25:
928:- does not occur with transitive action between SAPs and the third person, but it does occur between third-person participants. The contrast can be elicited with multiple clause examples such as given below. In the inverse the semantic patient is coreferential with the subject in the preceding clause. That can be called a pragmatic inverse.
622:
distinctions (an Ojibwe nominal phrase does not change when its relations to the other sentence constituents change), the only way to distinguish subject from object in a transitive verb with two participants is through direct–inverse suffixes. A direct suffix indicates that the action is performed
484:), and the direct–inverse alternation is usually presented as being a way of marking the proximate–obviative distinction between two (or more) third-person arguments of a sentence. However, there are at least two languages with inverse systems, the
683:
An inverse suffix indicates that the action is performed by someone lower on the person hierarchy on someone higher on the person hierarchy (such as by the speaker on the addressee or an obviative third person on a proximate):
495:, in which inverse morphosyntax is never used when both subject and object are third person but only when one of the arguments is third person, and the other is a speech act participant (SAP), the first or second person.
752:
verb. There is a separate passivity marker, denoted in literature as "indefinite person (X)", ranked in topicality hierarchy below first and second persons, but higher than animate and inanimate third persons:
479:
morphosyntax. The direct–inverse dimension subsumes the proximate–obviative dimension. Across languages, obviation almost always involves the third person (although second-person obviation is reported for some
744:
As can be seen, the only difference between these two verbs is the direct–inverse opposition, rather than case markers (or word order, when distinct nominals are used). An inverse verb is
510:
in nouns. In some inverse languages, including all
Mesoamerican inverse languages, the direct-inverse alternation changes the morphosyntactic alignment, and the language is said to have
427:
42:
1255:(下さる) must be used if the subject is higher up. For example, the first person in Japanese is lower than the second on the person hierarchy, so you would say:
1606:
420:
1705:. Estudios sobre lenguas americanas. Vol. 2. UNAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas, Seminario de Lenguas Indígenas. pp. 179–268.
1243:
The different
Japanese verbs for "to give", used for both favours and physical objects, can be considered an instance of direct–inverse alignment.
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814:-. It indicates transitive action from the second to the first person when both arguments are SAPs. That can be called the semantic inverse.
61:
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1247:(上げる) is used when the subject, the giver, is lower down on the person hierarchy than the beneficiary, the indirect object. Meanwhile,
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has been reported to have an inverse system which does not conform to the second rule, as certain intransitive verbs and passives of
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A morphosyntactic device should be used to signal whether the most salient participant is notional subject or notional object.
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Switching the subject and object in either example, or switching the verbs between the two sentences would be unacceptable.
365:
1867:
1909:
1649:
Klaiman, M. H. (1993). "The relationship of inverse voice and head-marking in
Arizona Tewa and other Tanoan languages".
614:
of North
America, the person hierarchy is second person > first person > third person proximate > third person
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The pragmatic inverse topicalizes the patient, but its nominal, if present, retains its accusative case-marking.
507:
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1701:
Zavala, Roberto (2002). "Verb classes, semantic roles and inverse in Olutec". In Levy
Podolsky, Paulette (ed.).
1710:
Zavala, Roberto (2007). "Inversion and obviation in
Mesoamerica". In Austin, Peter K.; Simpson, Andrew (eds.).
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Comrie, Bernard (1980). "Inverse verb forms in
Siberia: evidence from Chukchee, Koryak, and Kamchadal".
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Core participants of transitive predicates are ranked on a hierarchy of salience, topicality or animacy.
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810:, an Amerindian language of the northwestern United States, has an inverse marked by the verbal prefix
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Semantic and pragmatic inverse - "inverse alignment" and "inverse voice" - in Carib of
Surinam
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Neither a morphological feature nor a syntactic feature is common to all inverse systems.
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is a matter under research, but it is widely understood to involve different grammar for
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in the person hierarchy, and the inverse is used when the object outranks the subject.
