208:
38:
153:
441:
495:
230:
2110:
168:
673:
591:
553:
183:
69:, particularly the hip-ball version of the ballgame. More than 1,300 ballcourts have been identified, 60% in the last 20 years alone. Although there is a tremendous variation in size, in general all ballcourts are the same shape: a long narrow alley flanked by two walls with horizontal, vertical, and sloping faces. Although the alleys in early ballcourts were open-ended, later ballcourts had enclosed end-zones, giving the structure an
685:
466:
191:
72:
220:
709:
697:
568:. Actually sending a ball through the ring must have been a rare occurrence. The players could not use their hands or even feet to guide the ball. Moreover, the rings were only slightly larger than the ball itself and were located at no small distance from the playing alley. At Chichen Itza, for example, they were set 6 meters above the alley, while at
620:, for example, 6 sculptures of prone captives overhang the apron, a pair at mid-court and a pair at each of the ends of the cornice. Unfortunately, rings, markers and sculptures are more portable and more prone to removal or destruction than the permanent ballcourt infrastructure, and at some ballcourts these features have been lost forever.
579:, court markers were also used on many ballcourts to establish the dividing line between teams – one set into the playing alley floor at exact mid-court, the other two placed against each side wall. However, such placement is not universal. Two ancient ceramic ballcourt models recovered from western Mexico show the three markers placed
252:
site, is only one-sixth the size of the Great
Ballcourt at Chichen Itza. Despite the variation in size, ballcourts' playing alleys are generally the same shape, with an average length-to-width ratio of 4-to-1, although some regional variation is found: Central Mexico, for example, has slightly longer
656:
propose that the depictions record historic events and in particular record a "form of play ... distinct from the game conducted on the courts", one that "probably followed immediately after on steps adjacent to the ballcourts". Other researchers are skeptical. Marvin
Cohodas, for example, proposes
82:
show ballcourts being used for other sporting endeavours, including what appears to be a wrestling match. It is also known from archaeological excavations that ballcourts were the sites of sumptuous feasts, although whether these were conducted in the context of the ballgame or as another event
532:
Most prominent ballcourts were part of their town or city's central monumental precinct and as such they share the orientation of pyramids and other structures there. Since many
Mesoamerican cities and towns were oriented to a few degrees east of north (roughly 15° east of north), it is not
462:
By the Early
Classic, ballcourt designs began to feature an additional pair of mounds set some distance beyond the ends of the alley as if to keep errant balls from rolling too far away. By the Terminal Classic, the end zones of many ballcourts were enclosed, creating the well-known
207:
511:
Unlike the compacted earth of the playing alley, the side walls of the formal ballcourts were lined with stone blocks. These walls featured 3 or more horizontal and sloping surfaces. Vertical surfaces are less common, but they begin to replace the sloping apron during the
602:
These sunken court markers are almost invariably round and usually decorated with ballgame-related scenes or iconography. Other markers were set into ballcourt walls. Many researchers have also proposed that above-ground, moveable objects, for example stone
141:
Empire, have relatively few ballcourts while areas with smaller competing polities have many. At
Cantona, for example, the extraordinary number of ballcourts is likely due to the many and diverse cultures residing there under a relatively weak
628:
Many – or even most – Maya depictions of ballgame play are shown against a backdrop of stairs. Conversely, Maya staircases will occasionally feature reliefs of ballgame scenes or ballgame-related glyphs on their
459:. This narrow ballcourt has an 80 m × 8 m (262 ft × 26 ft) flat playing alley defined by two flanking earthen mounds with "benches" running along their length.
990:
498:
Cross sections of some of the more typical ballcourts. Jacinto
Quirarte has classified Copan, Uxmal, and Xochicalco at Type I, Monte Albán as Type II, Chichen Itza as Type III, and
2171:
2405:
540:
Other than this general trend, no consistent orientation of ballcourts throughout
Mesoamerica has been found, although some patterns do emerge at the regional level. In the
472:
The evolution of the ballcourt is, of course, more complex than the foregoing suggests, and with over 1300 known ballcourts, there are exceptions to any generalization.
2000:
657:
that the "stairs" are instead stepped platforms associated with human sacrifice, while
Carolyn Tate views the Yaxchilan stair scenes as "the Underworld segment of a
583:
along the court: one (again) at exact mid-court with the remaining pair set midway between the walls at either end of the playing alley. The ballcourt markers at
1014:
556:
A ring at
Chichen Itza. This ring was set some 6 meters (20 feet) above the playing alley, making it extremely difficult to pass the heavy ball through the hole.
