Alves, Flávia (2010). "Evolution of Alignment in Timbira".
1207:
837:
2114:
1717:
1688:
1659:
2132:
Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages
2061:
1201:
896:
490:, or control over the verbal action exercised by the participant.
1063:(called also as Wyandot, spoken in northeastern Oklahoma, Quebec)
1895:
1852:. Cambridge Studies in Linguistics. Cambridge University Press.
1197:
1057:(Split-S; Western New York and the Six Nations Reserve, Ontario)
669:
1549:
Pre-Indo-European/Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph 41
796:(split-S, with a few verbs allowing fluid-S marking, Paraguay)
668:, etc. For example, the patientive argument might precede the
29:
899:(Yuchi) (in northeastern Oklahoma, historically in Tennessee)
771:(Brazil, Bolivia, French Guiana, Paraguay, Peru), including:
695:
Active languages are a relatively new field of study. Active
2046:. Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph. Vol. 41.
1949:
Impersonal Constructions as a Residue of an Active Language
1474:
Nichols, J. (1993). Ergativity and linguistic geography.
497:
If the core arguments of a transitive clause are termed
27:
Type of morphosyntactic alignment in linguistic typology
1407:
Legate, J. A. (2008). Morphological and abstract case.
525:("I fell"), depending on the criteria described above.
2134:. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 367–391.
1552:. Washington, D.C.: Institute for the Study of Man.
672:, and the agentive argument might follow the verb.
565:
may always be treated like the transitive subject (
1734:
1639:Origines de la Formations des Noms en Indoeuropéen
1610:Blake, Barry J. (1994). "Survey of Case Marking".
884:(fluid-S on verbs and accusative marking on nouns)
1571:(BA thesis). Stockholm University. Archived from
1018:(ergative, accusative and S-split mixed type) (†)
1641:. Paris: Adrien- Maissonneuve. pp. 171–172.
1614:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 118–160.
57:but its sources remain unclear because it lacks
723:used above are sometimes replaced by the terms
2094:Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics
1932:(in Russian and English). Plovdiv: Pygmalion.
1850:Georgian syntax: a study in relational grammar
1813:(Magisterarbeit thesis). Universität Hamburg.
1756:Donohue, Mark; Wichmann, Søren, eds. (2005).
1677:International Journal of American Linguistics
1648:International Journal of American Linguistics
400:
8:
1281:show similar systems, while the position of
451:) is sometimes marked in the same way as an
817:do Içana (fluid-S; upper Rio Negro, Brazil)
2083:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1430:"Alignment and Word Order in Old Japanese"
887:A subgroup of Muskogean languages such as
407:
393:
99:
1965:Outline of a general theory of ergativity
88:Learn how and when to remove this message
1951:(Magisterarbeit). University of Hamburg.
1888:Linguistic Structures of Native America
1841:Linguistic Structures of Native America
1400:
1051:(Ontario, Quebec and northern New York)
528:Active–stative languages contrast with
365:
280:
161:
109:
102:
2076:
2037:(Magisterarbeit). Universität Hamburg.
1869:Diachronic syntax: the Kartvelian case
1704:Dixon, R. M. W. (1979). "Ergativity".
1428:Yanagida, Yuko; Whitman, John (2009).
1337:language, not to be confused with the
827:Central America/Mesoamerican languages
1843:. New York: Viking. pp. 337–366.
1476:Australian Journal of Linguistics, 13
609:or control over the action, with the
532:such as English that generally align
7:
1890:. New York: Viking. pp. 55–84.
1794:Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans
1777:Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans
1535:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198739371.013.8
581:, arguments of active verbs such as
2003:Tipologija Jazykov Aktivnogo Stroja
1760:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1345:), a relic of which can be seen in
1252:(spoken in the Caucasian nation of
573:like the transitive direct object (
1758:The Typology of Semantic Alignment
25:
1434:Journal of East Asian Linguistics
2006:Типология Языков Активного Строя
1958:Očerk obščej teorii ergativnosti
1330:in this reconstructed language.
34:
2147:Split intransitivity in Italian
2022:Принципы контенсивной типологии
2019:Principy kontensivnoj tipologii
1961:Очерк общей теории эргативности
1820:Objektkasus im Indogermanischen
1811:Objektkasus im Indogermanischen
857:In the south and south-east US
656:may indicate case by different
1741:. Cambridge University Press.
1383:Nominative-absolutive language
1352:or in the distinction between
1204:, Malaysia) is of fluid-S type
1156:(fluid-S, Northern California)
482:of the intransitive argument (
1:
1322:Reconstructed proto-languages
1289:Northeast Caucasian languages
763:continuum (Castro Alves 2010)
2092:Lehmann, Winfred P. (1993).
