750:"Blitzkrieg's real victor in 1940 was National Socialism. Hitler celebrated the successes of May and June in Nazi terms: as a triumph of will, informed by a consciousness of martial superiority that in turn depended on the racial superiority evoked and refined by the Third Reich. In that context, blitzkrieg played a central, arguably essential role in the "exterminatory warfare” that was Nazi Germany's true contribution to modern war making. Some forewarning was given by the treatment of the West African troops the French deployed in large numbers during the campaign's second half. The atrocities had historical roots: fear and resentment generated by French use of African "savages” in 1870 and 1914-18... After all allowances are made there is nevertheless no question that German soldiers, including men from the mobile divisions, disproportionately refused quarter to black combatants, disproportionately singled out black prisoners for brutal treatment including large-scale executions in non-combat situations, and justified themselves on racial grounds." (Dennis Showalter - Hitler's Panzers_ The Lightning Attacks that Revolutionized Warfare)
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and comparatively clean hands in the military sense, has been shattered and overshadowed by the bloody slaughters of civilians in numerous civil wars in
Liberia or Sierra Leone, to mass genocidal slaughter of the latter 20th century in places like Rwanda and the Sudan. Added to these have been breaches of discipline seen in the large number of military coups, and assassinations afflicting the continent, military breaches that would have been unthinkable under fighting leaders of old like Shaka of the Zulu, or Opoku ware of the Asante. Too often it is argued, some of today's armies distinguish themselves by torture and murder of unarmed civilians, but show little appetite for real fighting against well-armed foes who can shoot back – a stark contrast with the warriors of olden time – like the Ethiopian, Zulu, Asante or Kongo hosts, who confronted credible opponents with much better technology, and still won. A challenge to African militaries of the future is to restore this tradition of discipline and honor, and transform themselves once more to "armies of the people", according to some writers:
755:
identifying
African as sub-human racial enemies. Some researchers hold that the massacres represent a significant link in the Nazis' progressive racial radicalization of the war. While white British and French POWs were generally treated according to the Geneva Convention, not so the blacks, who were separated out from whites, North Africans and other colonial soldiers for special abuse. Massacres of the black POWs occurred in several different places, with some killings of a hundred at a time. Massacres did not just take place with POWs, but with wounded Africans on the battlefield, such as after African troops had recaptured Aubigny in a counterattack, but were later driven out. Some French reports claim an "indescribable rage" of German troops when they fought the black units, with no quarter given, compared to the white, a pattern contributing to far higher casualty rates among the Negro units than other French forces. Such indicators of racialization began with the casual killing of captured Polish and African "
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civilian life under the colonial regimes of their homelands. The mixing of
African troops with troops and civilians from other races however often made colonial regimes nervous. In 1918 for example, South Africa, forced to earlier deploy armed Africans to cover manpower shortages, removed its black troops from France, because "blacks in the French front were contaminated with foreign notions about race relations and other social grievances." The French employed a number of high-ranking black soldiers, such as Sosthene Mortenol, Commander of the Air Defenses of Paris. The exigencies and shared dangers of war also seemed to have created, in measure, more mutual understanding and freer communication between Africans and Europeans, although this did not translate immediately into a more just order in their homeland territories. Ironically, the last troops to surrender in World War I were the black soldiers fighting for Germany in East Africa.
725:"Most of the thousands of Africans who became soldiers had never been out of their native lands. On active service, despite the dangers and hardships, they were well fed and clothed, and comparatively well paid. Many of them learned to read newspapers listen to wireless bulletins and to take an interest in world affairs. They learned to see their own countries in perspective, from the outside. On their return home, many of them became dissatisfied with conditions which were not so attractive as army life in countries more developed than their own... Such Africans, by reason of their contacts with other peoples, including Europeans, had developed a political and national consciousness. The fact that they were disappointed at conditions on their return, either from specious promises made before demobilization or a general expectancy of a golden age for heroes, made them the natural focal point for any general movement against authority."
2128:"These armed men – and sometimes women – fought for territorial expansion, tribute and slaves; they also defended their families, kinsmen and their societies at large with their cherished ways of life. And when they fought, they typically did so with honor, sparing the elderly, women, and children... When colonial powers invaded Africa, African soldiers fought them with death-defying courage, earning such respect as warriors that they were recruited into the colonial armies not simply to enforce colonial rule in Africa but to fight for the European homelands as well. The French were so impressed by African warriors that they used them in the trenches of the western front in World War I, and African soldiers bore the brunt of German panzer attacks in World War II.. where they made a vivid impression on the far better equipped Germans.."
494:. Some writers (Lunn 1999) argue that towards the end of World War I, the black soldiers were increasingly being used as shock troops, and were absorbing three times as many casualties as white French troops. The French did offer such incentives as citizenship for those who fought, and French leader Clemeanceau pushed for continued recruitment of West Africans to fight for France, maintaining that it was better blacks were killed than long-suffering white Frenchmen. One in five West African combat soldiers who fought in World War I died in the war, compared to less than 17% for the French. Colonial troops such as Indian regiments in British employ suffered less.
1974:'In contrast, Chadian forces possessed nothing more sophisticated than a handful of older Western armored cars, and mostly relied on Toyota pick-up trucks mounting crew-served infantry weapons. The Chadians had no tanks, no APCs, no artillery, no air force, no infantry weapons heavier than the Milan antitank guided missile, and only the complicated and ineffectual Redeye shoulder-launched surface-to-air missile (SAM) for air defence, What's more, the Chadians did not operate their weaponry very well. Nevertheless, an army of as many as 20,000 Libyans was demolished by 10,000 Chadian regulars and 20,000 tribal militia during eight months of fighting."
390:, numbered 6–7,000. The remaining Riffians were tribal militia selected by their Caids and not liable to serve away from their homes and farms for more than fifteen consecutive days. General Goded estimates that at their peak the Riffian forces numbered about 80,000 men. Spanish troops in Morocco were initially mainly Metropolitan conscripts. While capable of enduring much hardship they were poorly trained and supplied, with widespread corruption reported amongst the officer corps. Accordingly, much reliance was placed on the limited number of professional units comprising the Spanish "Army of Africa". Since 1911 these had included regiments of
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forces generally conducted themselves "with honor" but future decades were to see numerous horrors and infamy. Peoples like the Asante, Zulu etc. fought hard and sometimes viciously, but this was within the context of their cultural understanding, at their particular time and place. There were no mass campaigns of genocidal extermination against others. Encounters with such
African military forces it is held, often generated the universal code of respect between opposing warriors who had seen combat- one fighting man to another. An example of this can be seen in British writings such as post-mortem accounts of enemy leadership at the
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2089:, and the struggle of warriors from tribes and ethnicities seeking land, resources and dominance against some defined outsider. The plethora of ethnic and tribal military conflicts in Africa after the colonial period- from Rwanda, to Somalia, to the Congo, to the apartheid state, is held to reflect this basic pattern. Others maintain that ethnic and tribal struggles, and wars over economic resources are common in European history, and military conflicts and development that these struggles aid or hinder can be seen as a reflection of the process of modernization.
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1935:, a pickup truck fitted with an individual crew-served weapon, has brought a comparative degree of mobility and firepower to fighting organizations within Africa, both military and paramilitary. While unable to match conventional armies openly in intensity of firepower and armor, the technicals and the weapons described above can cause significant harm when local light infantrymen fight on interior lines, and can deter the sustained intervention of foreign forces.
2137:"Africa's leaders of today and tomorrow must realize that the chiefs and kings who led Africa's many societies before European colonization took place were not dictators or tyrants who used armed forces to maintain their political power. The men and women, who fought their wars did so for many different reasons.. What they did not do was join with a chief, a prophet or a prince to seize political power and then hold it against the wishes of the people. They
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331:, carried out a ruthless cleansing campaign against the recalcitrant Herero and Nama tribes, who had risen in revolt against increasing white demands for land, labor and cattle. Several white farmers were killed in the rising and thousands of cattle were collected. General von Trotha counterattacked with well equipped modern troops, and refused Herero offers to negotiate surrender. His extermination proclamation, issued on October 2, 1904, read in part:
696:, a black colonial administrator, was instrumental in rallying the territory of Chad for the Free French, adding thousands of fighting troops and masses of equipment to de Gaulle's cause. Other colonial formations were made up of troops from north Africa. As the Germans were beaten back, African troops made up the bulk of the initial forces that participated in the liberation of France during 1944, including supporting the French crossing of the Rhine.
