1836:
572:
549:
1796:
morphology, syntactic ergativity can be placed on a continuum, whereby certain syntactic operations may pattern accusatively and others ergatively. The degree of syntactic ergativity is then dependent on the number of syntactic operations that treat the subject like the object. Syntactic ergativity is also referred to as inter-clausal ergativity, as it typically appears in the relation of two clauses.
3893:
When
English nominalizes a clause, the underlying subject of an intransitive verb and the underlying object of a transitive verb are both marked with the possessive case or with the preposition "of" (the choice depends on the type and length of the noun: pronouns and short nouns are typically marked
1795:
Ergativity may be manifested through syntax, such as saying "Arrived I" for "I arrived", in addition to morphology. Syntactic ergativity is quite rare, and while all languages that exhibit it also feature morphological ergativity, few morphologically ergative languages have ergative syntax. As with
1539:
Although the verb "sneeze" is clearly intransitive, it is conjugated like a transitive verb. In
Georgian there are a few verbs like these, and there has not been a clear-cut explanation as to why these verbs have evolved this way. One explanation is that verbs such as "sneeze" used to have a direct
438:) and those that, on top of being ergative morphologically, also show ergativity in syntax. No language has been recorded in which both the morphological and syntactical ergative are present. Languages that belong to the former group are more numerous than those to the latter.
3842:
English has derivational morphology that parallels ergativity in that it operates on intransitive verbs and objects of transitive verbs. With certain intransitive verbs, adding the suffix "-ee" to the verb produces a label for the person performing the action:
3170:, the ergative case is marked on agents and verbs of transitive verbs in past tenses, for the events actually occurred in the past. Present, future and "future in the past" tenses show no ergative mark neither for agents nor the verbs. For example:
4701:
A. Mengozzi, Neo-Aramaic and the So-called Decay of
Ergativity in Kurdish, in: Proceedings of the 10th Meeting of Hamito-Semitic (Afroasiatic) Linguistics (Florence, 18–20 April 2005), Dipartamento di Linguistica Università di Firenze 2005, pp.
1673:
Compare the above examples with the case marking of pronouns in Nhanda below, wherein all subjects (regardless of verb transitivity) are marked (in this case with a null suffix) the same for case while transitive objects take the
2133:
Crucially, the fifth sentence has an S/A pivot and thus is ill-formed in
Dyirbal (syntactically ergative); on the other hand, the seventh sentence has an S/O pivot and thus is ill-formed in English (syntactically accusative).
480:
Many languages have ergative–absolutive alignment only in some parts of their grammar (e.g., in the case marking of nouns), but nominative-accusative alignment in other parts (e.g., in the case marking of pronouns, or in
1235:
If one sets: A = agent of a transitive verb; S = argument of an intransitive verb; O = object of a transitive verb, then we can contrast normal nominative–accusative
English with a hypothetical ergative English:
1555:, different nominal elements may follow a different case-alignment template. In Nhanda, common nouns have ergative-absolutive alignment—like in most Australian languages—but most pronouns instead follow a
1017:
in the plural, the plural being marked only on the determiner and never the noun. For common nouns, this default determiner is fused with the ergative case marker. Thus one obtains the following forms for
457:) of a transitive verb ("She" in the sentence "She finds it") but different from the object of a transitive verb ("her" in the sentence "He likes her"). When ergative–absolutive alignment is coded by
3223:, where the ergative marking is not always expressed in all situations. McGregor (2010) gives a range of contexts when we often see optional ergativity, and argues that the choice is often not truly
1445:
A number of languages have both ergative and accusative morphology. A typical example is a language that has nominative-accusative marking on verbs and ergative–absolutive case marking on nouns.
797:
have no morphological ergative case, but they have a verbal agreement structure that is ergative. In languages with ergative–absolutive agreement systems, the absolutive form is usually the most
513:) for the object of a transitive verb and the single core argument of an intransitive verb, while treating the agent of a transitive verb differently. Such languages are said to operate with S/O
3894:
with the possessive, while long and complex NPs are marked with "of"). The underlying subject of a transitive is marked differently (typically with "by" as in a passive construction):
4957:
Paul, Ileana & Travis, Lisa. (2006). Ergativity in
Austronesian languages: What it can do, what it can't, but not why. In A. Johns, D. Massam, & J. Ndayiragije (Eds.),
4150:
3854:
However, with a transitive verb, adding "-ee" does not produce a label for the person doing the action. Instead, it gives us a label for the person to whom the action is done:
338:
3239:, which occurs regularly but in limited locations, optional ergativity can occur in a range of environments, but may not be used in a way that appears regular or consistent.
711:, as it is typically defined in grammars of nominative-accusative languages, has a different application when referring to ergative–absolutive languages, or when discussing
3710:) are sometimes considered ergative (Schachter 1976, 1977; Kroeger 1993); however, they have also been considered to have their own unique morphosyntactic alignment. See
3204:
In sentences (1) to (4), there is no ergativity (transitive and intransitive verbs alike). In sentences (6) and (8), the ergative case is marked on agents and verbs.
453:
and most other Indo-European languages, where the single argument of an intransitive verb ("She" in the sentence "She walks") behaves grammatically like the agent (
4720:
MW Morgan (2009) Cross-Linguistic
Typology of Argument Encoding in Sign Language Verbal Morphology. Paper presented at Association of Linguistic Typology, Berkeley
1516:
However, there are some intransitive verbs in
Georgian that behave like transitive verbs, and therefore employ the ergative case in the past tense. Consider:
430:(also called Neo-Aramaic) languages. Ergative languages are classified into two groups: those that are morphologically ergative but syntactically behave as
4385:
4040:
2832:, whereby syntactic and/or morphological ergative patterns are conditioned by the grammatical context, typically person or the tense/aspect of the verb.
331:
3761:("the woman was killed by him"). The ergative type of inflection with an agentive phrase has been extended by analogy to intransitive verbs, e.g.
259:
254:
249:
237:
232:
227:
4591:
4557:
4353:
4254:. NUSA Linguistic Studies in Indonesian and Languages of Indonesia, Volume 13. Jakarta: Badan Penyelenggara Seri Nusa, Universitas Atma Jaya.
3211:, pronouns are morphologically nominative–accusative when the agent is first or second person, but ergative when the agent is a third person.
4756:
4423:
3301:
540:) are treated alike and kept distinct from the object of a transitive verb. Such languages are said to operate with S/A (syntactic) pivot.
1556:
446:
431:
145:
469:. In nominative-accusative languages, the case for the single argument of an intransitive verb and the agent of a transitive verb is the
4224:
324:
2818:
700:
521:
108:
4008:
4062:
Donohue, Mark (2008). "Semantic alignment systems: what's what, and what's not". In
Donohue, Mark & Søren Wichmann, eds. (2008).
5025:
5009:
4994:
4927:
4906:
4891:
4876:
4836:
4817:
4802:
4337:
4234:
4163:
Witzlack-Makarevich, A. Typological
Variation in Grammatical Relations Leipzig: University of Leipzig doctoral dissertation (2011).
120:
4978:
Schachter, Paul. (1976). The subject in Philippine languages: Actor, topic, actor-topic, or none of the above. In C. Li. (Ed.),
4124:
3485:
3474:
1549:
1540:
object (the object being "nose" in the case of "sneeze") and over time lost these objects, yet kept their transitive behavior.
3527:
5059:
276:
442:
is said to be the only representative of syntactic ergativity, yet it displays accusative alignment with certain pronouns.
3865:
Etymologically, the sense in which "-ee" denotes the object of a transitive verb is the original one, arising from French
3630:
3608:
3582:
150:
5080:
3649:
1959:
719:
4985:
Schachter, Paul. (1977). Reference-related and role-related properties of subjects. In P. Cole & J. Sadock (Eds.),
789:
If there is no case marking, ergativity can be marked through other means, such as in verbal morphology. For instance,
135:
3521:
1820:
3345:
1501:
is the root of the word "man". In the first sentence (present continuous tense) the agent is in the nominative case (
244:
222:
1890:
286:
4748:
179:
113:
3932:
3879:
3569:
2841:
1217:
In this language, the argument of the intransitive and agent of the transitive sentence are marked with the same
712:
696:
360:
103:
3365:
4824:
3722:
997:
after a consonant. It is a further rule in Basque grammar that in most cases a noun phrase must be closed by a
731:
502:
94:
1507: ). In the second sentence, which shows ergative alignment, the root is marked with the ergative suffix
2837:
1039:
626:
The relationship between ergative and accusative systems can be schematically represented as the following:
404:
266:
184:
83:
5045:. (2011). Ergative/Absolutive and Active/Stative alignment in West Africa:The case of Southwestern Mande.
4390:(Aniko Csirmaz and Markéta Ceplová, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Zazaki is an ergative language)
3890:, where the object of the verb when transitive is equivalent to the subject of the verb when intransitive.