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by someone higher on the person hierarchy on someone lower on the person hierarchy:
1728:"In the vestibule of meaning: transitivity inversion as a morphological phenomenon"
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Some languages that comply with
Klaiman's definition of an inverse language are
24:
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according to the relative positions of their "subject" and their "object" on a
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Deixis and
Alignment. Inverse systems in indigenous languages of the Americas.
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Only transitive predicates can participate in the direct–inverse alternation.
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Klaiman, M.H. (1989). "Inverse voice and head-marking in Tanoan languages".
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The existence of direct–inverse morphosyntax is usually accompanied by
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1714:. Linguistische berichte sonderheft. Vol. 14. pp. 267–305.
1810:
517:
Klaiman has suggested four common properties of inverse languages:
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Direct–inverse alternation does not entail detransitivization.
18:
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specific to a given language. The direct construction is the
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1315:
1049:
man 3NOM- see -ASP grizzly -ACC and 3NOM- kill -PST 3ACC.SG
1046:
wínš i- q̓ínu -šana wapaanłá -an ku i- ʔíƛ̓iyawi -ya paanáy
1855:
Argument Structure and its Morphosyntactic Representation
1511:. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co. pp. 5, 79–83.
506:
Direct-inverse systems on verbs coexist with the various
1437:
1435:
1346:
1270:
499:
Morphosyntactic variation across inverse-type languages
1591:. New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers Inc.
1452:
1450:
1157:
wínš i- q̓ínu -šana wapaanłá -an ku pá- ʔiƛ̓iyawi -ya
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1160:man 3NOM- see -ASP grizzly -ACC and INV- kill -PST
1508:Sketch grammar of Kopar: a language of new guinea
933:wínš iq̓ínušana wapaanłáan ku iʔíƛ̓iyawiya paanáy
464:one. The direct construction is used when the
421:
8:
1895:Yi and Bi: Proximate and Obviative in Navajo
1883:Topic, Focus and Point of View in Blackfoot
1559:Ellipsis and Reference Tracking in Japanese
1163:"the man saw the grizzly and it killed him"
1058:wínš iq̓ínušana wapaanłáan ku páʔiƛ̓iyawiya
1589:Language in Africa: an introductory survey
1562:. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 108.
1052:"the man saw the grizzly and he killed it"
803:Semantic and pragmatic inverse in Sahaptin
428:
414:
120:
1426:
590:. On the other hand, the Mixean language
452:, which, in turn, is some combination of
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
1837:Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
1690:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
618:. Since the morphology of Ojibwe has no
1492:
1480:
1456:
1419:
1400:Anata-wa watashi-ni purezento-o kure-ta
386:
301:
182:
130:
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16:Proposed concept in linguistic typology
1860:Inversion and Obviation in Mesoamerica
1531:
1468:
1441:
1324:Watashi-wa anata-ni purezento-o age-ta
468:of the transitive clause outranks the
7:
47:adding citations to reliable sources
1403:2SG-TOP 1SG-IO present-OB give-PAST
1327:1SG-TOP 2SG-IO present-OB give-PAST
1889:Alignment of Verbal Person Marking
1877:Split Ergative and Inverse Systems
598:also can take inverse morphology.
14:
1791:"The inverse in Japhug Rgyalrong"
737:3- listen.to -INVERSE -3OBVIATIVE
1815:Language and Linguistics Compass
1676:Northwest Journal of Linguistics
1543:
676:3- listen.to -DIRECT -3OBVIATIVE
23:
1688:Nishnaabemwin Reference Grammar
34:needs additional citations for
1686:Valentine, J. Randolph (2001)
740:"The other one listens to him"
1:
679:"He listens to the other one"
1891:(see Hierarchical alignment)
1628:10.1016/0024-3841(92)90043-i
1587:Gregersen, Edgar A. (1977).