100:
17:
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182:. In some cases the intruders were welcomed as useful allies, saviours or counterweights in local disputes. In other cases, they were bitterly resisted. In some areas, the colonial regimes brought massive land confiscations, violence and what some see as genocide. In others they brought education, better security, new products and skills, and improved standards of infrastructure and living.
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world during the two conflicts opened up a sense of new possibilities, and opportunities. These were eventually to be reflected in demands for greater freedom in homeland colonies. The success of peoples like the
Japanese also demonstrated that European forces were not invincible, and post-war weakening of many former imperial powers provided new scope in challenging the colonial order.
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Many of those Herero and Nama that survived this slaughter were sent to specially erected concentration camps or to forced employment on German commercial farms. Hundreds of civilians died due to the inhumane conditions in the camps and on the farms. The liquidation of the blacks opened the way for the seizure of land and cattle and consolidated
European control over the territory.
1988:
433:
672:
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territory. But the invasion reached an abrupt end with the Soviet Union's sudden shift of support to
Ethiopia and was forced to retreat with almost the entire communist world siding with Ethiopia. Somalia's initial friendship with the Soviet Union and later partnership with the United States enabled it to build the fourth largest army in Africa.
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578:
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Italy had in plenty, and even exported, was on the list of sanctions that supposedly punished Italy. Although
Mussolini's aggression was viewed with disfavour by the British, the other major powers had no real interest in opposing him. One historian notes that Britain could have starved the Italian war machine to a halt simply by closing the
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1954:. Although Somali losses in the encounter were staggering and the Rangers carried out their assigned objectives, the affair prompted the United States to withdraw, ultimately leaving the field to the Somali defenders. Another tactically significant demonstration of today's African mobility was displayed in the
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African, Senegalese and
Foreign Legion units. French deaths in what had now become a major war are estimated at about 12,000. Superior manpower and technology soon resolved the course of the war in favour of France and Spain. The French troops pushed through from the south while the Spanish fleet secured
1911:. The post-colonial era however has also seen the emergence of numerous non-state military forces, such as terrorists, rebel guerilla organizations, ethnic gangs, and local warlords with various political platforms. Such non-state actors add to the instability of the African situation, and the growth of
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Likewise indigenous freedom forces fighting for independence indulged in savage fighting and some atrocities, but there were no wholesale massacres of tens of thousands. Indeed, some indigenous liberation forces went out of their way to spare combatants. It is claimed that this tradition of restraint
1995:
Contrasting with the small scale, more fragmented pattern in many parts of the continent are the modern forces of such major powers as Egypt and South Africa. Well equipped for air and ground fighting, such regional powers represent a significant illustration of the growing capacities of Africa-based
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The
British colonies mostly deployed African troops in both Africa and Asia. Thousands of white South Africans and Rhodesians saw service in the Middle East and the Mediterranean, while black soldiers were assigned to both logistics and support formations. Some black regiments however did see combat,
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any reason for aggression, but to no avail. Rejecting all arbitration offers, the Italians invaded Ethiopia on October 3, 1935. The Ethiopians were poorly armed with antiquated artillery, obsolete firearms, little armor, and some 20 outmoded planes. The Italians had over 200,000 troops in place, well
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and other African regiments of France demonstrate a similar pattern from Africa. Based on a variety of contemporary accounts, the performance of many African units was excellent, and both their German enemies and American allies accord them respect in a wide range of commentary, particularly fighting
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deployed hundreds of thousands of African fighting men to aid its cause, including some 300,000 North Africans, some 250,000 West Africans and thousands more from other regions. Over 140,000 African soldiers for example, fought on the Western Front during World War I and thousands of others fought at
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The military challenge in Africa is huge in the post-Cold War era. It is a continent covering some 22% of the world's land area, has an estimated population of some 800 million, is governed by 53 different states, and is made up of hundreds of different ethnicities and languages. According to a 2007
2003:
However, detailed open-source evaluations of Egyptian military effectiveness, remain skeptical of any great capability leaps, arguing at length that the same problems that held the Egyptians back in 1956, 1967, and 1973 remain. The initial success at Suez for example, was comprehensively beaten back
185:
The historical record shows destructive operations by both indigenous hegemony and foreign intruders. Some of the methods used by the colonial powers are also reflected in armed European conflicts. Murdered peasants, livestock and grain seizures, arbitrary quartering of troops, and massive theft and
1978:
Guerilla organizations, paramilitaries and other asymmetric elements also continue to make an important impact in local areas—threatening to overthrow local regimes as well as generating widespread misery and economic dislocation in various areas. Such patterns are not unique to Africa and are also
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had condemned the Italian invasion in 1935 and voted to impose economic sanctions on the aggressor. The sanctions remained ineffective because of general lack of support, and because they excluded key war-making material- iron, coal, steel and most critically, oil. Strangely, aluminum, a metal that
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in 1903. Sokoto's soldiers, whether horse or foot, had very few guns. The Caliphate's tactics were to attack in a series of set-piece battles, with thundering cavalry charges leading the way, followed by infantry armed with bow, sword and spear. As the fighting men surged forward into combat, their
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Yet other writers call for a renewed study of the past as inspiration for future reforms. They maintain that there has been a decline in African military systems from their indigenous foundations of the pre-colonial era, and early post colonial phases. In these eras, it is argued, African military
652:
The war ultimately gave substance to Italian imperialist claims, and contributed to international tensions between the fascist states and the Western democracies. It also sounded the death knell of the League of Nations as a credible institution according to some historians. These outcomes were to
552:
Be quiet and calm, my countrymen. What is happening now is what you came to do...you are going to die, but that is what you came to do. Brothers, we are drilling the death drill. I, a Xhosa, say you are my brothers...Swazis, Pondos, Basotho...so let us die like brothers. We are the sons of Africa.
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were to have important effects on African military development. Hundreds of thousands of African troops served in Europe and the Pacific and gained new military skills via their exposure to new forms of organization, handling of advanced weaponry, and intense modern combat. The exposure to a wider
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in disputed tribal territory. On 13 April 1925, an estimated 8,000 Rifs attacked this line and in two weeks 39 of 66 French posts had been stormed or abandoned. The French accordingly intervened on the side of Spain, employing up to 300,000 well trained and equipped troops from Metropolitan, North
335:
An estimated 75,000 Herero and Nama were slaughtered. Thousands were killed in battle and in the aftermath, victorious German forces chased the survivors into the waterless Omaheke Desert, physically preventing any from returning. Thousands of men, women and children died of thirst and starvation.
2011:
Further south, Somalia in July 1977 initiated the Ogaden War with Barre's government trying to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region in Ethiopia into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia. The Somali national army invaded the Ogaden and was successful at first, capturing most of the
754:
While the post-surrender killings were not ordered as part of official Nazi regime policy, archival documents indicate that the German army massacred several thousand black POWs belonging to units drafted in France's West African colonies, amid the background of a long-running propaganda campaign
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against the Riffians. The Berber tribesmen had a long tradition of fierce fighting skills, combined with high standards of fieldcraft and marksmanship. They were capably led by Abd el-Krim who showed both military and political expertise. The elite of the Riffian forces formed regular units which
177:
By 1900, the imperial powers had won most of the initial major battles against indigenous powers, or had occupied strategic areas such as coastlines, to secure their dominance. Colonies were established or expanded across the landscape- sometimes eagerly, as in the case of major mineral finds- or
532:
The impact of the European war was substantial in Senegal and other French African colonies. Many of the soldiers had volunteered, but the French also resorted to extensive conscription in its territories. Many of the African soldiers found army life in Europe comparatively more egalitarian than
359:
The Rif wars are relatively obscure compared to the well known Ethiopian victory at Adowa or that of the Zulu at Isandhlwana. Nevertheless, it was a significant demonstration of large scale warfare by indigenous troops, and fighters of the Moroccan Rif and J'bala tribes dealt several defeats to
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is but one example. Nor did the colonial era see a complete cessation of purely internal disputes and wars. These were much reduced from the 19th century due to the colonial conquests, but still occurred in some areas with varying levels of intensity. Some limited areas of North Africa, such as
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African-American pilot John C. Robinson was head of the Ethiopian Air Force during the Italian invasion. Numbering only 20 unarmed planes, the force could do little against modern Italian aircraft. Skilfully using the mountain ranges and cloud cover, Robinson however managed to fly numerous
2019:
have already been recognized for their professional competence and operational record, intermediate nations like Ethiopia also grow increasingly more sophisticated, adding to dynamic patterns of change and transformation illustrated from the earliest times on the continent, to the present.