2069:Lehmann, Winfred P. (1995).
2042:Lehmann, Winfred P. (2002).
2010:Typology of Active Languages
1919:10.1016/0024-3841(87)90069-6
1620:10.1017/CBO9781139164894.007
1546:Lehmann, Winfred P. (2002).
1339:Proto-Indo-European language
1030:(Split-S; also known as Ree)
569:-like), and the argument of
447:clause (often symbolized as
429:split intransitive alignment
2017:Klimov, Georgij A. (1983).
2001:Klimov, Georgij A. (1977).
1986:10.1515/ling.1974.12.131.11
1956:Klimov, Georgij A. (1973).
1871:. Orlando: Academic Press.
1802:10.1515/9783110815030.1.277
1785:10.1515/9783110815030.1.233
891:(In South Central Oklahoma)
811:(split-S, spoken in Brazil)
224:Ditransitive/Monotransitive
2184:
2168:Syntax–semantics interface
2033:Langemann, Katrin (2004).
1818:Gante, Christiane (2008).
1809:Gante, Christiane (2007).
1637:Benveniste, Emile (1971).
1256:): generally considered a
1239:: spoken Tibetan (fluid-S)
1105:(Oklahoma, North Carolina)
1024:(also known as Kichai) (†)
843:In Panama & Colombia:
505:of a transitive verb) and
1947:Ivanova, Natalia (2008).
1867:Harris, Alice C. (1985).
1484:10.1080/07268609308599489
1446:10.1007/s10831-009-9043-2
1417:10.1162/ling.2008.39.1.55
1378:Morphosyntactic alignment
1042:In Eastern North America
697:morphosyntactic alignment
649:may be marked as either.
622:) are sometimes known as
437:morphosyntactic alignment
2021:
2005:
1960:
1733:Dixon, R. M. W. (1994).
1583:Bauer, Brigitte (2000).
1185:South and Southeast Asia
852:North American languages
778:and †Tupinambá (fluid-S)
743:South American languages
705:active–stative alignment
463:such as "I" or "she" in
425:active–stative alignment
43:This article includes a
18:Active-stative alignment
1926:Iliev, Ivan G. (2007).
1335:Pre-Proto-Indo-European
1258:split ergative language
1237:Tibeto-Burman languages
1190:Austronesian languages
847:language Ikan (split-S)
739:(†) = extinct language
652:Languages lacking case
72:more precise citations.
2026:On Contentive Typology
1848:Harris, Alice (1981).
1409:Linguistic Inquiry, 39
1285:is more controversial.
1218:) is of a split-S type
769:Tupi–Guarani languages
2028:]. Moscow: Nauka.
2012:]. Moscow: Nauka.
1967:]. Moscow: Nauka.
1929:Case and Vocativeness
1593:10.1515/9783110825992
1509:10.1353/lan.1991.0015
868:(also known as Creek)
749:Northern Jê languages
641:, the arguments of a
544:that generally align
214:Nominative–absolutive
177:Nominative–accusative
2149:. De Gruyter Mouton.
2096:. London: Routledge.
1562:Andréasson, Daniel.
1267:Kartvelian languages
1045:Iroquoian languages
634:If the language has
530:accusative languages
2145:Bentley, D. (2011)
1385:(Marked nominative)
421:linguistic typology
328:Object–verb–subject
323:Object–subject–verb
318:Subject–object–verb
306:Verb–object–subject
301:Verb–subject–object
296:Subject–verb–object
189:Ergative–absolutive
104:Linguistic typology
1333:The reconstructed
1317:language (split-S)
913:In the central US
905:(†) (or Tonica) a
803:Arawakan languages
709:semantic alignment
616:patientive-default
542:ergative languages
443:("subject") of an
439:in which the sole
433:semantic alignment
45:list of references
2053:978-0-941694-82-7
2044:Pre-Indo-European
1939:978-954-9402-19-3
1878:978-0-12-613518-3
1859:978-0-521-10971-0
1829:978-3-640-18143-8
1629:978-0-521-80761-6
1602:978-3-11-016723-8
1389:Unaccusative verb
1214:on the island of
1170:Southeastern Pomo
1142:Chiracahua Apache
1116:Na-dene languages
1006:Caddoan languages
790:(split-S, Brazil)
784:(eastern Bolivia)
647:intransitive verb
459:(that is, like a
417:
416:
359:Place–manner–time
355:Time–manner–place
248:Dependent-marking
199:Symmetrical voice
182:Marked nominative
98:
97:
90:
16:(Redirected from
2175:
2135:
2126:
2097:
2088:
2082:
2074:
2065:
2038:
2029:
2013:
1997:
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1943:
1922:
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1863:
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1814:
1805:
1788:
1771:
1752:
1740:
1729:
1700:
1671:
1642:
1633:
1606:
1579:
1577:
1570:
1565:Active languages
1554:
1553:
1543:
1537:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1492:
1486:
1472:
1466:
1465:
1425:
1419:
1405:
1227:Papuan languages
1200:, Indonesia and
1149:Pomoan languages
917:Siouan languages
907:language isolate
761:Timbira language
630:Argument marking
620:agentive-default
469:active languages
409:
402:
395:
100:
93:
86:
82:
79:
73:
68:this article by
59:inline citations
38:
37:
30:
21:
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2140:Further reading
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1822:. Grin Verlag.