602:Inverse morphology in Ojibwe
1756:Folia Linguistica Historica
1598:Chicago Linguistics Society
1228:ku pá- ʔiƛ̓iyawi -ya paanáy
245:Ditransitive/Monotransitive
1931:
1811:"Direct / Inverse systems"
1672:"Transitivity in Sahaptin"
1505:Foley, William A. (2022).
1406:'You gave me the present.'
1231:and INV- kill -PST 3ACC.SG
508:morphosyntactic alignments
58:"Direct–inverse alignment"
1809:; Antonov, Anton (2014).
1703:Del Cora al Maya Yucateco
1556:Shigeko Nariyama (2003).
1330:'I gave you the present.'
1915:Transitivity and valency
1833:Zúñiga, Fernando (2006)
1795:Language and Linguistics
1605:Klaiman, M. H. (1992).
1172:ku páʔiƛ̓iyawiya paanáy
446:transitive predications
442:direct–inverse language
1767:Gildea, Spike (1994).
588:Mixe–Zoquean languages
512:hierarchical alignment
486:Mesoamerican languages
482:Nilo-Saharan languages
1865:Ojibwe Verb Paradigms
1747:10.1075/sl.19.1.04bic
1663:10.1075/sl.17.2.04kla
574:(language isolates),
235:Nominative–absolutive
198:Nominative–accusative
1712:Endangered languages
795:X- listen.to -DIRECT
734:o- bizindaw -igoo -n
556:Athapaskan languages
552:Algonquian languages
440:The definition of a
43:improve this article
1910:Linguistic typology
1735:Studies in Language
1726:Bickel, B. (1995).
1670:Rude, Noel (2009).
1651:Studies in Language
1607:"Inverse languages"
1397:あなたは 私に プレゼントを くれた。
1321:私は あなたに プレゼントを 上げた。
1234:"and it killed him"
798:"He is listened to"
612:Algonquian language
477:proximate–obviative
349:Object–verb–subject
344:Object–subject–verb
339:Subject–object–verb
327:Verb–object–subject
322:Verb–subject–object
317:Subject–verb–object
210:Ergative–absolutive
125:Linguistic typology
1870:2008-12-02 at the
1827:10.1111/lnc3.12079
1807:Jacques, Guillaume
1787:Jacques, Guillaume
1771:. John Benjamins.
917:INV- see -ASP =2SG
914:pá- q̓inu -ša =nam
673:o- bizindaw -aa -n
1843:978-90-272-2982-3
1778:978-1-55619-420-7
1696:978-0-8020-8389-0
1429:, pp. 51–52.
860:see -ASP =1SG/2SG
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380:Place–manner–time
376:Time–manner–place
269:Dependent-marking
220:Symmetrical voice
203:Marked nominative
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366:OS word order
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361:V2 word order
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356:V1 word order
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168:Polysynthetic
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163:Agglutinative
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60: –
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54:Find sources:
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32:This article
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1639:. Retrieved
1632:the original
1619:
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1597:
1588:
1581:Bibliography
1558:
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1500:
1493:Klaiman 1993
1488:
1481:Klaiman 1989
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1457:Klaiman 1992
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920:"you see me"
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869:páq̓inušanam
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628:obizindawaan
627:
605:
586:), and some
533:
516:
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474:
449:
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439:
334:OV languages
312:VO languages
284:Null-subject
279:Head-marking
239:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
1762:(1): 61–74.
1532:Zavala 2002
1469:Zavala 2007
1442:Zavala 2007
1373:purezento-o
1297:purezento-o
863:"I see you"
397:Color terms
255:Indirective
250:Secundative
1904:Categories
1741:: 73–127.
1682:(3): 1–37.