194:
Whatever the balance sheet in different areas, it is clear that consolidation and exploitation of the new territories involved a large measure of coercion, and this often provoked a military reply. The exact form of such coercion varied- it could be land seizures, forced labor, hut taxes,
679:
Numerous Africans participated in World War II with black troops from France's colonial domains making up the bulk of the non-Europeans. Senegalese (sometimes a generic name for black troops from French colonies) put up a stiff fighting resistance against the Nazis during the great
742:
Some WWII historians hold that black troops in France during the Western Campaign of 1940 were singled out for more brutal treatment by Nazi forces, even after making allowances for victor's anger at the steadfast resistance of the Negro units, who, as some German reports noted,
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World War II was to have a profound effect on attitudes and developments in the African colonies. Dissatisfaction at inequities under colonial administration developed and had significant effects as the de-colonization/liberation era approached. As various colonial reports note:
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and J'bala tribes. Spain moved to conquer the lands around Melilla and Ceuta and the eastern territory from the Jibala tribes during the 1920s. In 1921 Spanish troops suffered a momentous defeat — known in Spain as the disaster of Annual — by the forces of
354:
Relatively small bodies of imperial regulars or European-led indigenous troops carried out most military operations in Africa during the post 1900 colonial era. The Rif wars however saw major formations deployed by both France and Spain to crush native
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The great Chief Amanquatia was among the killed. Admirable skill was shown in the position selected by Amanquatia, and the determination and generalship he displayed in the defence fully bore out his great reputation as an able tactician and gallant
281:. Traditional fortified cities and forts also made a poor showing and were usually rapidly breached by British artillery. Thus ended the heyday of the centuries-old West African cavalry-infantry combination. In Southern Africa the mounted men of the
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which would partition the country, handing three-fifths of Ethiopia to the Italians. Press leaks created public outrage that canceled the pact. Less than a year after the Italian invasion, the League voted to remove sanctions against Italy.
2251:
289:, as imperial troops implemented a blockade and scorched earth policy against their mobile tactics. This outcome paralleled general developments on the battlefield, as mounted forces gradually lost their relevance under modern firepower.
627:, on May 5. Italian operations included the use of hundreds of tons of mustard gas, banned previously by the Geneva Convention. The nation's leader, Emperor Haile Selassie, went into exile. In Rome, Mussolini proclaimed Italy's king
28:
Just before the 20th century began, most of Africa, with the exception of Ethiopia, Somalia and Liberia, was under colonial rule. By the 1980s, most nations were independent. Military systems reflect this evolution in several ways:
2103:..the French fought tenaciously; the blacks especially used every resource to the bitter end, defended every house. To break them we had to use flame throwers, and, to overcome the last Senegalese we had to kill them one by one.
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in the 1890s, was in 1934 one of the few independent states in a European-dominated Africa. A border incident between Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland that December gave Benito Mussolini an excuse to intervene. Ethiopian Emperor
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sometimes forced on the imperial center by the outlying actions of grasping or ambitious settlers, merchants, military officers, and bureaucrats. The complexity of African responses to the new order defies a simple narrative of
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by an amphibious landing, and began attacking from the north. After one year of bitter resistance, Abd el-Krim, the leader of both the tribes, surrendered to French authorities, and in 1926 Spanish Morocco was finally retaken.
2080:
Some writers argue that military activities in Africa after 1950 resemble somewhat the concept of a "frontiersman" – that is, warriors from numerous small tribes, clans, polities, and ethnicities seeking to expand their
2008:, leading to the cutting off of the Egyptian Third Army. Compared to previous Egyptian performances however, the Suez crossing represented a step forward, and showed an increasing sophistication on the battlefield.
267:
moved into the 20th century with its military system intact- the traditional mix of infantry and cavalry. New powers and technologies however were appearing on the scene. Some cavalry-strong states like the
1918:
The military landscape that these asymmetric forces operate in has been shaped by political instability and the massive introduction of inexpensive arms, such as the Chinese and Russian variants of the
675:
Black governor Felix Eboue was instrumental in transferring fighting men and resources of Chad and equatorial Africa to de Gaulle's Free French Forces. This 1943 illustration details his involvement.
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Raffael Scheck. 2005. The Killing of Black Soldiers from the French Army by the "Wehrmacht" in 1940: The Question of Authorization. German Studies Review. Vol. 28, No. 3 (Oct., 2005), pp. 595-606
2085:– "living space" or control of economic resources, at the expense of some "other." Even the most powerful military below the Sahara, South Africa, it is argued, had its genesis in the notions of
2066:
The appropriateness of international peacekeeping forces and bureaucracies in parts of Africa, with the mixed record of UN peacekeeping in the Congo or Rwanda raising doubts about their efficacy
439:, 1915. Over 500,000 African troops served in World War I, constituting a major manpower resource for France. French West Africans fought in every major battle, playing a notable role at Verdun.
381:. The Spanish were pushed back and during the following five years, occasional battles were fought between the two. In a bid to break the stalemate, the Spanish military turned to the use of
207:) in southwest Africa. African military responses in this "mop up" or "pacification" period of the century's first decades were diverse- ranging from minor rebellions and revolts, sustained
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During the conflict, African soldiers were not simply local enforcers of colonial hegemony, but also served as a major combat reserve for use in European conflicts. The case of the
745:"fought tenaciously, the blacks especially used every resource to the bitter end, defended every house.. to overcome the last Senegalese we had to kill them one by one."``
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movements were accompanied by loud music and drums These however were not enough, and assaults were quickly routed by the modern weaponry of virtually invulnerable British
195:
interference in local quarrels, monopolism of trade, small-scale punitive expeditions, or outright warfare of genocidal intensity as that waged by the Germans against the
1861:, and interior minister after the sacking of several military officials and a political crisis in which 48 MPs walked off the job and a vote of no confidence in cabinet.
644:, but while issuing public statements condemning Italy, the British government took no real action. During the invasion, senior British and French officials drafted the
520:"finally and above all superb attack troops permitting the saving of the lives of whites, who behind them exploit their success and organize the positions they conquer."
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for example, is spoken of with respect by some Western military analysts and demonstrates the degree to which some continental forces have mastered modern technology.
1711:
333:"Every Herero found within German borders, with or without guns, with or without livestock, will be shot. I will not give shelter to any Herero women or children.."
2101:
African troops fighting for France earned respect in some German reports for their tenacity during the Panzer Blitz of 1940. According to one German war document:
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was struck by another ship, the Darro, which was sailing without warning lights or signals, and made no attempt to pick up the survivors. Their chaplain, Reverend
272:, made sporadic attempts to incorporate weapons like artillery but integration was poor. Sokoto largely stuck to the old ways, was annexed and incorporated in the
311:
Guerilla warfare was a common military response in many areas of Africa during the early colonial era. The bitter 1904–1907 war between imperial Germany and the
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Distinguished African Americans in aviation and space science. Betty Kaplan Gubert, Miriam Sawyer, Caroline M. Fannin. Greenwood Press: 2001. pp. 253–254
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The harsh extermination methods of German commander von Trotha provoked an outcry in some areas of Germany. Thousands of Herero perished in the conflict.
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Black soldiers, white wars: black warriors from antiquity to the present. William E. Alt, Betty Sowers Alt. (Greenwood Publishing Group), 2002, p. 2-136
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Bruce Vandervort; Lunn, Joe; Killingray, David; Omissi, David; Page, Melvin E.; Parsons, Timothy H. (2001). "Review: The Thin Black Line of Heroes".
1907:, most modern defense forces in Africa are comparatively small and lightly armed, although many have a limited number of heavy weapons such as older
78:
2900:
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The Herero and Nama Genocides, 1904–1908, J.B. Gewald, in Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity, New York, Macmillan Reference, 2004.
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The British made use of Africans troops in Europe primarily as labor and transport troops. One such group of Africans bound for France, part of the
1938:
One illustration of the continued relevance of lightly armed Third-World forces operating on their own ground is the 1993 American intervention in
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Spanish forces in Morocco over their course. It took a massive collaboration by French and Spanish forces to finally liquidate resistance in 1925.
1807:
1389:
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One French commander, commander of the 58th Regiment on the Western Front favored the employment of blacks as shock troops to save white lives:
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The weak and fragmented nature of many collective security type arrangements – such as the AU (African Union) – weak clones of the NATO concept
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759:" in 1939 and 1940, and continued into the deliberate mass murder of millions of Soviet POWs after 1941, which was sanctioned as state policy.