2817:
is considered unsatisfactory by some, since there are very few languages without any patterns that exhibit
1872:
461:, the case used for the single argument of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb is the
4913:
3948:
3779:
529:
78:
73:
42:
4944:(Chap. 2, pp. 39–120). North-Holland linguistic series. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
3907:"I departed on time (so I could catch the plane)" → "My timely departure (allowed me to catch the plane)"
4530:
3718:
3273:
312:
194:
189:
174:
3745:
subjects as ergative. Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, in particular, has an ergative type of construction of the
3355:
4089:
Laughren, Mary; Blevins, Juliette (June 2003). "Nhanda: An Aboriginal Language of Western Australia".
5034:
4598:
4566:
4466:"What Sorani Kurdish Absolute Prepositions Tell Us about Cliticization - Kurdish Academy of Language"
4053:
For a kind of "phonological" ergativity, see Rude (1983), also Vydrin (2011) for a detailed critique.
3819:
3791:
3703:
3666:
3602:
3350:
3288:
Prototypical ergative languages are, for the most part, restricted to specific regions of the world:
1806:(for example, the absolutive argument comes before the verb and the ergative argument comes after it)
416:
165:
160:
140:
4625:
4360:
4947:
4640:
4172:
3754:
3726:
3616:
3509:
3380:
3333:
420:
352:
35:
5013:
4738:
4684:
4491:
4308:
4300:
4106:
3811:
3328:
2848:
1876:
718:
Ergative languages tend to be either verb-final or verb-initial; there are few, if any, ergative
63:
56:
4711:
Khan, Geoffrey. 1999. A Grammar of Neo-Aramaic: The Dialect of the Jews of Arbel. Leiden: Brill.
5075:
5021:
5005:
4990:
4923:
4902:
4887:
4872:
4832:
4813:
4798:
4752:
4419:
4413:
4379:
4333:
4327:
4265:
4230:
4144:
4034:
3953:
3942:
3799:
3795:
3750:
3711:
3692:
3670:
3573:
3563:
3557:
3493:
3456:
3425:
2880:
2876:
2868:
1448:
1050:
1002:
806:
619:
537:
454:
424:
412:
392:
384:
368:
364:
155:
130:
68:
51:
4399:
4793:
Anderson, Stephen. (1976). On the notion of subject in ergative languages. In C. Li. (Ed.),
4742:
4676:
4666:
4503:
4292:
4255:
4194:
4098:
3937:
3831:
3803:
3730:
3707:
3678:
3626:
3590:
3586:
3551:
3478:
3451:
3446:
3435:
3412:
3375:
3370:
3339:
3293:
3280:
Languages from Australia, New Guinea and Tibet have been shown to have optional ergativity.
3236:
3208:
2884:
2808:
1955:
1886:
1880:
1825:
747:
525:
510:
486:
482:
458:
450:
439:
400:
372:
125:
17:
4015:
3904:"(I was surprised that) the water boiled" → "(I was surprised at) the boiling of the water"
3818:(1991) this ergative-absolutive patterning also works at the level of the lexicon: thus in
1883:
in contrast with English conjunction reduction. (The subscript (i) indicates coreference.)
5042:
5000:
Silverstein, Michael. (1976). Hierarchy of Features and Ergativity. In R.M.W. Dixon (ed.)
4543:
3958:
3917:
3870:
3866:
3827:
3823:
3807:
3746:
3685:
3674:
3612:
3539:
3505:
3497:
3402:
3360:
3305:
2888:
2872:
2864:
2833:
1814:
1809:
1675:
1560:
1552:
1226:
1218:
813:
794:
790:
782:
563:
533:
514:
474:
470:
462:
396:
388:
380:
376:
281:
199:
3815:
3620:
3598:
1043:
427:
4950:(2010). Optional ergative case marking systems in a typological-semiotic perspective.
3749:
verbal base, where foregone actions are verbalized by a passive construction with the
1835:
1451:
has an ergative alignment, but the agent is only marked with the ergative case in the
5069:
4440:
4312:
4175:(2010) Optional ergative case marking systems in a typological-semiotic perspective.
3927:
3922:
3887:
3787:
3634:
3594:
3501:
3441:
3392:
2860:
1564:
986:
802:
763:
751:
466:
271:
4688:
3998:
Friend, Some Syntactic and Morphological Features of Suleimaniye Kurdish, UCLA, 1985
571:
4810:
Language typology and syntactic description: Grammatical categories and the lexicon
3742:
3738:
3577:
3406:
3396:
767:
548:
4492:"Fitting into morphological structure: accounting for Sorani Kurdish endoclitics"
4786:
Aldridge, Edith. (2016). Ergativity from subjunctive in Austronesian languages.
3289:
2836:
is unusual in having an almost fully ergative system in case-marking and verbal
1948:
4465:
4213:
Ergativity, by R. M. W. Dixon, Cambridge Studies in Linguistics, vol. 69, 1994.
989:, as the absolutive case is unmarked in Basque. The forms for the ergative are
4671:
4654:
3901:"(I/The editor) revised the essay" → "(my/the editor's) revision of the essay"
3734:
3696:
3489:
3430:
3313:
3232:
1803:
1452:
998:
798:
506:
307:
213:
204:
4729:
William Stokoe (1991) Semantic Phonology. Sign Language Studies, 71 ,107–114.
4269:
4940:
Mallinson, Graham; & Blake, Barry J. (1981). Agent and patient marking.
3874:
3309:
3258:
3228:
2938:
1568:
735:
3898:"(a dentist) extracts a tooth" → "the extraction of a tooth (by a dentist)"
4808:
Anderson, Stephen R. (1985). Inflectional morphology. In T. Shopen (Ed.),
3642:
3297:
3167:
1704:
4971:
Rude, Noel. (1983). Ergativity and the active-stative typology in Loma.
4522:
1038:(man-the.pl.erg). When fused with the article, the absolutive plural is
4304:
4260:
4110:
3766:
3247:
3025:
1456:
298:
4812:(Vol. 3, pp. 150–201). Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.
4680:
4507:
4199:
3783:
3652:
was an ergative language, although this hypothesis is controversial.
3638:
3461:
498:
408:
4842:
Coon, Jessica, Diane Massam and Lisa deMena Travis. (Eds.). (2017).
4296:
4102:
3782:) should also generally be considered ergative in the patterning of
3877:
and all except "escapee" are still marked as "chiefly U.S." by the
473:, while the case for the direct object of a transitive verb is the
3662:
2852:
1608:
3082:
3014:
2927:
2908:
1774:
1749:
1708:
1646:
1593:
1225:, while the object of the transitive sentence is marked with the
5060:"A quick tutorial on ergativity, by way of the Squid-headed one"
2856:
1719:
1006:
435:
4641:
Abstract. Laura J. Mahalingappa - University of Texas at Austin
3741:
aspect is nominative-accusative. Some dialects would only mark
3415:, although recent studies imply a nominative-accusative system.
3131:
3052:
2995:
2965:
2059:; ill-formed, because S and deleted A cannot be coreferential.)
1745:
1635:
1604:
4772:
Aldridge, Edith. (2008). Generative Approaches to Ergativity.
4283:
Michalowski, P. (1980). "Sumerian as an Ergative Language I".
3219:
Many languages with ergative marking display what is known as
3044:
2957:
1830:
1817:– determining which arguments are available for relativization
1770:
1700:
1696:
465:, and the case used for the agent of a transitive verb is the
4933:
Legate, Julie Anne. (2008). Morphological and Abstract Case.
4914:
On the Nature of Grammatical Case ... (Case and Vocativeness)
4744:
Searching for Aboriginal Languages: Memoirs of a Field Worker
595:
These different arguments are usually symbolized as follows:
4829:
Syntactic typology: Studies in the phenomenology of language
4779:
Aldridge, Edith. (2008). Minimalist analysis of ergativity.
3142:
3093:
2974:
boy:MASC.SG.NOM book:FEM.SG-NOM buy:HAB.MASC.SG be:3P.SG.PRS
1760:
1657:
3146:
3123:
3097:
3074:
3061:
boy:MASC.SG.ERG book:FEM.SG-NOM buy:PRF.FEM.SG be:3P.SG.PRS
2987:
2942:
2900:
5062:, at Recycled Knowledge (blog), by John Cowan, 2005-05-05.
4400:
http://roa.rutgers.edu/files/744-0605/744-ARKADIEV-0-0.PDF
4191:
A Reassessment of the Genetic Classification of Miluk Coos
3822:
the sign for TEA has the motion for the verb DRINK with a
3669:), ergative alignment occurs only when the verb is in the
3150:
3127:
3101:
3078:
3048:
3033:
3029:
3010:
3006:
2991:
2961:
2946:
2923:
2919:
2904:
4961:(pp. 315–335). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.
4655:"Proto-Indo-European Ergativity... Still To Be Discussed"
816:
demonstrate an ergative–absolutive case marking system:
4831:(pp. 329–394). Austin: University of Texas Press.