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1307:
1246:
1210:(spoken by the
1187:
854:
829:
757:(Oliveira 2003)
745:
737:
720:patientive case
693:
643:transitive verb
632:
558:
521:("fell me") or
457:transitive verb
435:) is a type of
413:
350:Free word order
268:Syntactic pivot
163:Morphosyntactic
94:
83:
77:
74:
63:
49:related reading
39:
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2115:10.2307/415036
2109:(3): 510–546.
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2014:
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1980:(131): 11–25.
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1718:10.2307/412519
1701:
1689:10.1086/658054
1683:(4): 439–475.
1672:
1660:10.1086/381336
1643:
1634:
1628:
1607:
1601:
1580:
1578:on 2008-03-02.
1556:
1555:
1538:
1522:
1503:(3): 510–546.
1487:
1467:
1440:(2): 101–144.
1420:
1399:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1392:
1391:
1386:
1380:
1373:
1370:
1347:Middle English
1343:quirky subject
1323:
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1318:
1306:
1303:
1302:
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1139:
1134:
1133:(† since 2008)
1128:
1123:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1106:
1100:
1099:(Virginia) (†)
1094:
1088:
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1064:
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1038:
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861:Gulf languages
853:
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779:
766:
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764:
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741:
736:
733:
692:
689:
684:
683:
662:verb agreement
631:
628:
557:
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397:
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253:Double-marking
250:
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231:
221:
219:Direct-inverse
216:
211:
206:
204:Active–stative
201:
196:
194:Split ergative
191:
186:
185:
184:
166:
165:
159:
158:
157:
156:
155:
154:
152:Oligosynthetic
149:
144:
139:
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127:
114:
113:
107:
106:
96:
95:
53:external links
42:
40:
33:
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1195:
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1165:Northern Pomo
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1007:
1004:
1003:
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988:
985:
983:
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978:
975:
973:
970:
967:
964:
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953:
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947:
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934:
931:
928:
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923:
920:
919:
918:
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914:
912:
908:
904:
901:
898:
895:
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886:
883:
880:
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873:
870:
867:
864:
863:
862:
859:
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855:
851:
846:
842:
839:
835:
831:
830:
826:
819:
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813:
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807:
806:
805:, including:
804:
800:
795:
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789:
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750:
747:
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734:
732:
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715:
714:agentive case
710:
706:
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680:
679:
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673:
671:
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663:
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637:
636:morphological
629:
627:
625:
621:
617:
612:
608:
602:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
555:
553:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
526:
524:
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516:
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508:
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481:
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472:
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398:
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379:
377:
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372:
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368:
364:
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353:
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348:
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345:OS word order
343:
341:
340:V2 word order
338:
336:
335:V1 word order
333:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
315:
314:
311:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
293:
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286:
283:
279:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
251:
249:
246:
244:
243:Zero-marking
241:
235:
232:
230:
227:
226:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
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190:
187:
183:
180:
179:
178:
175:
174:
173:
170:
169:
168:
167:
164:
160:
153:
150:
148:
147:Polysynthetic
145:
143:
142:Agglutinative
140:
138:
135:
134:
133:
130:
126:
123:
122:
121:
118:
117:
116:
115:
112:
111:Morphological
108:
105:
101:
92:
89:
81:
71:
67:
61:
60:
54:
50:
46:
41:
32:
31:
19:
2146:
2131:
2106:
2102:
2093:
2073:. Innsbruck.
2070:
2043:
2034:
2025:
2018:
2009:
2002:
1977:
1973:
1964:
1957:
1948:
1928:
1910:
1904:
1887:
1868:
1849:
1840:
1819:
1810:
1793:
1776:
1757:
1736:
1709:
1705:
1680:
1676:
1651:
1647:
1638:
1611:
1584:
1573:the original
1564:
1548:
1541:
1525:
1500:
1496:
1490:
1478:(1), 39-89.