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Lou Potter, Wimmiam Miles and Nina Rosenblum, Liberators: Fighting on Two Fronts in World War II, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich: 1992, pp. 22–29
2016:
548:, is reported to have rallied the doomed troops on deck for one final muster, referencing old warrior traditions as the waves closed in:
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The danger of giving militaries a bigger role in nation building and development. In Africa such activity touches on political power.
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extermination policy that even some contemporary Germans found repugnant. In August 1904, German colonial troops under commander
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21:
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tribe in today's Namibia is an illustration of this pattern, with tragic consequences for the indigenous resistance, including
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Libya, were still under the sway of non-European powers like the Ottomans, adding to the complexity of the colonial situation.
1825:
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forces held to the old methods- mass cavalry charges followed by the infantry. These were insufficient against modern weapons.
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looting by roaming armies for example, are common occurrences in various eras of European military history. Napoleon's brutal
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Raise your war-cries, brothers, for though they made us leave our assegais in the kraal, our voices are left with our bodies.
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465:
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Alon Peled. A question of loyalty: military manpower policy in multiethnic states. Cornell University Press, 1998. p. 20-42
540:(SANLC), met a sudden end in a 1917 maritime incident, that sparked sympathy throughout South Africa. Their transport, the
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211:, and full scale clashes. Only a few of these varying responses are considered here in terms of African military systems.
619:, the invading forces steadily pushed back the ill-armed and poorly trained Ethiopian army, winning a major victory near
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War on the Savannah: The Military Collapse of the Sokoto Caliphate under the Invasion of the British Empire, 1897–1903
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The Rif War of 1920, also called the Second Moroccan War, was fought between Spain (later assisted by France) and the
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Raffael Scheck. 2008. Hitler's African Victims: The German Army Massacres of Black French Soldiers in 1940. p 11-143
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Unrealistic expectations by the West about what Africa should be doing about continental defence and security issues
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The impressive 1973 Suez Crossing by Egyptian forces illustrated a new sophistication by modern Africa-based armies.
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1943:
595:
85:. Below are the major activities and events that shaped African military systems into the 20th and 21st century.
3544:
3479:
3434:
3394:
3599:
3519:
3469:
3409:
3389:
3379:
3329:
3294:
3210:
3085:
3075:
2880:
1928:
1924:
1657:
1627:
1176:
1142:
1044:
873:
768:
3529:
3439:
701:
3090:
2980:
2910:
1522:
1393:
666:
561:, Mike Boon (2008). The African Way: The Power of Interactive Leadership. Struik Publishers, 2007. pp. 91–96
154:
109:
1958:, which pitted an under-equipped and understrength Chadian army against 20,000 Libyan troops backed by 300
3201:
3150:
3070:
3035:
3020:
3005:
2960:
2895:
2695:
Anthony Clayton, Frontiersmen: Warfare in Africa Since 1950, Taylor & Francis: 1999, pp. 1–9, 115–157
2237:
Bruce Vandervort, Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa: 1830–1914, Indiana University Press: 1998, pp. 6–37
1803:
1793:
1695:
1249:
506:
470:
436:
136:
118:
2424:
See Joe Lunn, Memoirs of the Maelstrom: A Senegalese Oral History of the First World War, Heinemann: 1999
3247:
3025:
2823:
1931:. The traditional mobility of the horse and camel is diminished from earlier times, but the rise of the
1759:
1634:
1202:
1079:
784:
399:
395:
2511:
W. Manchester, 1988. Winston Spencer Churchill: The Last Lion – Alone, Little Brown and Co: pp. 160–178
2032:
The large number of international military efforts in Africa has raised questions as to their efficacy.
1036:
1012:
708:
in 1942, and the thousands of men of two West African divisions that fought with the British 14th Army
645:
524:
3125:
3100:
2950:
2945:
2925:
2890:
2875:
2749:
1485:
1245:
1074:
631:
emperor of Ethiopia and appointed Badoglio to rule as viceroy. In response to Ethiopian appeals, the
3197:
3188:
3179:
3110:
3080:
3065:
3050:
3040:
3030:
2995:
2990:
2940:
2885:
2860:
1364:
1304:
498:
415:
94:
2556:
Dennis Showalter. 2009. Hitler's Panzers_ The Lightning Attacks that Revolutionized Warfare, p 174
2312:
Archer Jones, The Art of War in the Western World, University of Illinois Press: 1987, pp. 387–463
2097:
2060:
The challenge of terrorism asymmetric warfare and how African forces shape themselves to meet them
1609:
558:
545:
387:
3120:
3115:
3055:
3010:
2970:
2865:
2846:
2657:
2407:
2292:
2198:
1106:
1062:
1030:
868:
846:
685:
502:
475:
402:("Regiment of Foreigners"), was also formed in 1920. The regiment's second commander was General
316:
2321:
Bruce Vandervort, Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa: 1830–1914, Indiana University Press: 1998
2639:
Ken Pollack, Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness 1948–1991, University of Nebraska Press, p. 3
1284:
51:
Wars of national liberation across the continent particularly the northern and southern regions
3175:
3095:
3045:
3000:
2985:
2965:
2955:
2930:
2870:
2806:
2716:
2696:
2623:
2193:
2110:
1818:
1500:
1275:
1134:
878:
689:
632:
328:
163:
3105:
3015:
2905:
2399:
2345:
2284:
2246:
2213:
2203:
1908:
1504:
1433:
1411:
1271:
1230:
1002:
950:
923:
796:
681:
612:
600:
587:
487:
403:
260:
219:
208:
2054:
The relevance of West Point or Sandhurst style training and thinking to the African context
2604:
1526:
946:
616:
382:
286:
278:
233:
99:
16:
2597:
2218:
1997:
1880:
1832:
1796:
1698:
1555:
1289:
1110:
709:
324:
273:
252:
187:
145:
127:
45:
432:
3662:
2296:
2159:
1661:
1648:
1354:
1337:
320:
312:
196:
179:
2271:
Burden of Empire – an Appraisal of Western Colonialism in Africa South of the Sahara
1967:
1904:
1715:
1234:
1085:
1006:
985:
914:
830:
779:
705:
662:
620:
603:
pulled all forces back 20 miles (32 km) from the border so as not to give the
448:
369:
586:
The Italo-Ethiopian War (1935–36), saw Ethiopia's defeat by the Italian armies of
2802:
2712:
2617:
845:
South African paratroops on border patrol. South Africa fought a long and bitter
2183:
1489:
929:
841:
813:
756:
693:
624:
577:
461:
444:
200:
244:
2520:
Baer, George W. (1976). Test Case: Italy, Ethiopia, and the League of Nations.
2349:
2288:
2149:
1955:
1811:
1748:
1719:
1591:
1543:
1459:
1382:
1378:
1358:
1326:
1220:
637:
420:
36:
Established colonial armies of mainly indigenous troops officered by Europeans
3239:
2252:
King Leopold's Ghost: A story of greed, terror and heroism in colonial Africa
482:. French West African troops fought and died in all the major battles of the
2664:, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, 2002, Chapter 2 on Egypt
2598:
The African Military in the 21st Century: Report of the 2007 Tswalu Dialogue
1987:
1740:
legalized by parliamentary vote but unrecognized by international community.
1375:
491:
391:
1970:
bomber aircraft. As one military analyst notes of the Chadian performance:
1915:
warfare and terrorism makes the military challenges in Africa more acute.