4627:
The acquisition of split-ergativity in Kurmanji Kurdish
3826:
handshape च /ca/ (standing for the first letter of the
3769:
has historically been a nominative-accusative language.
1847:
699:
for a more technical explanation and a comparison with
4989:(Vol. 8, pp. 279–306). New York: Academic Press.
3873:: the intransitive uses are all 19th-century American
1520:
1508:
1502:
1496:
1477:
1463:
4966:
Ergativity: Towards a theory of grammatical relations
4942:
Language typology: Cross-linguistic studies in syntax
4920:
Phrase structure and grammatical relations in Tagalog
3721:, which are generally classified into 4 groups, only
4441:"A Derivational Account for Sorani Kurdish Passives"
3861:"Mike has appointed Susie" → "Susie is an appointee"
3677:(also for intransitive verbs but only when they are
445:
The ergative-absolutive alignment is in contrast to
4412:Hoop, Helen de; Swart, Peter de (4 December 2007).
4326:Hoop, Helen de; Swart, Peter de (4 December 2007).
3688:, ergative alignment occurs only in the past tense.
2840:, though it shows thoroughly nominative–accusative
2828:Many languages classified as ergative in fact show
2821:. Instead they posit that one should only speak of
27:
Pattern relating to the subject and object of verbs
5004:(pp. 112–171). New Jersey: Humanities Press.
4630:(Ph.D. thesis). The University of Texas at Austin.
3830:word TEA चिया /chiya:/) being incorporated as the
3319:Specific languages and language families include:
2887:), while in other situations agents appear in the
4897:Foley, William; & Van Valin, Robert. (1984).
1947:. (ill-formed, because S and deleted O cannot be
1009:and usually translatable by "the" in English) is
4149:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
608:= object of transitive verb (also symbolized as
4132:, archived from the original on 8 December 2015
2825:, which languages employ to different degrees.
585:gent treated the same way) displaying S/A pivot
5002:Grammatical Categories in Australian Languages
4077:The Basque Language: A Practical Introduction.
3869:in "-é". This is still the prevalent sense in
1530:
1487:
1469:
1001:. The default determiner (commonly called the
4982:(pp. 491–518). New York: Academic Press.
3399:language of Southern Libya and Northern Chad.
332:
8:
4402:(Zazaki is an ergative language, page 17-18)
4193:(Ph.D. dissertation). University of Oregon.
3858:"Susie employs Mike" → "Mike is an employee"
3794:are incorporated into verbs, indicating the
3757:rather than by an active construction, e.g.
1579:See the common noun paradigm at play below:
4987:Syntax and semantics: Grammatical relations
4851:Language Universals and Linguistic Typology
4797:(pp. 1–24). New York: Academic Press.
1736:Transitive Pronoun Subject-Object (NOM-ACC)
773:The core argument of an intransitive verb (
562:bject treated the same way) displaying S/O
4659:Poznań Studies in Contemporary Linguistics
3254:subjects more likely to be marked ergative
2796:"Father returned and was seen by mother."
387:") of a transitive verb. Examples include
339:
325:
31:
4670:
4259:
4198:
3850:"John has escaped" → "John is an escapee"
3242:Optional ergativity may be motivated by:
2679:"Father returned and mother saw father."
3847:"John has retired" → "John is a retiree"
3648:Several scholars have hypothesized that
2684:
2560:
2474:
2388:
2328:
2249:
2172:
2136:
1871:Example of syntactic ergativity in the "
1437:
1435:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1269:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1255:
1248:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1058:
1055:
821:
818:
628:
5020:(pp. 163–232). Dordrecht: Foris.
4899:Functional syntax and universal grammar
3970:
3886:English also has a number of so-called
3838:Approximations of ergativity in English
3269:verbs more likely to be marked ergative
2177:Father returned, and father saw mother.
777:) and the object of a transitive verb (
297:
212:
93:
41:
34:
4853:, 2nd ed. University of Chicago Press.
4539:
4528:
4384:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
4377:
4142:
4039:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
4032:
3994:
3992:
536:of a transitive verb (both called the
423:). It has also been attributed to the
4864:(1), 59-138. (Revised as Dixon 1994).
1053:is a nominative–accusative language:
7:
4856:Dixon, R. M. W. (1979). Ergativity.
4624:Mahalingappa, Laura Jahnavi (2009).
4439:Géraldine Walther (1 January 2011).
1799:Syntactic ergativity may appear in:
5012:. Reprinted in Pieter Muysken and
4774:Language and Linguistics Compass, 2
4523:"Ergativität im Sorani-Kurdischen?"
4521:Jügel, Thomas (17 September 2007).
4226:Language Policy in the Soviet Union
4126:The syntax and morphology of Basque
2127:Father returned, mother saw father.
2092:Father returned, mother saw father.
2030:Father returned, father saw mother.
1625:Transitive Subject-Object (ERG-ABS)
801:form of a word (exceptions include
577:Accusative alignment (intransitive
4066:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
4064:The Typology of Semantic Alignment
3512:or ergative–accusative languages.
3284:Distribution of ergative languages
3162:'The boy coughed (intentionally).'
2565:Ŋuma banaganu, ŋuma yabuŋgu buṛan.
1686:Intransitive Pronoun Subject (NOM)
1455:aspect (also known as the "aorist
746:If the language has morphological
434:(for instance, Basque, Pashto and
25:
4844:The Oxford handbook of ergativity
4496:Mediterranean Morphology Meetings
4223:Grenoble, L. A. (11 April 2006).
4079:Reno: University of Nevada Press.
3656:Languages with limited ergativity
3166:In the Northern Kurdish language
3159:boy:MASC.SG.ERG cough:PRF.MASC.SG
3110:boy:MASC.SG.NOM cough:PRF.MASC.SG
554:Ergative alignment (intransitive
497:An ergative language maintains a
493:Ergative vs. accusative languages
5033:Alignment and ergativity in new
3695:, ergativity only occurs in the
3183:(4) Ew min dibîne. (He sees me.)
1834:
1544:Differing noun-pronoun alignment
1042:with the ergative singular. See
758:The agent of a transitive verb (
730:Ergativity can be found in both
570:
547:
532:of an intransitive verb and the
3486:Australian Aboriginal languages
3475:Australian Aboriginal languages
3296:, and some extinct languages),
3177:(2) Ez wî dibînim. (I see him.)
2819:nominative–accusative alignment
2254:Father returned and saw mother.
1666:woman-ERG kangaroo.ABS see-PAST
1474:) "The man is eating an apple."
766:, or as a similar case such as
701:nominative–accusative languages
447:nominative–accusative alignment
363:in which the single argument ("
4973:Studies in African Linguistics
4901:. Cambridge University Press.
4886:. Cambridge University Press.
4867:Dixon, R. M. W. (Ed.) (1987).
4581:(Sorani is ergative, page 255)
1932:returned and mother saw father
1550:Australian Aboriginal language
505:equivalence (such as the same
1:
4964:Plank, Frans. (Ed.). (1979).
4592:"Chapter 5. Split ergativity"
4525:– via linguistlist.org.
3778:Sign languages (for example,
3200:(8) Wî ez dîtim. (He saw me.)
2689:Ŋuma banaganu, yabuŋgu buṛan.
1249:hypothetical ergative English
1077:Otokonohito ga kodomo o mita.
357:ergative–absolutive alignment
4871:. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
4788:Language and Linguistics, 17
4415:Differential Subject Marking
4329:Differential Subject Marking
4285:Journal of Cuneiform Studies
3945:(aka Austronesian alignment)
3508:; such languages are called
3194:(6) Min ew dît. (I saw him.)
1943:returned and mother saw ____
1728:Where-3.OBL-2SG.NOM go-NPAST
812:The following examples from
18:Ergative–absolutive language
4959:Ergativity: Emerging Issues
4559:Chapter 5. Split ergativity
4490:Walther, Géraldine (2012).
3802:when incorporated, and the
3786:incorporation in verbs. In
3522:Eastern Trans-Fly languages
3064:'The boy has bought a book'
3058:lar̥ke-ne kitāb xarīdī hai.
2823:ergative–absolutive systems
1548:In rare cases, such as the
1521:
1509:
1503:
1497:
1478:
1464:
379:, and differently from the
156:Ditransitive/Monotransitive
5097:
4846:. Oxford University Press.
4749:Cambridge University Press
4189:Doty, Christopher (2012).
3528:Trans–New Guinea languages
3250:of the subject, with more
2806:
1988:Ŋuma yabuŋgu buṛan. (lit.
1973:Yabu ŋumaŋgu buṛan. (lit.
1725:wandha-ra-nyja yatka-ndha?
1669:The woman saw the kangaroo
1663:nyarlu-nggu yawarda nha-'i
1583:Intransitive Subject (ABS)
602:= agent of transitive verb
4968:. London: Academic Press.
4849:Comrie, Bernard (1989 ).
4823:Comrie, Bernard. (1978).