944:
Aveni and Gibbs. Other researchers give other estimates or averages, but there is a remarkable consistency across time and space to this general orientation.
137:
It is thought that ballcourts are an indication of decentralization of political and economic power: areas with a strong centralized state, such as the
748:
included in this total, since these are outside
Mesoamerica and there is significant discussion whether these areas were used for ballplaying or not.
152:
922:'s northern endzone is 3 times as deep as the southern endzone, perhaps due to the stairs gracing the northern end. Taldoire and Colsenet, p. 169.
1588:"The Politicization of the Mesoamerican Ballgame and Its Implications for the Interpretation of the Distribution of Ballcourts in Central Mexico"
1926:
587:
are also arranged in this manner. The ballcourt at Monte Albán, meanwhile, has only one court marker, placed at the exact center of the court.
182:
672:
524:. There the vertical surfaces were covered with elaborate reliefs showing scenes, particularly sacrificial scenes, related to the ballgame.
83:
entirely is not as yet known. The siting of the most prominent ballcourts within the sacred precincts of cities and towns, as well as the
2278:
1993:
637:, where 11 of the 13 risers feature ballgame-related scenes. In these scenes, it appears as if the players were actually playing the ball
95:
Although ballcourts are found within most Mesoamerican sites, they are not equally distributed across time or geography. For example, the
229:
1644:
167:
1907:
1864:
1776:
1742:
1699:
1611:
1568:
1537:
1494:
1447:
1400:
1294:
1248:
1205:
1162:
483:
Some ballcourts featured only one enclosed endzone (the so-called T-shape) while some ballcourts' endzones are of different depths.
2097:
1089:
1986:
2410:
1022:
433:
The earliest ballcourts were doubtless temporary marked off areas of compacted soil much like those used to play the modern
115:
and the northern Maya Lowlands have relatively few, and ballcourts are conspicuously absent at some major sites, including
1943:
37:
1514:"The Ballgame in the Southern Pacific Coast Cotzumalhuapa Region and Its Impact on Kaminaljuyu During the Middle Classic"
684:
223:-shape, as well as the rings set above the apron at center court. The setting sun of the equinox shines through the ring.
2390:
1011:
544:
region, for example, open-ended ballcourts with a north-south orientation were earlier than east-west enclosed courts.
486:
During the Formative period, some enclosed ballcourts were entirely rectangular, without endzones. One such court, at
2082:
1895:
1730:
1599:
1525:
1482:
1435:
1388:
1282:
1236:
1150:
653:
108:
2059:
1805:
2030:
1768:
1719:"'Bois Ton Sang, Beaumanoir': The Political and Conflictual Aspects of the Ballgame in the Northern Chiapas Area"
809:"Origins of the Mesoamerican ballgame: Earliest ballcourt from the highlands found at Etlatongo, Oaxaca, Mexico"
440:
2087:
537:, for example, ballcourt orientations also tend to be a few degrees east of north, or at right angles to that.
406:
324:
130:
The ballgame was initially thought to be originated in the coastal lowlands, yet a ballcourt was discovered at
104:
494:
2400:
2054:
2009:
1327:
708:
565:
513:
477:
96:
1635:
1466:
516:, and are a feature of several of the largest and best-known ballcourts, including the Great Ballcourt at
124:
31:
1796:
78:
Ballcourts were also used for functions other than, or in addition to, ballgames. Ceramics from western
66:
1884:"And Then They Were Sacrificed: The Ritual Ballgame of Northeastern Mesoamerica Through Time and Space"
1934:
989:
Kelley, p. 97. An example of a Western Mexico ceramic court (without court markers, alas) can be seen
2190:
2181:
1331:
820:
696:
303:
2109:
1963:
2395:
2077:
2067:
2017:
1556:
256:
The following is a comparison of the size of the playing alleys for several well-known ballcourts.
1760:
572:
they set at the top of an 11-meter-wide apron, 3 meters above the playing alley (see lead photo).