414:
In May 1924, the French Army had established a line of posts north of the
2041:), some issues affecting African militaries in the 21st century include:
1155:
591:
541:
671:
350:
42:
Weakening of European colonial power due to World War I and World War II
2798:
Barker, A.J. (1971). Rape of Ethiopia, 1936. New York: Ballantine Books
2411:
1996:
armies. The well-organized Canal Crossing of the Egyptians in the 1973
1959:
1939:
1758:. A new government is set up by a group of military officers headed by
1665:
1573:
1551:
1496:
1429:
1330:
1267:
1238:
1224:
1117:
1109:, a Lieutenant Colonel in the Libyan army, stages a coup to oust king
1089:
850:
410:
Entry of France into the war and collaboration between France and Spain
345:
303:
269:
264:
229:
215:
81:. For an overall view of the military history of Africa by region, see
2028:
2815:
1481:
1159:
251:
Armed with spear, bow and sword, and accompanied by deafening music,
2547:
Edgerton, Robert (2002) Africa's Armies: From Honor to Infamy. p vii
2403:
2096:
2045:
The continued need to build military proficiency and effectiveness
2027:
1986:
1947:
1920:
1900:
1656:
1547:
1368:
1308:
1283:
1180:
1069:
840:
728:
670:
576:
523:
431:
349:
302:
243:
98:
15:
2648:
Chaim Herzog, The Arab-Israeli Wars, Knopf Publishing: p. 212-267
60:
Continued strength of regional powers like Egypt and South Africa
2433:
Niall Ferguson, 2011, Civilization: The West and the Rest, p 187
1963:
1789:
1737:
1691:
1198:
968:
641:
282:
259:
West Africa's largest single state during the 19th century, the
222:, one of the major powers in the savannah regions of West Africa
33:
Growth of indigenous knowledge and skill in handling modern arms
3243:
2819:
2124:
According to R. Edgerton, historian of many African conflicts:
684:. These, African troops were also to form a large part of the
378:
48:
and the transition to the militaries of the new African states
2336:
Anthony Clayton (2000). "Reviews of Books: War and Warfare".
1113:
and installs himself as "Leader and Guide of the Revolution."
490:(where they were instrumental in recapturing a fort) to the
2764:
2762:
2048:
The threat of rebellions, coups and the need for stability
1895:
Rise of asymmetric warfare and the "technicals" generation
1078:) that results in the assassination of Lieutenant General
2039:
The African Military in the 21st Century, Tswalu Dialogue
225:
Guerilla warfare: the Herrero and Nama versus the Germans
57:
Frequent military coups against the post colonial regimes
1521:
Bloodless coup in Tunisia led by Prime Minister General
386:
according to Abd el-Krim, quoted by the Spanish General
69:
Continued challenges and evolution into the 21st century
2583:
Raffael Scheck. 2008. Hitler's African Victims p 11-143
608:
equipped with modern arms for air and ground fighting.
2754:
A Memoir of Lieutenant-General Sir Garnet J. Wolseley
2684:
Encyclopedia of international peacekeeping operations
2673:
Chaim Herzog, The Arab-Israeli Wars, Knopf Publishing
2093:
Inspiration from the past in African military systems
716:
Destabilizing effects of WWII among colonial soldiers
2495:
2493:
2004:
by the Israelis, first in the Sinai and then in the
1966:
tanks, thousands of armored personnel carriers, and
1179:
overthrows the democratically elected government of
623:(Ashangi) on April 9, 1936, and taking the capital,
582:
reconnaissance missions before the Ethiopian defeat.
3583:
3558:
3277:
3159:
3134:
2853:
1899:With the exception of a handful of nations such as
733:
African Troops in Burma during the Second World War
66:The rise of international forces and bureaucracies
54:Frequent tribal or civil wars across the continent
1576:cancels elections and forces President to resign.
1432:. Second republic president Shagari overthrown;
1072:attempt an unsuccessful coup d'etat (code named
3674:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa
2135:
1766:to act as the governing council of the country.
550:
63:The rise of asymmetric forces and failed states
2607:: May 3–6, 2007, Whitehall Report Series, 2007
2375:, pp. 149–152, Stanford University Press 1968.
2141:the people, not the accomplices of autocrats."
89:Rebellions, resistance and "mop up" operations
39:Rebellions, resistance and "mop up" operations
3255:
2831:
2507:
2505:
8:
2662:Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness 1948–91
2385:
2383:
2381:
2275:Harold G. Marcus (1968). "Review of Books".
2273:, Pall Mall Press. London 1968. Reviewed in
1784:allegedly attempted to instigate a military
1853:in Mauritania involving the seizure of the
1414:lead a failed coup attempt in that country.
3262:
3248:
3240:
2838:
2824:
2816:
2715:, Transaction Publishers: 1984, pp. 15–67
1764:Military Council for Justice and Democracy
1462:after a coup that overthrow the president
2593:
2591:
2589:
1664:peacekeepers during combat operations in
567:The Second Italian-Ethiopian War: 1935–36
2265:
2263:
2261:
1828:claims to foil a coup attempt targeting
688:that maintained French resistance under
77:. For events between 1800 and 1900, see
2619:Black Hawk Down: A Story of Modern War.
2308:
2306:
2230:
653:eventually culminate in World War II.
428:Impact of World War I and World War II
2803:Africa's Armies: From Honor to Infamy
2713:Africa in the Post-decolonization Era
738:More brutal treatment of black troops
7:
1979:seen in places such as the Balkans.
1390:Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army
692:, outside the continent. In Africa,
510:units from Morocco and regiments of
505:is well known in this role, but the
293:Guerilla warfare in Southwest Africa
79:African military systems (1800–1900)
2538:CR Gibbs, Africans in World War II.
2189:Military history of the Mali Empire
2174:African military systems after 1800
2015:While some fighting forces such as
1712:Attempted coup in Equatorial Guinea
704:in the conquest of Madagascar from
2711:Richard E. Bissell, Michael Radu,
2682:Oliver Ramsbotham, Tom Woodhouse,
2071:Future of African military systems
1782:United Front for Democratic Change
1129:1970s – warfare in southern Africa
14:
1088:comes to power through a coup in
819:Guinea-Bissau War of Independence
538:South African Native Labour Corps
3570:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
3340:Democratic Republic of the Congo
3146:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
2916:Democratic Republic of the Congo
2269:Gann, L. H. and Duignan, Peter,
2169:African military systems to 1800
2152:
2024:21st century military challenges
2017:those maintained by South Africa
528:German native troops in Cameroon
75:African military systems to 1800
22:Ethiopian National Defense Force
2392:The Journal of Military History
2277:The Journal of Economic History
1451:Cameroonian Palace Guard Revolt
1357:leads a failed coup attempt in
1158:seizes power through a coup in
596:unsuccessfully tried to conquer
2756:, R. Bentley: 1878, pp. 57–176
2338:The Journal of African History
1942:. Local militiamen downed two
1223:deposes Ahmed Abdallah of the
864:Mozambican War of Independence
466:African theatre of World War I
394:. A Spanish equivalent of the
103:Colonial map of Africa, 1913.
73:For events prior to 1800, see
1:
2255:, Pan Macmillan: London, 1998
1983:Major modern forces in Africa
1927:, light mortars, and various
1804:Malagasy Popular Armed Forces
1714:by South African mercenaries
1704:Second attempted coup in the
1248:overthrows the government of
710:against the Japanese in Burma
682:German Blitzkrieg into France
594:(Abyssinia), which Italy had
2460:Ferguson, Civilization p 185
2442:Ferguson, Civilization, p187
2209:Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba
1706:Democratic Republic of Congo
1682:Democratic Republic of Congo
1464:Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla
1139:Cuban intervention in Angola
853:from the late 1960s to 1989.
802:Eritrean War of Independence
364:Early defeats of the Spanish
3271:Military history of Africa
2740:Edgerton, pp. 2–12, 300–336
1756:Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya
1456:Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya
1205:, seizes power in Ethiopia.
1122:Military coup in the Sudan.
859:Angolan War of Independence
573:Second Italo-Abyssinian War
299:Herero and Namaqua Genocide
249:Last charge of the cavalry.
240:Twilight of the mounted man
228:Major warfare: the massive
3690:
3669:Military history of Africa
2686:, (ABC-CLIO: 1999), p.222.
2603:September 5, 2008, at the
2179:Military history of Africa
2006:Battle of the Chinese Farm
1944:Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawks
1546:is captured and killed by
1288:Nigerian troops with a US
1132:
837:Warfare in Southern Africa
766:
660:
570:
459:
343:
296:
92:
83:Military History of Africa
2350:10.1017/s0021853700357735
2289:10.1017/S0022050700101329
1929:multiple rocket launchers
1925:rocket-propelled grenades
1877:2013 Egyptian coup d'etat
1826:military of CĂ´te d'Ivoire
1274:and the rise to power of
443:The massive conflicts of
3325:Central African Republic
2901:Central African Republic
2801:Edgerton, Robert (2002)
2622:New York: Penguin Group
1628:Central African Republic
1325:Coup by Master Sergeant
1270:results in the death of
1177:Ignatius Kutu Acheampong
1143:South African Border War
1045:Central African Republic
1015:seizes power in Algeria.
874:South African Border War
769:Decolonization of Africa
2768:Edgerton, pp. vii, 2–12
1762:. The group formed the
1523:Zine El Abidine Ben Ali
1394:1981 Entumbane Uprising
1374:Failed coup attempt by
1367:leads a second coup in
1201:, a communist military
932:secedes from the Congo.