4672:10.2478/v10010-008-0022-y
3933:Morphosyntactic alignment
3880:Oxford English Dictionary
3737:aspect only, whereas the
3733:, which is formed in the
2971:lar̥kā kitāb xarīdtā hai.
2795:
2687:
2678:
2563:
2554:
2477:
2468:
2391:
2382:
2331:
2252:
2175:
2139:
1531:
1492:) "The man ate an apple."
1488:
1470:
1211:"The man saw the child."
1210:
1205:
1074:
1066:
975:"Martin has seen Diego."
974:
969:
836:
829:
726:Realization of ergativity
713:morphosyntactic alignment
697:morphosyntactic alignment
361:morphosyntactic alignment
5031:Verbeke, Saartje. 2013.
5018:Features and Projections
4882:Dixon, R. M. W. (1994).
4827:In W. P. Lehmann (Ed.),
4250:Walker, Alan T. (1982).
3977:Comrie (1989), p. 110ff.
3790:that have been studied,
2019:returned, mother father-
1563:has a null suffix while
838:Martinek Diego ikusi du.
742:Morphological ergativity
592:(reference for figure:)
4918:Kroeger, Paul. (1993).
3753:being conferred as the
3261:of the verb, with more
1005:, which is suffixed to
781:) are both marked with
449:, which is observed in
405:Indo-European languages
4912:Iliev, Ivan G. (2007)
4781:Sophia Linguistica, 55
4614:(kurmanji is ergative)
4538:Cite journal requires
3949:Transitivity (grammar)
3546:Caucasus and Near East
3346:Eskimo–Aleut languages
3180:(3) Ew diçe. (He goes)
2007:banaganu, yabu ŋumaŋgu
1780:nyini nha-'i ngayi-nha
1069:Otokonohito ga tsuita.
970:"Martin has arrived."
637:Nominative–accusative
622:) of intransitive verb
618:= core argument (i.e.
581:ubject and transitive
558:ubject and transitive
4869:Studies in ergativity
4653:Bavant, Marc (2008).
3810:. (If we follow the "
3792:classifier handshapes
3719:Neo-Aramaic languages
3409:language of Ethiopia.
3274:grammatical structure
3197:(7) Ew çû. (He went.)
2977:'The boy buys a book'
2555:"Mother saw father."
2469:"Father saw mother."
2105:yabuŋgu buṛan. (lit.
2070:yabuŋgu buṛan. (lit.
2051:returned, mother ____
1873:conjunction reduction
1559:template. In Nhanda,
1557:nominative-accusative
522:nominative–accusative
146:Nominative–absolutive
109:Nominative–accusative
5035:Indo-Aryan languages
4948:McGregor, William B.
3820:Nepali Sign Language
3814:" model proposed by
3780:Nepali Sign Language
3704:Philippine languages
3510:tripartite languages
3351:Guaicuruan languages
3191:(5) Ez çûm. (I went)
3174:(1) Ez diçim. (I go)
1791:Syntactic ergativity
1731:Where are you going?
1617:rain.ABS go-ABL.NFUT
1567:is marked with some
1535:) "The man sneezed."
1059:Accusative language
1034:(man-the.sing.erg),
1026:(man-the.sing.abs),
1013:in the singular and
634:Ergative–absolutive
520:This contrasts with
485:). This is known as
417:Indo-Aryan languages
5081:Linguistic typology
5047:Studies in Language
5039:Berlin: de Gruyter.
4922:. Stanford: CSLI.
4091:Oceanic Linguistics
3986:R.W.D. Dixon (1994)
3755:grammatical subject
3723:Northeastern (NENA)
3650:Proto-Indo-European
3609:Northwest Caucasian
3583:Northeast Caucasian
3334:Chinookan languages
3227:but is affected by
3221:optional ergativity
3215:Optional ergativity
2842:syntactic alignment
2815:ergative–absolutive
2479:Ŋuma yabuŋgu buṛan.
2393:Yabu ŋumaŋgu buṛan.
2383:"Father returned."
2039:banaganu, yabu ____
1910:returned and father
1877:coordinated clauses
1783:2.NOM see-PST 1-ACC
1206:"The man arrived."
993:after a vowel, and
528:, where the single
353:linguistic typology
260:Object–verb–subject
255:Object–subject–verb
250:Subject–object–verb
238:Verb–object–subject
233:Verb–subject–object
228:Subject–verb–object
121:Ergative–absolutive
36:Linguistic typology
5014:Henk van Riemsdijk
4935:Linguistic Inquiry
4470:kurdishacademy.org
3812:semantic phonology
3800:intransitive verbs
3765:("he has risen").
3356:Macro-Jê languages
3329:Chibchan languages
3113:'The boy coughed.'
2881:intransitive verbs
2877:ditransitive verbs
1998:Mother saw father.
1983:Father saw mother.
1903:Mother saw father.
1900:Father saw mother.
1846:. You can help by
1465:K'aci vašls č'ams.
1251:(S form = O form)
1246:(S form = A form)
1244:accusative English
1030:(man-the.pl.abs),
822:Ergative language
524:languages such as
4980:Subject and topic
4795:Subject and topic
4758:978-1-108-02504-1
4508:10.26220/mmm.2437
4425:978-1-4020-6497-5
4252:A Grammar of Sawu
3954:Unaccusative verb
3943:Symmetrical voice
3712:symmetrical voice
3671:perfective aspect
3494:intransitive case
3156:lar̥ke-ne khā̃sā.
2869:perfective aspect
2800:
2799:
2751:
2741:
2730:
2683:
2682:
2634:
2623:
2609:
2559:
2558:
2523:
2512:
2473:
2472:
2437:
2426:
2387:
2386:
2358:
2327:
2326:
2303:
2275:
2248:
2247:
2224:
2171:
2170:
1921:returned and ____
1864:
1863:
1442:
1441:
1215:
1214:
1153:
1143:
1128:
979:
978:
917:
906:
890:
831:Martin etorri da.
754:are marked thus:
692:
691:
413:Kurdish languages
371:behaves like the
369:intransitive verb
349:
348:
291:Place–manner–time
287:Time–manner–place
180:Dependent-marking
131:Symmetrical voice
114:Marked nominative
16:(Redirected from
5088:
5049:35 (2): 409–443.
5043:Vydrin, Valentin
4975:14 (3): 265–283.
4762:
4730:
4727:
4721:
4718:
4712:
4709:
4703:
4699:
4693:
4692:
4674:
4650:
4644:
4638:
4632:
4631:
4621:
4615:
4613:
4611:
4609:
4604:on 12 April 2013
4603:
4597:. Archived from
4596:
4588:
4582:
4580:
4579:
4577:
4572:on 12 April 2013
4571:
4565:, archived from
4564:
4554:
4548:
4547:
4541:
4536:
4534:
4526:
4518:
4512:
4511:
4487:
4481:
4480:
4478:
4476:
4462:
4456:
4455:
4453:
4451:
4436:
4430:
4429:
4409:
4403:
4397:
4391:
4389:
4383:
4375:
4373:
4371:
4366:on 12 April 2013
4365:
4359:. Archived from
4358:
4350:
4344:
4343:
4323:
4317:
4316:
4280:
4274:
4273:
4263:
4247:
4241:
4240:
4220:
4214:
4211:
4205:
4204:
4202:
4186:
4180:
4170:
4164:
4161:
4155:
4154:
4148:
4140:
4139:
4137:
4131:
4121:
4115:
4114:
4086:
4080:
4073:
4067:
4060:
4054:
4051:
4045:
4044:
4038:
4030:
4028:
4026:
4020:
4014:. Archived from
4013:
4005:
3999:
3996:
3987:
3984:
3978:
3975:
3938:Split ergativity
3867:past participles
3808:transitive verbs
3731:split ergativity
3675:transitive verbs
3376:Salish languages
3371:Panoan languages
3340:Coosan languages
3237:split ergativity
3152:
3148:
3144:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3016:
3012:
3008:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2830:split ergativity
2809:Split ergativity
2803:Split ergativity
2785:
2778:
2765:
2753:
2749:
2742:
2739:
2732:
2728:
2716:
2708:
2700:
2685:
2668:
2661:
2648:
2636:
2632:
2625:
2621:
2611:
2607:
2595:
2587:
2576:
2561:
2544:
2537:
2525:
2521:
2514:
2510:
2498:
2490:
2475:
2458:
2451:
2439:
2435:
2428:
2424:
2412:
2404:
2389:
2372:
2360:
2356:
2344:
2329:
2323:
2310:
2301:
2292:
2283:
2274:
2271:
2262:
2250:
2244:
2231:
2222:
2213:
2204:
2196:
2185:
2173:
2161:
2149:
2141:Father returned.
2137:
2078:returned, father
1968:Father returned.
1966:Ŋuma banaganu. (
1897:Father returned.