1475:
1470:
1437:
1433:
1423:
1408:
1403:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1332:
1325:
1279:Old Georgian
1262:Alice Harris
1160:Central Pomo
1154:Eastern Pomo
738:
728:
724:
719:
713:
711:. The terms
708:
704:
702:
694:
685:
677:
674:
651:
633:
623:
619:
615:
603:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
570:
562:
559:
549:
545:
537:
533:
527:
522:
518:
514:
506:
498:
496:
492:
483:
473:
468:
448:
445:intransitive
432:
428:
424:
418:
313:OV languages
291:VO languages
263:Null-subject
258:Head-marking
84:
75:
64:Please help
56:
1974:Linguistics
1654:: 243–274.
1216:New Britain
1196:(spoken in
982:Assiniboine
832:In Mexico:
691:Terminology
666:adpositions
658:word orders
654:inflections
577:-like). In
376:Color terms
234:Indirective
229:Secundative
70:introducing
2157:Categories
2062:2002102266
1737:Ergativity
1395:References
1328:ergatively
1293:Tsova-Tush
1283:Mingrelian
735:Occurrence
611:patientive
282:Word order
273:Theta role
209:Tripartite
2079:cite book
1994:144143087
1697:224806935
1668:224805397
1517:144965886
1462:121032669
1315:Yeniseian
1299:Tabasaran
1233:(Split-S)
1091:Tuscarora
995:(split-S)
989:(split-S)
968:(split-S)
957:(split-S)
951:(fluid-S)
944:Winnebago
889:Chickasaw
540:, and to
519:S = P/O∗∗
480:agreement
172:Alignment
132:Synthetic
125:Isolating
78:June 2019
2103:Language
1896:46007600
1706:Language
1497:Language
1454:40345246
1372:See also
1350:methinks
1250:Georgian
1244:Caucasus
1194:Acehnese
1103:Cherokee
1097:Nottoway
1073:Onondaga
866:Muskogee
845:Chibchan
788:Kamayurá
776:Old Tupi
729:inactive
664:, using
607:volition
587:to stand
488:volition
441:argument
381:Numerals
137:Fusional
120:Analytic
2163:Grammar
1254:Georgia
1175:Kashaya
1126:Tlingit
1028:Arikara
1016:Wichita
993:Lakhota
961:Hidatsa
882:Choctaw
877:Koasati
872:Hichiti
794:Guaraní
782:Sirionó
755:Apinayé
624:fluid-S
599:split-S
595:swallow
575:patient
550:S = P/O
511:patient
465:English
461:subject
367:Lexicon
66:improve
2123:415036
2121:
2060:
2050:
1992:
1936:
1906:Lingua
1894:
1875:
1856:
1826:
1764:
1745:
1726:412519
1724:
1695:
1666:
1626:
1599:
1515:
1460:
1452:
1366:listen
1305:Others
1277:, and
1260:, but
1208:Kuanua
1085:Cayuga
1067:Oneida
1055:Seneca
1049:Mohawk
1034:Pawnee
1022:Kitsai
987:Mandan
977:Tutelo
966:Dakota
927:Biloxi
903:Tunica
897:Euchee
838:Amuzgo
834:Chocho
820:Lokono
815:Baniwa
725:active
583:to run
579:Dakota
427:(also
2119:JSTOR
2024:[
2008:[
1990:S2CID
1963:[
1722:JSTOR
1693:S2CID
1664:S2CID
1576:(PDF)
1569:(PDF)
1513:S2CID
1458:S2CID
1450:JSTOR
1269:such
1212:Tolai
1202:Perak
1137:Slave
1121:Haida
1061:Huron
1011:Caddo
972:Ponca
955:Ioway
939:Osage
922:Omaha
809:Waurá
801:Many
571:sleep
567:agent
556:Types
538:S = A
523:S = A
503:agent
455:of a
453:agent
51:, or
2085:link
2058:LCCN
2048:ISBN
1934:ISBN
1892:LCCN
1873:ISBN
1854:ISBN
1824:ISBN
1762:ISBN
1743:ISBN
1624:ISBN
1612:Case
1597:ISBN
1364:vs.
1362:hear
1358:look
1356:vs.
1313:, a
1275:Svan
1231:Yawa
1198:Aceh
1131:Eyak
949:Crow
836:and
727:and
717:and
670:verb
639:case
618:and
563:swim
476:case
474:The
2111:doi
1982:doi
1915:doi
1798:doi
1781:doi
1714:doi
1685:doi
1656:doi
1616:doi
1589:doi
1531:doi
1505:doi
1480:doi
1442:doi
1413:doi
1360:or
1354:see
1311:Ket
1271:Laz
1081:(†)
935:(†)
933:Ofo
929:(†)
707:or
593:or
591:run
548:as
536:as
517:as
478:or
431:or
419:In
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1911:71
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1984::
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408:e
401:t
394:v
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