926:secedes from the Congo.
885:Coups and counter-coups
667:Western Desert Campaign
2143:
2105:
2076:Theme of modernization
2033:
1992:
1680:Attempted coup in the
1669:
1292:
1005:launches a successful
949:of Patrice Lumumba by
854:
734:
676:
583:
564:
529:
512:Tirailleurs Senegalais
501:, including its elite
440:
437:Tirailleurs Senegalais
356:
308:
256:
173:
25:
3485:SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe
3345:Republic of the Congo
3061:SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe
2921:Republic of the Congo
2616:Bowden, Mark (2010).
2113:against the Ashanti:
2100:
2031:
1990:
1890:The post-Cold War era
1760:Ely Ould Mohamed Vall
1660:
1642:SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe
1525:overthrows President
1287:
1080:Emmanuel Kwasi Kotoka
1068:Military officers in
844:
785:Perejil Island crisis
732:
702:King's African Rifles
674:
580:
527:
435:
400:Tercio de Extranjeros
396:French Foreign Legion
353:
306:
247:
102:
19:
2750:Charles Rathbone Low
1950:and killed 18 elite
1879:overthrew president
1806:allegedly attempt a
1486:Bazilio Olara-Okello
1075:Operation Guitar Boy
947:Overthrow and arrest
377:, the leader of the
218:: the demise of the
3560:States with limited
3136:States with limited
2847:Military of Africa
2037:Whitehall Report, (
1365:Jerry John Rawlings
1305:Jerry John Rawlings
1250:François Tombalbaye
898:Egyptian Revolution
629:Victor Emmanuel III
499:British Indian Army
317:concentration camps
188:occupation of Spain
95:Scramble for Africa
2658:Kenneth M. Pollack
2199:Kingdom of Matamba
2106:
2034:
1993:
1688:Failed coup d'Ă©tat
1670:
1633:Attempted coup in
1458:raise to power in
1303:Flight Lieutenant
1293:
1233:seizes power from
1107:Muammar al-Gaddafi
1037:Jean-BĂ©del Bokassa
1013:Houari Boumédienne
869:Rhodesian Bush War
855:
847:counter-insurgency
735:
686:Free French Forces
677:
584:
530:
441:
357:
309:
287:saw defeat in 1902
257:
174:
26:
3656:
3655:
3587:other territories
3360:Equatorial Guinea
3237:
3236:
3163:other territories
2936:Equatorial Guinea
2499:Barker, pp. 2–189
2373:Rebels in the Rif
2371:David S. Woolman
2194:Kingdom of Ndongo
2111:Battle of Amoaful
1909:main battle tanks
1819:Marc Ravalomanana
1647:Military coup in
1640:Military coup in
1626:Military coup in
1608:Military coup in
1590:Military coup in
1572:Military coup in
1501:Ibrahim Babangida
1495:Military coup in
1480:Military coup in
1428:Military coup in
1276:Olusegun Obasanjo
1266:A failed coup in
1219:French mercenary
1135:Angolan Civil War
1116:Military coup in
967:Military coup in
879:Malagasy Uprising
690:Charles de Gaulle
633:League of Nations
392:Moorish Regulares
329:Lothar von Trotha
171: Independent
3681:
3648:
3647:(United Kingdom)
3643:Tristan da Cunha
3639:Ascension Island
3631:
3618:
3609:
3585:Dependencies and
3278:Sovereign states
3264:
3257:
3250:
3241:
3224:
3223:(United Kingdom)
3219:Tristan da Cunha
3215:Ascension Island
3207:
3194:
3185:
3161:Dependencies and
2854:Sovereign states
2840:
2833:
2826:
2817:
2787:
2786:Edgerton, p. 257
2784:
2778:
2775:
2769:
2766:
2757:
2747:
2741:
2738:
2732:
2731:Edgerton, p. vii
2729:
2723:
2709:
2703:
2693:
2687:
2680:
2674:
2671:
2665:
2655:
2649:
2646:
2640:
2637:
2631:
2614:
2608:
2595:
2584:
2581:
2575:
2572:
2566:
2563:
2557:
2554:
2548:
2545:
2539:
2536:
2530:
2527:
2521:
2518:
2512:
2509:
2500:
2497:
2488:
2485:
2479:
2476:
2470:
2467:
2461:
2458:
2452:
2449:
2443:
2440:
2434:
2431:
2425:
2422:
2416:
2415:
2398:(4): 1067–1073.
2387:
2376:
2369:
2363:
2360:
2354:
2353:
2330:Risto Marjomaa,
2328:
2322:
2319:
2313:
2310:
2301:
2300:
2267:
2256:
2247:Hochschild, Adam
2244:
2238:
2235:
2214:Battle of Mbwila
2204:Kingdom of Kongo
2162:
2157:
2156:
2155:
1505:Muhammadu Buhari
1434:Muhammadu Buhari
1412:Kenyan Air Force
1307:seizes power in
1272:Murtala Mohammed
1231:Murtala Mohammed
1063:Kisangani Mutiny
1031:Kisangani Mutiny
1003:Mobutu Sese Seko
951:Mobutu Sese Seko
797:Mau Mau Uprising
646:Hoare-Laval pact
613:Rodolfo Graziani
601:Haile Selassie I
588:Benito Mussolini
562:
516:Armee coloniale.
503:Gurkha regiments
404:Francisco Franco
383:chemical weapons
261:Sokoto Caliphate
220:Sokoto Caliphate
209:guerilla warfare
180:good versus evil
170:
161:
152:
143:
134:
125:
116:
107:
3689:
3688:
3684:
3683:
3682:
3680:
3679:
3678:
3659:
3658:
3657:
3652:
3651:
3646:
3629:
3616:
3607:
3588:
3586:
3579:
3563:
3561:
3554:
3273:
3268:
3238:
3233:
3232:
3222:
3205:
3192:
3183:
3164:
3162:
3155:
3139:
3137:
3130:
2849:
2844:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2781:
2776:
2772:
2767:
2760:
2748:
2744:
2739:
2735:
2730:
2726:
2710:
2706:
2694:
2690:
2681:
2677:
2672:
2668:
2656:
2652:
2647:
2643:
2638:
2634:
2615:
2611:
2605:Wayback Machine
2596:
2587:
2582:
2578:
2573:
2569:
2564:
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2555:
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2542:
2537:
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2515:
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2158:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2095:
2078:
2073:
2026:
1985:
1897:
1892:
1527:Habib Bourguiba
1410:Members of the
1145:
1133:Main articles:
986:Simba Rebellion
887:
839:
827:
810:
793:
776:
774:Northern Africa
771:
765:
740:
718:
669:
661:Main articles:
659:
617:Pietro Badoglio
611:Under Generals
575:
569:
563:
557:
468:
460:Main articles:
458:
430:
412:
366:
348:
342:
301:
295:
242:
234:Spanish Morocco
176:
172:
168:
166:
159:
157:
150:
148:
141:
139:
132:
130:
123:
121:
114:
112:
105:
97:
91:
20:Soldier of the
12:
11:
5:
3687:
3685:
3677:
3676:
3671:
3661:
3660:
3654:
3653:
3650:
3649:
3632:
3619:
3610:
3596:Canary Islands
3592:
3591:
3589:
3584:
3581:
3580:
3578:
3577:
3572:
3566:
3564:
3559:
3556:
3555:
3553:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3281:
3279:
3275:
3274:
3269:
3267:
3266:
3259:
3252:
3244:
3235:
3234:
3231:
3230:
3228:Western Sahara
3225:
3208:
3195:
3186:
3172:Canary Islands
3168:
3167:
3165:
3160:
3157:
3156:
3154:
3153:
3148:
3142:
3140:
3135:
3132:
3131:
3129:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2857:
2855:
2851:
2850:
2845:
2843:
2842:
2835:
2828:
2820:
2814:
2813:
2799:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2788:
2779:
2777:Edgerton, p. 4
2770:
2758:
2742:
2733:
2724:
2704:
2688:
2675:
2666:
2650:
2641:
2632:
2609:
2585:
2576:
2567:
2558:
2549:
2540:
2531:
2522:
2513:
2501:
2489:
2487:Barker, p. 160
2480:
2471:
2462:
2453:
2444:
2435:
2426:
2417:
2377:
2364:
2355:
2344:(2): 318–320.