1875:" construction (
1859:
1856:
1838:
1831:
1826:Switch reference
1815:Relative clauses
1810:Syntactic pivots
1776:
1772:
1762:
1751:
1747:
1721:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1659:
1648:
1637:
1610:
1606:
1595:
1571:of the suffixes
1534:
1533:
1528:
1512:
1506:
1500:
1491:
1490:
1489:კაცმა ვაშლი ჭამა
1485:
1473:
1472:
1467:
1239:
1192:
1185:
1170:
1155:
1151:
1145:
1141:
1130:
1126:
1112:
1104:
1091:
1056:
956:
949:
934:
919:
915:
908:
904:
892:
888:
873:
865:
852:
819:
688:
683:
671:
666:
654:
649:
629:
574:
551:
511:grammatical case
487:split ergativity
483:person agreement
459:grammatical case
341:
334:
327:
32:
21:
5096:
5095:
5091:
5090:
5089:
5087:
5086:
5085:
5066:
5065:
5056:
4954:120: 1610–1636.
4769:
4759:
4739:Dixon, R. M. W.
4737:
4734:
4733:
4728:
4724:
4719:
4715:
4710:
4706:
4700:
4696:
4652:
4651:
4647:
4639:
4635:
4623:
4622:
4618:
4607:
4605:
4601:
4594:
4590:
4589:
4585:
4575:
4573:
4569:
4562:
4556:
4555:
4551:
4537:
4527:
4520:
4519:
4515:
4489:
4488:
4484:
4474:
4472:
4464:
4463:
4459:
4449:
4447:
4438:
4437:
4433:
4426:
4411:
4410:
4406:
4398:
4394:
4376:
4369:
4367:
4363:
4356:
4354:"Archived copy"
4352:
4351:
4347:
4340:
4325:
4324:
4320:
4297:10.2307/1359671
4282:
4281:
4277:
4249:
4248:
4244:
4237:
4222:
4221:
4217:
4212:
4208:
4188:
4187:
4183:
4171:
4167:
4162:
4158:
4141:
4135:
4133:
4129:
4123:
4122:
4118:
4103:10.2307/3623460
4088:
4087:
4083:
4074:
4070:
4061:
4057:
4052:
4048:
4031:
4024:
4022:
4021:on 13 June 2011
4018:
4011:
4009:"Archived copy"
4007:
4006:
4002:
3997:
3990:
3985:
3981:
3976:
3972:
3967:
3959:Unergative verb
3918:Absolutive case
3914:
3871:British English
3840:
3824:manual alphabet
3776:
3747:perfective past
3729:groups exhibit
3658:
3570:South Caucasian
3548:
3536:
3518:
3506:absolutive case
3498:accusative case
3470:
3422:
3403:Majang language
3389:
3325:
3306:Tibetan Plateau
3286:
3217:
3164:
3154:
3135:
3115:
3105:
3086:
3066:
3056:
3037:
3018:
2999:
2979:
2969:
2950:
2931:
2912:
2889:nominative case
2811:
2805:
2791:
2781:
2774:
2771:
2761:
2746:
2738:
2725:
2712:
2706:
2696:
2674:
2664:
2657:
2654:
2644:
2629:
2618:
2604:
2591:
2583:
2572:
2550:
2540:
2533:
2518:
2507:
2494:
2486:
2464:
2454:
2447:
2432:
2421:
2408:
2400:
2378:
2368:
2353:
2340:
2319:
2316:
2306:
2298:
2288:
2281:
2272:
2260:
2240:
2237:
2227:
2219:
2209:
2202:
2194:
2183:
2167:
2157:
2147:
2117:
2111:
2104:
2100:
2082:
2076:
2069:
2065:
2055:
2049:
2042:
2038:
2024:
2017:
2010:
2006:
1946:
1942:
1935:
1931:
1924:
1920:
1913:
1909:
1869:
1860:
1854:
1851:
1844:needs expansion
1793:
1788:
1778:
1764:
1753:
1733:
1723:
1712:
1671:
1661:
1650:
1639:
1622:
1620:Rain is coming.
1612:
1597:
1561:absolutive case
1546:
1532:კაცმა დააცემინა
1471:კაცი ვაშლს ჭამს
1444:
1250:
1245:
1227:accusative case
1219:nominative case
1198:
1188:
1181:
1176:
1166:
1149:
1139:
1124:
1108:
1100:
1087:
962:
952:
945:
940:
930:
912:
901:
885:
869:
861:
848:
795:Mayan languages
783:absolutive case
762:) is marked as
744:
728:
686:
681:
669:
664:
652:
647:
590:
589:
588:
587:
586:
575:
567:
566:
552:
515:syntactic pivot
495:
377:transitive verb
345:
282:Free word order
200:Syntactic pivot
95:Morphosyntactic
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5094:
5092:
5084:
5083:
5078:
5068:
5067:
5064:
5063:
5055:
5054:External links
5052:
5051:
5050:
5040:
5029:
4998:
4983:
4976:
4969:
4962:
4955:
4945:
4938:
4931:
4916:
4910:
4895:
4880:
4865:
4854:
4847:
4840:
4821:
4806:
4791:
4784:
4777:
4768:
4765:
4764:
4763:
4757:
4732:
4731:
4722:
4713:
4704:
4694:
4665:(4): 433–447.
4645:
4633:
4616:
4583:
4549:
4540:|journal=
4513:
4482:
4457:
4431:
4424:
4404:
4392:
4345:
4338:
4318:
4275:
4242:
4235:
4215:
4206:
4181:
4179:120: 1610–1636
4165:
4156:
4116:
4081:
4075:King, Alan R.
4068:
4055:
4046:
4000:
3988:
3979:
3969:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3962:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3913:
3910:
3909:
3908:
3905:
3902:
3899:
3888:ergative verbs
3863:
3862:
3859:
3852:
3851:
3848:
3839:
3836:
3816:William Stokoe
3788:sign languages
3775:
3774:Sign languages
3772:
3771:
3770:
3715:
3700:
3689:
3682:
3657:
3654:
3646:
3645:
3624:
3606:
3580:
3567:
3561:
3555:
3547:
3544:
3543:
3542:
3535:
3532:
3531:
3530:
3524:
3517:
3514:
3504:, and lack an
3500:along with an
3482:
3481:
3469:
3466:
3465:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3433:
3428:
3421:
3418:
3417:
3416:
3410:
3400:
3388:
3385:
3384:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3337:
3331:
3324:
3321:
3285:
3282:
3278:
3277:
3270:
3255:
3216:
3213:
3202:
3201:
3198:
3195:
3192:
3185:
3184:
3181:
3178:
3175:
3136:
3117:
3116:
3107:lar̥kā khā̃sā.
3087:
3068:
3067:
3038:
3019:
3000:
2981:
2980:
2951:
2932:
2913:
2894:
2893:
2883:when they are
2807:Main article:
2804:
2801:
2798:
2797:
2793:
2792:
2789:
2786:
2779:
2772:
2769:
2766:
2758:
2757:
2754:
2743:
2736:
2733:
2721:
2720:
2717:
2709:
2704:
2701:
2692:
2691:
2681:
2680:
2676:
2675:
2672:
2669:
2662:
2655:
2652:
2649:
2641:
2640:
2637:
2626:
2615:
2612:
2600:
2599:
2596:
2588:
2580:
2577:
2568:
2567:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2551:
2548:
2545:
2538:
2530:
2529:
2526:
2515:
2503:
2502:
2499:
2491:
2482:
2481:
2471:
2470:
2466:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2452:
2444:
2443:
2440:
2429:
2417:
2416:
2413:
2405:
2396:
2395:
2385:
2384:
2380:
2379:
2376:
2373:
2365:
2364:
2361:
2349:
2348:
2345:
2336:
2335:
2333:Ŋuma banaganu.