1641:2012-03-12
1544:Rude, 2009
1356:watashi-ni
1263:Watashi-wa
819:q̓ínušamaš
758:bizindawaa
729:3OBVIATIVE
668:3OBVIATIVE
568:Mapudungun
303:Word order
294:Theta role
230:Tripartite
99:March 2012
69:newspapers
1879:(Lecture)
1251:(くれる) or
1196:ʔiƛ̓iyawi
1139:ʔiƛ̓iyawi
1014:ʔíƛ̓iyawi
924:Sahaptin
777:listen.to
708:listen.to
647:listen.to
616:obviative
576:rGyalrong
554:and some
193:Alignment
153:Synthetic
146:Isolating
1868:Archived
1789:(2010).
1376:present-
1339:Anata-wa
1300:present-
1280:anata-ni
1253:kudasaru
1239:Japanese
1101:wapaanłá
976:wapaanłá
808:Sahaptin
774:bizindaw
705:bizindaw
644:bizindaw
462:unmarked
454:saliency
402:Numerals
158:Fusional
141:Analytic
1387:kure-ta
1104:grizzly
979:grizzly
750:passive
718:INVERSE
592:Oluteco
560:Koyukon
548:Chukchi
493:Huastec
466:subject
458:animacy
388:Lexicon
83:scholar
1841:
1775:
1694:
1615:Lingua
1566:
1515:
1370:プレゼントを
1311:age-ta
1294:プレゼントを
1249:kureru
1215:paanáy
1033:paanáy
787:DIRECT
763:
657:DIRECT
608:Ojibwe
572:Movima
564:Navajo
550:, the
544:Wastek
536:Maasai
470:object
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
1887:WALS
1731:(PDF)
1635:(PDF)
1610:(PDF)
1414:Notes
1390:give-
1314:give-
1245:Ageru
1090:-šana
1082:q̓ínu
965:-šana
957:q̓ínu
885:q̓inu
824:q̓ínu
713:-igoo
610:, an
584:Sepik
580:Kopar
558:like
540:Carib
489:Zoque
90:JSTOR
76:books
1839:ISBN
1773:ISBN
1692:ISBN
1564:ISBN
1513:ISBN
1392:PAST
1384:くれた。
1336:あなたは
1316:PAST
1308:上げた。
1277:あなたに
1219:3ACC
1199:kill
1142:kill
1075:3NOM
1063:wínš
1037:3ACC
1017:kill
1007:3NOM
950:3NOM
938:wínš
904:=nam
843:=maš
620:case
570:and
562:and
491:and
456:and
62:news
1823:doi
1743:doi
1659:doi
1624:doi
1360:1SG
1347:TOP
1343:2SG
1284:2SG
1271:TOP
1267:1SG
1209:PST
1204:-ya
1189:INV
1185:pá-
1180:and
1152:PST
1147:-ya
1132:INV
1128:pá-
1123:and
1114:ACC
1109:-an
1095:ASP
1085:see
1066:man
1027:PST
1022:-ya
998:and
989:ACC
984:-an
970:ASP
960:see
941:man
909:2SG
898:ASP
893:-ša
888:see
878:INV
874:pá-
852:2SG
848:1SG
837:ASP
832:-ša
827:see
782:-aa
746:not
652:-aa
606:In
45:by
1906::
1817:.
1813:.
1799:11
1797:.
1793:.
1758:.
1739:19
1737:.
1733:.
1678:.
1674:.
1655:17
1653:.
1620:88
1618:.
1612:.
1449:^
1434:^
1378:OB
1364:IO
1353:私に
1302:OB
1288:IO
1260:私は
1223:SG
1177:ku
1120:ku
1071:i-
1041:SG
1003:i-
995:ku
946:i-
926:pá
812:pá
724:-n
694:o-
663:-n
633:o-
566:,
546:,
542:,
538:,
514:.
1829:.
1825::
1819:8
1781:.
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769:-
767:X
727:-
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698:3
666:-
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639:-
637:3
582:(
429:e
422:t
415:v
112:)
106:(
101:)
97:(
87:·
80:·
73:·
66:·
39:.
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