2334:– Reviewed in
2323:
2314:
2302:
2283:(4): 677–679.
2257:
2239:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2221:
2219:Battle of Zama
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2165:
2164:
2163:
2147:
2144:
2130:
2129:
2122:
2121:
2094:
2091:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2058:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2025:
2022:
1998:Yom Kippur War
1984:
1981:
1976:
1975:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1887:
1886:
1885:
1884:
1881:Mohammed Morsi
1865:
1864:
1863:
1862:
1859:prime minister
1839:
1838:
1837:
1836:
1833:Laurent Gbagbo
1822:
1800:
1770:
1769:
1768:
1767:
1741:
1726:
1725:
1724:
1723:
1709:
1702:
1685:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1652:
1645:
1638:
1631:
1616:
1615:
1614:
1613:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1595:
1580:
1579:
1578:
1577:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1559:
1556:Prince Johnson
1533:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1511:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1493:
1470:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1453:
1440:
1439:
1438:
1437:
1418:
1417:
1416:
1415:
1400:
1399:
1398:
1397:
1386:
1372:
1362:
1344:
1343:
1342:
1341:
1334:
1315:
1314:
1313:
1312:
1290:C-130 Hercules
1282:
1281:
1280:
1279:
1256:
1255:
1254:
1253:
1242:
1228:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1206:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1184:
1166:
1165:
1164:
1163:
1126:
1125:
1124:
1123:
1120:
1114:
1111:Idris of Libya
1096:
1095:
1094:
1093:
1083:
1066:
1051:
1050:
1049:
1048:
1034:
1019:
1018:
1017:
1016:
1010:
992:
991:
990:
989:
975:
974:
973:
972:
957:
956:
955:
954:
936:
935:
934:
933:
927:
921:
916:Force Publique
904:
903:
902:
901:
886:
883:
882:
881:
876:
871:
866:
861:
838:
835:
834:
833:
826:
825:Central Africa
823:
822:
821:
816:
809:
808:Western Africa
806:
805:
804:
799:
792:
791:Eastern Africa
789:
788:
787:
782:
775:
772:
767:Main article:
764:
763:Decolonization
761:
752:
751:
739:
736:
727:
726:
717:
714:
658:
655:
621:Lake Ascianghi
571:Main article:
568:
565:
555:
514:from France's
457:
454:
429:
426:
411:
408:
365:
362:
344:Main article:
341:
338:
325:scorched earth
297:Main article:
294:
291:
274:British Empire
241:
238:
237:
236:
226:
223:
167:
158:
149:
140:
131:
122:
113:
104:
90:
87:
71:
70:
67:
64:
61:
58:
55:
52:
49:
46:Decolonization
43:
40:
37:
34:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3686:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3666:
3664:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3633:
3627:
3623:
3620:
3614:
3611:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3594:
3593:
3590:
3582:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3557:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3400:Guinea-Bissau
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3282:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3265:
3260:
3258:
3253:
3251:
3246:
3245:
3242:
3229:
3226:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3209:
3203:
3199:
3196:
3190:
3187:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3170:
3169:
3166:
3158:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3143:
3141:
3133:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2976:Guinea-Bissau
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2858:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2841:
2836:
2834:
2829:
2827:
2822:
2821:
2818:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2797:
2796:
2792:
2783:
2780:
2774:
2771:
2765:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2746:
2743:
2737:
2734:
2728:
2725:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2708:
2705:
2702:
2698:
2692:
2689:
2685:
2679:
2676:
2670:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2654:
2651:
2645:
2642:
2636:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2620:
2613:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2599:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2586:
2580:
2577:
2571:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2553:
2550:
2544:
2541:
2535:
2532:
2526:
2523:
2517:
2514:
2508:
2506:
2502:
2496:
2494:
2490:
2484:
2481:
2475:
2472:
2466:
2463:
2457:
2454:
2448:
2445:
2439:
2436:
2430:
2427:
2421:
2418:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2386:
2384:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2368:
2365:
2359:
2356:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2333:
2327:
2324:
2318:
2315:
2309:
2307:
2303:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2272:
2266:
2264:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2240:
2234:
2231:
2225:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2166:
2161:
2160:Africa portal
2150:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2134:
2127:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2116:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2104:
2099:
2092:
2090:
2088:
2084:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2050:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2030:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2013:
2009:
2007:
2001:
1999:
1989:
1982:
1980:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1936:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1916:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1894:
1889:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1873:
1872:
1871:
1870:
1869:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1851:military coup
1848:
1847:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1834:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1820:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1808:military coup
1805:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1792:to overthrow
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1778:
1777:
1776:
1775:
1774:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1745:military coup
1742:
1739:
1735:
1734:
1733:
1732:
1731:
1730:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1710:
1707:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1686:
1683:
1679:
1678:
1677:
1676:
1675:
1674:
1667:
1663:
1662:African Union
1659:
1650:
1649:Guinea-Bissau
1646:
1643:
1639:
1636:
1632:
1629:
1625:
1624:
1623:
1622:
1621:
1620:
1611:
1610:CĂ´te d'Ivoire
1607:
1606:
1605:
1604:
1603:
1602:
1593:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1586:
1585:
1584:
1575:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1568:
1567:
1566:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1540:
1539:
1538:
1537:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1519:
1518:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1476:
1475:
1474:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1448:
1447:
1446:
1445:
1444:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1424:
1423:
1422:
1413:
1409:
1408:
1407:
1406:
1405:
1404:
1395:
1392:launches the
1391:
1387:
1384:
1380:
1377:
1373:
1370:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1356:
1355:Kukoi Sanyang
1353:
1352:
1351:
1350:
1349:
1348:
1339:
1338:Guinea Bissau
1335:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1323:
1322:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1297:
1291:
1286:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1264:
1263:
1262:
1261:
1260:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1229:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1217:
1216:
1215:
1214:
1213:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1195:
1194:
1193:
1192:
1191:
1182:
1178:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1171:
1170:
1161:
1157:
1154:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1131:
1130:
1121:
1119:
1115:
1112:
1108:
1105:
1104:
1103:
1102:
1101:
1100:
1091:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1077:
1076:
1071:
1067:
1065:in the Congo.
1064:
1060:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1056:
1055:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1035:
1033:in the Congo.
1032:
1028:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1024:
1023:
1014:
1011:
1009:in the Congo.
1008:
1004:
1001:
1000:
999:
998:
997:
996:
988:in the Congo.
987:
984:
983:
982:
981:
980:
979:
970:
966:
965:
964:
963:
962:
961:
952:
948:
945:
944:
943:
942:
941:
940:
931:
928:
925:
922:
920:in the Congo.
919:
917:
913:
912:
911:
910:
909:
908:
899:
896:
895:
894:
893:
892:
891:
884:
880:
877:
875:
872:
870:
867:
865:
862:
860:
857:
856:
852:
848:
843:
836:
832:
829:
828:
824:
820:
817:
815:
812:
811:
807:
803:
800:
798:
795:
794:
790:
786:
783:
781:
778:
777:
773:
770:
762:
760:
758:
749:
748:
747:
746:
737:
731:
724:
723:
722:
715:
713:
711:
707:
703:
697:
695:
691:
687:
683:
673:
668:
664:
656:
654:
650:
647:
643:
639:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
609:
606:
602:
597:
593:
589:
579:
574:
566:
560:
554:
549:
547:
543:
539:
534:
526:
522:
521:
517:
513:
508:
504:
500:
495:
493:
489:
485:
484:Western Front
481:
477:
472:
467:
463:
455:
453:
450:
446:
438:
434:
427:
425:
422:
421:Alhucemas Bay
417:
416:Ouregha River
409:
407:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
384:
380:
376:
371:
363:
361:
352:
347:
339:
337:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
305:
300:
292:
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38:
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32:
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30:
23:
18:
3635:Saint Helena
3606:
3510:South Africa
3500:Sierra Leone
3305:Burkina Faso
3211:Saint Helena
3182:
3086:South Africa
3076:Sierra Leone
2881:Burkina Faso
2805:Basic Books
2793:Bibliography
2782:
2773:
2753:
2745:
2736:
2727:
2707:
2691:
2683:
2678:
2669:
2661:
2653:
2644:
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2579:
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2326:
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2250:
2242:
2233:
2138:
2136:
2131:
2123:
2117:
2107:
2102:
2086:
2082:
2079:
2038:
2035:
2014:
2010:
2002:
1994:
1977:
1968:Sukhoi Su-10
1952:Army Rangers
1937:
1917:
1912:
1905:South Africa
1898:
1867:
1866:
1841:
1840:
1772:
1771:
1728:
1727:
1716:Nick du Toit
1672:
1671:
1618:
1617:
1600:
1599:
1582:
1581:
1564:
1563:
1535:
1534:
1513:
1512:
1472:
1471:
1442:
1441:
1436:takes power.