2325:
2324:
2317:
2314:
2311:
2304:
2299:
2296:
2293:
2285:
2284:
2279:
2276:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2246:
2245:
2238:
2235:
2232:
2225:
2220:
2217:
2214:
2206:
2205:
2200:
2197:
2192:
2189:
2186:
2180:
2179:
2169:
2168:
2165:
2162:
2154:
2153:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2131:
2130:
2115:
2113:returned, ____
2109:
2102:
2101:banaganu, ____
2098:
2095:
2080:
2074:
2067:
2066:banaganu, ŋuma
2063:
2060:
2053:
2047:
2043:buṛan. (lit. *
2040:
2036:
2033:
2022:
2015:
2008:
2004:
2001:
1990:Father mother-
1986:
1975:Mother father-
1971:
1953:
1952:
1944:
1940:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1841:
1839:
1829:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1812:
1807:
1792:
1789:
1765:
1754:
1740:
1739:
1713:
1692:wandha-ra-nyja
1690:
1689:
1651:
1640:
1629:
1628:
1614:pundu yatka-yu
1598:
1587:
1586:
1545:
1542:
1537:
1536:
1494:
1493:
1475:
1440:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1358:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1267:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1253:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1213:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1200:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1186:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1164:
1160:
1159:
1156:
1146:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1121:
1117:
1116:
1113:
1105:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1084:
1080:
1079:
1073:
1071:
1065:
1061:
1060:
1044:Basque grammar
977:
976:
973:
971:
968:
964:
963:
960:
957:
950:
943:
941:
938:
935:
928:
924:
923:
920:
909:
898:
896:
893:
882:
878:
877:
874:
866:
858:
856:
853:
845:
841:
840:
835:
833:
828:
824:
823:
787:
786:
771:
752:verb arguments
743:
740:
727:
724:
690:
689:
684:
679:
673:
672:
667:
662:
656:
655:
650:
645:
639:
638:
635:
632:
624:
623:
613:
612:for "patient")
603:
576:
569:
568:
553:
546:
545:
544:
543:
542:
494:
491:
428:modern Aramaic
403:, and certain
347:
346:
344:
343:
336:
329:
321:
318:
317:
316:
315:
310:
302:
301:
295:
294:
293:
292:
289:
284:
279:
274:
269:
264:
263:
262:
257:
252:
242:
241:
240:
235:
230:
217:
216:
210:
209:
208:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
185:Double-marking
182:
177:
172:
171:
170:
169:
168:
163:
153:
151:Direct-inverse
148:
143:
138:
136:Active–stative
133:
128:
126:Split ergative
123:
118:
117:
116:
98:
97:
91:
90:
89:
88:
87:
86:
84:Oligosynthetic
81:
76:
71:
61:
60:
59:
46:
45:
39:
38:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5093:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5073:
5071:
5061:
5058:
5057:
5053:
5048:
5044:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5030:
5027:
5026:90-6765-144-3
5023:
5019:
5015:
5011:
5010:0-391-00694-0
5007:
5003:
4999:
4996:
4995:0-12-613508-8
4992:
4988:
4984:
4981:
4977:
4974:
4970:
4967:
4963:
4960:
4956:
4953:
4949:
4946:
4943:
4939:
4937:39.1: 55-101.
4936:
4932:
4929:
4928:0-937073-86-5
4925:
4921:
4917:
4915:
4911:
4908:
4907:0-521-25956-8
4904:
4900:
4896:
4893:
4892:0-521-44898-0
4889:
4885:
4881:
4878:
4877:0-444-70275-X
4874:
4870:
4866:
4863:
4859:
4855:
4852:
4848:
4845:
4841:
4838:
4837:0-292-77545-8
4834:
4830:
4826:
4822:
4819:
4818:0-521-58158-3
4815:
4811:
4807:
4804:
4803:0-12-447350-4
4800:
4796:
4792:
4789:
4785:
4782:
4778:
4775:
4771:
4770:
4766:
4760:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4745:
4740:
4736:
4735:
4726:
4723:
4717:
4714:
4708:
4705:
4698:
4695:
4690:
4686:
4682:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4649:
4646:
4642:
4637:
4634:
4629:
4628:
4620:
4617:
4600:
4593:
4587:
4584:
4568:
4561:
4560:
4553:
4550:
4545:
4532:
4524:
4517:
4514:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4486:
4483:
4471:
4467:
4461:
4458:
4446:
4442:
4435:
4432:
4427:
4421:
4417:
4416:
4408:
4405:
4401:
4396:
4393:
4387:
4381:
4362:
4355:
4349:
4346:
4341:
4339:9781402064975
4335:
4331:
4330:
4322:
4319:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4298:
4294:
4291:(2): 86–103.
4290:
4286:
4279:
4276:
4271:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4253:
4246:
4243:
4238:
4236:9780306480836
4232:
4228:
4227:
4219:
4216:
4210:
4207:
4201:
4196:
4192:
4185:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4169:
4166:
4160:
4157:
4152:
4146:
4128:
4127:
4120:
4117:
4112:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4085:
4082:
4078:
4072:
4069:
4065:
4059:
4056:
4050:
4047:
4042:
4036:
4017:
4010:
4004:
4001:
3995:
3993:
3989:
3983:
3980:
3974:
3971:
3964:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3928:Ergative verb
3926:
3924:
3923:Ergative case
3921:
3919:
3916:
3915:
3911:
3906:
3903:
3900:
3897:
3896:
3895:
3891:
3889:
3884:
3882:
3881:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3860:
3857:
3856:
3855:
3849:
3846:
3845:
3844:
3837:
3835:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3773:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3687:
3683:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3659:
3655:
3653:
3651:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3625:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3607:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3568:
3565:
3562:
3559:
3556:
3553:
3550:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3538:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3519:
3515:
3513:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3502:ergative case
3499:
3495:
3492:) possess an
3491:
3487:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3423:
3419:
3414:
3411:
3408:
3404:
3401:
3398:
3394:
3391:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3341:
3338:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3326:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:and parts of
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3283:
3281:
3275:
3271:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3244:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3214:
3212:
3210:
3205:
3199:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3182:
3179:
3176:
3173:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3163:
3160:
3157:
3153:
3139:
3134:
3120:
3114:
3111:
3108:
3104:
3090:
3085:
3071:
3065:
3062:
3059:
3055:
3041:
3036:
3022:
3017:
3003:
2998:
2984:
2978:
2975:
2972:
2968:
2954:
2949:
2935:
2930:
2916:
2911:
2897:
2892:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2863:is marked on
2862:
2861:ergative case
2858:
2854:
2850:
2845:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2810:
2802:
2794:
2787:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2773:
2767:
2764:
2760:
2759:
2755:
2752:
2744:
2737:
2734:
2731:
2723:
2722:
2718:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2702:
2699:
2694:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2677:
2670:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2656:
2650:
2647:
2643:
2642:
2638:
2635:
2627:
2624:
2616:
2613:
2610:
2602:
2601:
2597:
2594:
2589:
2586:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2570:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2553:
2546:
2543:
2539:
2536:
2532:
2531:
2527:
2524:
2516:
2513:
2505:
2504:
2500:
2497:
2492:
2489:
2484:
2483:
2480:
2476:
2467:
2460:
2457:
2453:
2450:
2446:
2445:
2441:
2438:
2430:
2427:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2411:
2406:
2403:
2398:
2397:
2394:
2390:
2381:
2374:
2371:
2367:
2366:
2362:
2359:
2351:
2350:
2346:
2343:
2338:
2337:
2334:
2330:
2322:
2318:
2312:
2309:
2305:
2300:
2294:
2291:
2287:
2286:
2280:
2277:
2270:
2267:
2264:
2259:
2258:
2255:
2251:
2243:
2239:
2233:
2230:
2226:
2221:
2215:
2212:
2208:
2207:
2201:
2198:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2182:
2181:
2178:
2174:
2163:
2160:
2156:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2145:
2142:
2138:
2135:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2114:
2108:
2096:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2079:
2073:
2061:
2058:
2052:
2046:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2014:
2011:buṛan. (lit.
2002:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1962:word order):
1961:
1957:
1950:
1949:coreferential
1938:
1927:
1916:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1896:
1895:
1894:
1893:word order):
1892:
1888:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1866:
1858:
1849:
1845:
1842:This section
1840:
1837:
1833:
1832:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1821:Subordination
1819:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1801:
1800:
1797:
1790:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1777:
1768:
1763:
1757:
1752:
1743:
1738:
1737:
1732:
1729:
1726:
1722:
1716:
1711:
1693:
1688:
1687:
1683:
1681:
1677:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1660:
1654:
1649:
1643:
1638:
1632:
1627:
1626:
1621:
1618:
1615:
1611:
1601:
1596:
1590:
1585:
1584:
1580:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1565:ergative case
1562:
1558:
1554:
1551:
1543:
1541:
1527:
1525:
1519:
1518:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1484:
1482:
1476:
1466:
1462:
1461:
1460:
1459:"). Compare:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1413:
1385:
1382:absolutive S
1371:absolutive S
1364:nominative S
1361:intransitive
1359:
1328:
1297:
1291:absolutive O
1284:absolutive O
1278:accusative O
1273:nominative A
1268:
1254:
1240:
1237:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1208:
1203:Translation:
1202:
1201:
1194:
1191:
1187:
1184:
1180:
1178:
1172:
1169:
1165:
1162:
1161:
1157:
1154:
1147:
1144:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1122:
1119:
1118:
1114:
1111:
1106:
1103:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1085:
1082:
1081:
1078:
1072:
1070:
1063:
1062:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1049:In contrast,
1047:
1046:for details.
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
987:zero morpheme
985:represents a
984:
972:
967:Translation:
966:
965:
958:
955:
951:
948:
944:
942:
936:
933:
929:
926:
925:
921:
918:
910:
907:
899:
897:
894:
891:
883:
880:
879:
875:
872:
867:
864:
859:
857:
854:
851:
846:
843:
842:
839:
834:
832:
826:
825:
820:
817:
815:
810:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
784:
780:
776:
772:
769:
765:
764:ergative case
761:
757:
756:
755:
753:
749:
741:
739:
737:
733:
732:morphological
725:
723:
721:
716:
714:
710:
705:
704:
702:
698:
685:
680:
678:
675:
674:
668:
663:
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651:
646:
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641:
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633:
631:
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621:
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611:
607:
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601:
598:
597:
596:
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584:
580:
573:
565:
561:
557:
550:
541:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
518:
516:
512:
508:
504:
503:morphological
500:
492:
490:
488:
484:
478:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
443:
441:
437:
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429:
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418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
359:is a type of
358:
354:
342:
337:
335:
330:
328:
323:
322:
320:
319:
314:
311:
309:
306:
305:
304:
303:
300:
296:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
277:OS word order
275:
273:
272:V2 word order
270:
268:
267:V1 word order
265:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
247:
246:
243:
239:
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229:
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215:
211:
206:
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
175:Zero-marking
173:
167:
164:
162:
159:
158:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
144:
142:
139:
137:
134:
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129:
127:
124:
122:
119:
115:
112:
111:
110:
107:
106:
105:
102:
101:
100:
99:
96:
92:
85:
82:
80:
79:Polysynthetic
77:
75:
74:Agglutinative
72:
70:
67:
66:
65:
62:
58:
55:
54:
53:
50:
49:
48:
47:
44:
43:Morphological
40:
37:
33:
30:
19:
5046:
5032:
5017:
5001:
4986:
4979:
4972:
4965:
4958:
4951:
4941:
4934:
4919:
4898:
4883:
4868:
4861:
4857:
4850:
4843:
4828:
4809:
4794:
4787:
4780:
4773:
4767:Bibliography
4743:
4725:
4716:
4707:
4697:
4662:
4658:
4648:
4636:
4626:
4619:
4606:. Retrieved
4599:the original
4586:
4574:, retrieved
4567:the original
4558:
4552:
4531:cite journal
4516:
4499:
4495:
4485:
4473:. Retrieved
4469:
4460:
4448:. Retrieved
4445:ResearchGate
4444:
4434:
4418:. Springer.
4414:
4407:
4395:
4368:. Retrieved
4361:the original
4348:
4332:. Springer.
4328:
4321:
4288:
4284:
4278:
4251:
4245:
4229:. Springer.
4225:
4218:
4209:
4190:
4184:
4176:
4168:
4159:
4134:, retrieved
4125:
4119:
4094:
4090:
4084:
4076:
4071:
4063:
4058:
4049:
4023:. Retrieved
4016:the original
4003:
3982:
3973:
3892:
3885:
3878:
3864:
3853:
3841:
3777:
3762:
3758:
3743:unaccusative
3739:imperfective
3647:
3483:
3438:(endangered)
3407:Nilo-Saharan
3397:Nilo-Saharan
3318:
3302:the Americas
3298:the Caucasus
3287:
3279:
3266:
3262:
3251:
3241:
3224:
3220:
3218:
3206:
3203:
3186:
3165:
3161:
3158:
3155:
3140:
3137:
3121:
3118:
3112:
3109:
3106:
3091:
3088:
3072:
3069:
3063:
3060:
3057:
3042:
3039:
3023:
3020:
3004:
3001:
2985:
2982:
2976:
2973:
2970:
2955:
2952:
2936:
2933:
2917:
2914:
2898:
2895:
2846:
2829:
2827:
2822:
2814:
2812:
2782:
2775:
2762:
2747:
2726:
2713:
2697:
2688:
2665:
2658:
2645:
2630:
2619:
2605:
2592:
2584:
2573:
2564:
2541:
2534:
2519:
2508:
2495:
2487:
2478:
2455:
2448:
2433:
2422:
2409:
2401:
2392:
2369:
2354:
2341:
2332:
2320:
2307:
2289:
2253:
2241:
2228:
2210:
2176:
2158:
2140:
2132:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2112:
2106:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2077:
2071:
2056:
2050:
2044:
2029:
2025:
2018:
2012:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1967:
1954:
1885:
1870:
1852:
1848:adding to it
1843:
1798:
1794:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1769:
1766:
1758:
1755:
1744:
1741:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1727:
1724:
1717:
1714:
1694:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1679:
1672:
1668:
1665:
1662:
1655:
1652:
1644:
1641:
1633:
1630:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1602:
1599:
1591:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1576:
1572:
1547:
1538:
1523:
1515:
1495:
1483:vašli č'ama.
1480:
1447:
1443:
1234:
1229:
1222:
1216:
1189:
1182:
1167:
1150:
1140:
1125:
1109:
1101:
1099:otokonohito
1088:
1086:otokonohito
1076:
1068:
1048:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1014:
1010:
1007:common nouns
994:
990:
982:
980:
953:
946:
931:
913:
902:
895:has arrived
886:
870:
862:
849:
837:
830:
811:
788:
778:
774:
759:
745:
729:
722:-languages.
717:
715:in general.
708:
706:
694:
693:
676:
659:
642:
625:
615:
609:
605:
599:
594:
591:
582:
578:
559:
555:
519:
496:
479:
444:
356:
350:
245:OV languages
223:VO languages
195:Null-subject
190:Head-marking
29:
4790:(1), 27–62.
4608:14 November
4576:14 November
4502:: 299–321.
4370:14 November
4261:1885/111434
3759:baxta qtile
3290:Mesopotamia
1925:saw mother.
1914:saw mother.
1715:yatka-ndha?
1631:nyarlu-nggu
1294:ergative A
1281:ergative A
1270:transitive
1256:word order
1075:男の人がこどもを見た
1040:homophonous
750:, then the
308:Color terms
166:Indirective
161:Secundative
5070:Categories
4884:Ergativity
4825:Ergativity
4783:, 123–142.
4776:, 966–995.
4681:10593/7433
4200:1794/12404
4136:5 December
4097:(1): 259.
4025:29 October
3965:References
3735:perfective
3697:perfective
3679:volitional
3667:Indo-Aryan
3617:Circassian
3603:endangered
3490:Wangkumara
3477:, such as
3468:Australian
3431:Burushaski
3366:Mixe–Zoque
3314:New Guinea
3267:transitive
3233:pragmatics
2885:volitional
2879:(also for
2873:transitive
2849:Hindustani
1804:Word order
1786:You saw me
1676:accusative
1526:daacemina.
1453:perfective
1163:Function:
1064:Sentence:
999:determiner
927:Function:
855:etorri da
827:Sentence:
738:behavior.
507:word order
475:accusative
471:nominative
463:absolutive
432:accusative
421:Hindi–Urdu
214:Word order
205:Theta role
141:Tripartite
4643:upenn.edu
4313:164022054
4270:0126-2874
3623:(extinct)
3566:(extinct)
3560:(extinct)
3554:(extinct)
3381:Tsimshian
3342:(extinct)
3336:(extinct)
3310:Australia
3259:semantics
3235:. Unlike
3229:semantics
3119:lar̥ke-ne
2983:lar̥ke-ne
2838:agreement
2813:The term
2740:(deleted)
2735:returned
2703:banaganu
2614:returned
2579:banaganu
2363:returned
2347:banaganu
2265:returned
2188:returned
2152:returned
1855:June 2008
1767:ngayi-nha
1645:kangaroo.
1569:allomorph
1221:particle
1022:("man"):
922:has seen
876:ikusi du
793:and most
736:syntactic
707:The word
499:syntactic
415:and many
407:(such as
367:") of an
104:Alignment
64:Synthetic
57:Isolating
5076:Language
5016:(eds.),
4858:Language
4741:(2011).
4702:239–256.
4689:55922477
4380:cite web
4173:McGregor
4145:citation
4035:cite web
3912:See also
3875:coinages
3693:Georgian
3643:Kurmanji
3574:Georgian
3564:Sumerian
3558:Urartian
3526:various
3484:Certain
3457:Yaghnobi
3426:Assamese
3323:Americas
3225:optional
3168:Kurmanji
1939:* Father
1600:yatka-yu
1449:Georgian
1430:smiles.
1420:smiles.
1402:smiles.
1392:smiles.
1347:kisses.
1316:kisses.
1133:arrived
1067:男の人が着いた
1051:Japanese
1036:gizon-ek
1032:gizon-ak
1028:gizon-ak
807:Tlapanec
799:unmarked
530:argument
467:ergative
411:and the
393:Georgian
313:Numerals
69:Fusional
52:Analytic
4305:1359671
4111:3623460
3796:subject
3767:Aramaic
3751:patient
3717:In the
3708:Tagalog
3706:(e.g.,
3627:Kurdish
3591:Lezgian
3587:Chechen
3552:Hurrian
3496:and an
3488:(e.g.,
3479:Dyirbal
3452:Sylheti
3447:Tibetan
3436:Chukchi
3294:Kurdish
3252:animate
3248:animacy
3209:Dyirbal
3138:khā̃sā.
3089:khā̃sā.
2934:xarīdtā
2867:in the
2859:), the
2770:intrans
2653:intrans
2377:intrans
2297:intrans
2218:intrans
2166:intrans
2125:, i.e.
2119:mother-
2090:, i.e.
2084:mother-
2028:, i.e.