1420:
1419:
1402:
1401:
1346:
1345:
1317:
1316:
1295:
1294:
1258:
1257:
1246:coup in Chad
1235:Yakubu Gowon
1211:
1210:
1189:
1188:
1168:
1167:
1147:
1146:
1128:
1127:
1098:
1097:
1086:Yakubu Gowon
1073:
1053:
1052:
1021:
1020:
994:
993:
977:
976:
959:
958:
938:
937:
915:
906:
905:
889:
888:
849:conflict in
831:Congo Crisis
780:Algerian War
753:
744:
741:
719:
706:Vichy France
700:such as the
698:
678:
663:World War II
657:World War II
651:
610:
604:
585:
559:Isaac Dyobha
551:
546:Isaac Dyobha
535:
531:
519:
515:
511:
496:
469:
449:World War II
442:
413:
388:Manual Goded
370:Moroccan Rif
367:
358:
340:The Rif Wars
332:
321:forced labor
310:
285:forces also
263:of northern
258:
248:
204:
193:
184:
175:
72:
27:
3562:recognition
3515:South Sudan
3405:Ivory Coast
3138:recognition
3091:South Sudan
2981:Ivory Coast
2184:Mali Empire
1797:Idriss DĂ©by
1751:overthrows
1699:Idriss DĂ©by
1490:Tito Okello
1039:stages the
1007:second coup
930:South Kasai
814:Green March
757:Untermensch
694:Felix Eboue
625:Addis Ababa
478:and in the
462:World War I
456:World War I
445:World War I
375:Abd el-Krim
3663:Categories
3617:(Portugal)
3575:Somaliland
3495:Seychelles
3460:Mozambique
3445:Mauritania
3430:Madagascar
3385:The Gambia
3320:Cape Verde
3193:(Portugal)
3151:Somaliland
3071:Seychelles
3036:Mozambique
3021:Mauritania
3006:Madagascar
2961:The Gambia
2896:Cape Verde
2811:0813342775
2721:0878554963
2701:1857285255
2628:080214473X
2226:References
2087:lebensraum
2083:lebensraum
1956:Toyota War
1913:asymmetric
1812:Madagascar
1749:Mauritania
1720:Simon Mann
1635:Mauritania
1592:The Gambia
1550:rebels in
1544:Samuel Doe
1460:Mauritania
1383:Seychelles
1379:Mike Hoare
1359:The Gambia
1327:Samuel Doe
1221:Bob Denard
638:Suez Canal
507:Senegalese
379:Rif tribes
355:resistance
164:Portuguese
93:See also:
3450:Mauritius
3026:Mauritius
2297:153782510
2119:soldier."
1933:technical
1855:president
1830:President
1816:President
1794:President
1753:President
1696:President
1503:replaces
1376:mercenary
492:Armistice
476:Gallipoli
253:Ouaddai's
3641: /
3637: /
3630:(France)
3624: /
3602: /
3598: /
3550:Zimbabwe
3525:Tanzania
3375:Ethiopia
3370:Eswatini
3350:Djibouti
3315:Cameroon
3300:Botswana
3217: /
3213: /
3206:(France)
3200: /
3178: /
3174: /
3126:Zimbabwe
3101:Tanzania
2951:Ethiopia
2946:Eswatini
2926:Djibouti
2891:Cameroon
2876:Botswana
2601:Archived
2146:See also
1814:against
1736:Coup in
1694:against
1336:Coup in
1156:Idi Amin
900:in 1952.
592:Ethiopia
556:—
542:SS Mendi
3626:RĂ©union
3622:Mayotte
3613:Madeira
3608:(Spain)
3604:Melilla
3535:Tunisia
3505:Somalia
3490:Senegal
3475:Nigeria
3465:Namibia
3455:Morocco
3420:Liberia
3415:Lesotho
3365:Eritrea
3335:Comoros
3310:Burundi
3285:Algeria
3202:RĂ©union
3198:Mayotte
3189:Madeira
3184:(Spain)
3180:Melilla
3111:Tunisia
3081:Somalia
3066:Senegal
3051:Nigeria
3041:Namibia
3031:Morocco
2996:Liberia
2991:Lesotho
2941:Eritrea
2911:Comoros
2886:Burundi
2861:Algeria
2412:2677630
1960:T-54/55
1940:Somalia
1708:(June).
1666:Somalia
1574:Algeria
1554:led by
1552:Liberia
1497:Nigeria
1484:led by
1430:Nigeria
1381:in the
1331:Liberia
1268:Nigeria
1239:Nigeria
1225:Comoros
1118:Somalia
1090:Nigeria
1061:Second
1043:in the
924:Katanga
851:Namibia
640:to the
486:, from
480:Balkans
346:Rif War
279:squares
270:Tukolor
265:Nigeria
230:Rif War
216:Cavalry
201:Namaqua
155:Italian
146:British
128:Spanish
110:Belgian
3645:
3628:
3615:
3545:Zambia
3540:Uganda
3480:Rwanda
3435:Malawi
3395:Guinea
3290:Angola
3221:
3204:
3191:
3121:Zambia
3116:Uganda
3056:Rwanda
3011:Malawi
2971:Guinea
2866:Angola
2809:
2719:
2699:
2626:
2410:
2295:
1948:RPG-7s
1482:Uganda
1160:Uganda
1141:, and
1041:a coup
1029:First
918:mutiny
488:Verdun
471:France
398:, the
323:and a
313:Herero
197:Herero
169:
162:
160:
153:
151:
144:
142:
137:French
135:
133:
126:
124:
119:German
117:
115:
108:
106:
24:, 2006
3600:Ceuta
3520:Sudan
3470:Niger
3425:Libya
3410:Kenya
3390:Ghana
3380:Gabon
3355:Egypt
3295:Benin
3176:Ceuta
3096:Sudan
3046:Niger
3001:Libya
2986:Kenya
2966:Ghana
2956:Gabon
2931:Egypt
2871:Benin
2408:JSTOR
2293:S2CID
1946:with
1921:AK-47
1901:Egypt
1548:INPFL
1369:Ghana
1309:Ghana
1203:junta
1181:Ghana
1070:Ghana
3530:Togo
3440:Mali
3330:Chad
3106:Togo
3016:Mali
2906:Chad
2807:ISBN
2717:ISBN
2697:ISBN
2624:ISBN
2139:were
1964:T-62
1962:and
1903:and
1875:The
1868:2013
1842:2008
1824:The
1802:The
1790:Chad
1786:coup
1780:The
1773:2006
1738:Togo
1729:2005
1718:and
1692:Chad
1673:2004
1619:2003
1601:1999
1583:1994
1565:1992
1536:1990
1514:1987
1488:and
1473:1985
1443:1984
1421:1983
1403:1982
1388:The
1347:1981
1318:1980
1296:1979
1259:1976
1212:1975
1199:Derg
1197:The
1190:1974
1169:1972
1148:1971
1099:1969
1054:1967
1022:1966
995:1965
978:1964
969:Togo
960:1963
939:1961
907:1960
890:1952
665:and
642:Duce
615:and
605:Duce
464:and
447:and
283:Boer
205:Nama
203:(or
199:and
2400:doi
2346:doi
2285:doi
1810:in
1788:in
1747:in
1690:in
1329:in
1237:in
712:.
232:in
3665::
2761:^
2752:,
2660:,
2588:^
2504:^
2492:^
2406:.
2396:65
2394:.
2380:^
2342:41
2340:.
2305:^
2291:.
2281:28
2279:.
2260:^
2249:,
1923:,
1857:,
1849:A
1743:A
1499:.
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1137:,
590:.
406:.
319:,
3263:e
3256:t
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2839:e
2832:t
2825:v
2630:.
2414:.
2402::
2352:.
2348::
2299:.
2287::
1883:.
1835:.
1821:.
1799:.
1722:.
1701:.
1684:.
1668:.
1651:.
1644:.
1637:.
1630:.
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1529:.
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1492:.
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1396:.
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1371:.
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1311:.
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1183:.
1162:.
1092:.
1082:.
1047:.
971:.
953:.
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