1996:, i.e.
1981:, i.e.
1956:Dyirbal
1887:English
1881:Dyirbal
1867:Example
1678:suffix
1642:yawarda
1457:screeve
1433:Smiles
1405:Smiles
1350:Kisses
1335:kisses
1319:Kisses
1304:kisses
1175:intrans
1120:Gloss:
1107:kodomo
1094:tsuita
1083:Words:
1024:gizon-a
1003:article
939:intrans
881:Gloss:
768:oblique
709:subject
620:subject
538:subject
526:English
455:subject
451:English
440:Dyirbal
425:Semitic
401:Tibetan
385:subject
365:subject
299:Lexicon
5024:
5008:
4993:
4952:Lingua
4926:
4905:
4890:
4875:
4835:
4816:
4801:
4755:
4687:
4475:10 May
4450:10 May
4422:
4336:
4311:
4303:
4268:
4233:
4177:Lingua
4109:
3832:object
3828:Nepali
3804:object
3784:actant
3763:qim-le
3727:Ṭuroyo
3686:Pashto
3639:Sorani
3635:Zazaki
3631:Gorani
3613:Abkhaz
3540:Basque
3534:Europe
3462:Pashto
3393:Tedaga
3387:Africa
3308:, and
3304:, the
3263:active
3141:cough:
3092:cough:
3070:lar̥kā
3021:xarīdī
2896:lar̥kā
2865:agents
2834:Basque
2745:mother
2724:father
2719:buṛan
2628:mother
2617:father
2603:father
2598:buṛan
2517:mother
2506:father
2501:buṛan
2431:father
2420:mother
2415:buṛan
2352:father
2282:mother
2261:father
2203:mother
2195:father
2184:father
2148:father
2107:Father
2072:Father
2045:Father
2035:* Ŋuma
2013:Father
1928:Father
1917:Father
1906:Father
1756:nha-'i
1695:Where-
1653:nha-'i
1634:woman-
1553:Nhanda
1148:child
900:Martin
884:Martin
860:Martin
847:Martin
844:Word:
814:Basque
791:Abkhaz
409:Pashto
389:Basque
373:object
4685:S2CID
4602:(PDF)
4595:(PDF)
4570:(PDF)
4563:(PDF)
4364:(PDF)
4357:(PDF)
4309:S2CID
4301:JSTOR
4130:(PDF)
4107:JSTOR
4019:(PDF)
4012:(PDF)
3663:Hindi
3621:Ubykh
3599:Archi
3516:Papua
3473:Most
3361:Mayan
3187:but:
3005:book:
3002:kitāb
2918:book:
2915:kitāb
2853:Hindi
2790:trans
2673:trans
2549:trans
2463:trans
2315:trans
2236:trans
1879:) in
1742:nyini
1720:NPAST
1592:rain.
1589:pundu
1573:-nggu
1504:k'aci
1498:K'ac-
1438:her.
1410:him.
1356:she.
1338:him.
1307:her.
1197:trans
1115:mita
1020:gizon
981:Here
961:trans
911:Diego
868:Diego
564:pivot
534:agent
419:like
397:Mayan
381:agent
375:of a
5022:ISBN
5006:ISBN
4991:ISBN
4924:ISBN
4903:ISBN
4888:ISBN
4873:ISBN
4833:ISBN
4814:ISBN
4799:ISBN
4753:ISBN
4610:2012
4578:2012
4544:help
4477:2016
4452:2016
4420:ISBN
4386:link
4372:2012
4334:ISBN
4266:ISSN
4231:ISBN
4151:link
4138:2015
4041:link
4027:2009
3725:and
3702:The
3673:for
3641:and
3595:Tsez
3442:Hawu
3420:Asia
3413:Päri
3405:, a
3395:, a
3272:The
3257:The
3246:The
3231:and
3147:MASC
3124:MASC
3122:boy:
3098:MASC
3075:MASC
3073:boy:
3040:hai.
3024:buy:
2988:MASC
2986:boy:
2953:hai.
2943:MASC
2937:buy:
2901:MASC
2899:boy:
2875:and
2871:for
2857:Urdu
2855:and
2788:VERB
2768:VERB
2756:saw
2714:-ŋgu
2711:yabu
2707:____
2695:ŋuma
2671:VERB
2651:VERB
2639:saw
2593:-ŋgu
2590:yabu
2582:ŋuma
2571:ŋuma
2547:VERB
2528:saw
2496:-ŋgu
2493:yabu
2485:ŋuma
2461:VERB
2442:saw
2410:-ŋgu
2407:ŋuma
2399:yabu
2375:VERB
2339:ŋuma
2313:VERB
2302:CONJ
2295:VERB
2278:saw
2273:____
2268:and
2234:VERB
2223:CONJ
2216:VERB
2199:saw
2191:and
2164:VERB
2097:Ŋuma
2062:Ŋuma
2003:Ŋuma
1759:see-
1680:-nha
1658:PAST
1656:see-
1609:NFUT
1577:-lu.
1522:K'ac
1479:K'ac
1425:Her
1417:She
1397:Him
1353:him
1344:him
1341:She
1332:She
1325:he.
1322:her
1313:her
1265:VOS
1262:SOV
1259:SVO
1195:VERB
1173:VERB
1158:saw
1138:man
1123:man
959:VERB
937:VERB
805:and
803:Nias
748:case
734:and
695:See
436:Urdu
4677:hdl
4667:doi
4504:doi
4293:doi
4256:hdl
4195:hdl
4099:doi
3834:.)
3806:of
3798:of
3691:In
3684:In
3661:In
3589:,
3578:Laz
3276:or
3265:or
3207:In
3143:PRF
3132:ERG
3094:PRF
3083:NOM
3053:PRS
3043:be:
3030:FEM
3026:PRF
3015:NOM
3007:FEM
2996:ERG
2966:PRS
2956:be:
2939:HAB
2928:NOM
2920:FEM
2909:NOM
2847:In
2750:ERG
2729:ABS
2633:ERG
2622:ABS
2608:ABS
2522:ERG
2511:ABS
2436:ERG
2425:ABS
2357:ABS
2123:saw
2121:ŋgu
2116:(i)
2110:(i)
2103:(i)
2099:(i)
2088:saw
2086:ŋgu
2081:(i)
2075:(i)
2068:(i)
2064:(i)
2057:saw
2054:(i)
2048:(i)
2041:(i)
2037:(i)
2026:saw
2023:(i)
2021:ŋgu
2016:(i)
2009:(i)
2005:(i)
1994:saw
1992:ŋgu
1979:saw
1977:ŋgu
1960:OSV
1945:(i)
1941:(i)
1934:(i)
1930:(i)
1923:(i)
1919:(i)
1912:(i)
1908:(i)
1891:SVO
1850:.
1775:ACC
1761:PST
1750:NOM
1718:go-
1709:NOM
1705:2SG
1701:OBL
1647:ABS
1636:ERG
1605:ABL
1603:go-
1594:ABS
1575:or
1510:-ma
1389:He
1310:He
1301:He
1152:ACC
1142:NOM
1127:NOM
1015:-ak
995:-ek
916:ABS
905:ERG
889:ABS
863:-ek
809:).
720:SVO
687:NOM
682:ABS
670:ACC
665:ABS
653:NOM
648:ERG
509:or
501:or
351:In
5072::
4862:55
4860:,
4751:.
4747:.
4683:.
4675:.
4663:44
4661:.
4657:.
4535::
4533:}}
4529:{{
4498:.
4494:.
4468:.
4443:.
4382:}}
4378:{{
4307:.
4299:.
4289:32
4287:.
4264:.
4147:}}
4143:{{
4105:.
4095:42
4093:.
4037:}}
4033:{{
3991:^
3883:.
3681:).
3637:,
3633:,
3629::
3619:,
3615:,
3611::
3597:,
3593:,
3585::
3576:,
3572::
3316:.
3300:,
3151:SG
3128:SG
3102:SG
3079:SG
3049:SG
3045:3P
3034:SG
3011:SG
2992:SG
2962:SG
2958:3P
2947:SG
2924:SG
2905:SG
2891:.
2844:.
2698:-∅
2585:-∅
2574:-∅
2488:-∅
2402:-∅
2342:-∅
1951:.)
1682:.
1524:ma
1513:.
1481:ma
1232:.
1223:ga
1102:ga
1089:ga
1011:-a
991:-k
983:-Ø
871:-Ø
850:-Ø
517:.
489:.
477:.
399:,
395:,
391:,
383:("
355:,
5037:.
5028:.
4997:.
4930:.
4909:.
4894:.
4879:.
4839:.
4820:.
4805:.
4761:.
4691:.
4679::
4669::
4612:.
4546:)
4542:(
4510:.
4506::
4500:8
4479:.
4454:.
4428:.
4388:)
4374:.
4342:.
4315:.
4295::
4272:.
4258::
4239:.
4203:.
4197::
4153:)
4113:.
4101::
4043:)
4029:.
3714:.
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