455:, along the Pacific coast boasts the oldest ballcourt yet identified, dated to approximately 1400
41:
Ceramic sculpture from a Western Mexican tomb showing players engaged in the Mesoamerican ballgame
2034:
1887:
1852:
1833:
1722:
1683:
1591:
1517:
1474:
1427:
1419:
1380:
1363:
1274:
1266:
1228:
1189:
1142:
1125:
1109:
1080:
741:
487:
1856:
1734:
1718:
1687:
1529:
1513:
1486:
1470:
1286:
1270:
1240:
1224:
1193:
1154:
1138:
499:
1899:
1883:
1439:
1423:
1392:
1376:
2236:
2092:
2039:
2025:
1955:
1947:
1913:
1903:
1870:
1860:
1825:
1817:
1782:
1772:
1748:
1738:
1705:
1695:
1656:
1648:
1617:
1607:
1603:
1587:
1574:
1564:
1543:
1533:
1500:
1490:
1453:
1443:
1406:
1396:
1355:
1347:
1300:
1290:
1254:
1244:
1211:
1201:
1168:
1158:
1117:
1101:
848:
598:
showing two players volleying. Note the rounded bottom that anchors the marker into the court.
590:
561:
552:
390:
368:
346:
50:
1691:
1675:
1197:
1181:
1034:
Schele and Miller (p. 247) say that "most" Maya depictions of ballgame action include stairs.
2316:
2231:
1809:
1794:
Uriarte, Maria Teresa (January 2006). "The Teotihuacan Ballgame and the Beginning of Time".
1630:
1555:
Quirarte, Jacinto (1975). "The Ballcourt in Mesoamerica: Its Architectural Development". In
1339:
1318:
1093:
1078:; Sharon L. Gibbs (1976). "On the Orientation of Precolumbian Buildings in Central Mexico".
838:
828:
605:
534:
448:
616:, and other stonework were also important components of the ballcourt. At the ballcourt at
2196:
2185:
1018:
740:
Taladoire, p. 98. Note that there are slightly over 200 ballcourts also identified in the
143:
87:
found buried there, demonstrates that the ballcourts were places of spectacle and ritual.
1335:
824:
2311:
2146:
843:
808:
298:
236:
84:
2384:
2369:
1846:
1837:
1313:
1225:"The Lords of Light versus the Lords of Dark: The Postclassic Highland Maya Ballgame"
1129:
1075:
731:
Cohodas states that the masonry courts were used "exclusively" for the hip-ball game.
576:
541:
1052:
This is only a brief summary of Cohodas' viewpoint – for a full version, see p. 264.
2336:
1367:
649:
517:
434:
340:
159:
465:
219:
190:
71:
30:"Ballcourt" redirects here. For courts on which other ball games are played, see
2349:
2246:
2201:
2141:
199:
116:
111:, a nearby contemporaneous site, sets the record with 24. In contrast, Northern
62:
1978:
1851:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the
1682:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the
1188:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the
1002:
Whittington, p. 168-169, shows a fine example of a parrot head from Xochicalco.
2306:
2072:
2049:
1813:
919:
642:
569:
456:
279:
214:
174:
1951:
1821:
1652:
1359:
1351:
1105:
476:
Open ballcourts (i.e. without endzones) continued to be constructed into the
2354:
2131:
1959:
1917:
1874:
1829:
1786:
1752:
1709:
1660:
1621:
1547:
1504:
1457:
1410:
1304:
1258:
1215:
1172:
658:
634:
595:
452:
384:
131:
1578:
1121:
852:
833:
617:
633:. The most famous of these are the Hieroglyphic Stairs at Structure 33 in
2251:
2126:
2118:
630:
521:
319:
195:
120:
100:
17:
766:
Zender, p. 10, who cites John Gerard Fox (1996) "Playing with Power" in
2301:
2291:
2241:
2221:
2136:
112:
58:
1377:"The Known Archaeological Ballcourts of Durango and Zacatecas, Mexico"
1113:
2364:
2359:
2344:
2268:
2226:
2216:
2206:
2176:
411:
79:
648:
The association of stairs and the ballgame is not well understood.
1927:"Glyphs for "Handspan" and "Strike" in Classic Maya Ballgame Texts"
1097:
2326:
2321:
2263:
2211:
2161:
2156:
2151:
1343:
613:
589:
584:
551:
493:
444:
Ballcourt terminology. Not all ballcourts have all these surfaces.
439:
362:
249:
138:
36:
1586:
Santley, Robert M.; Michael J. Berman; Rami T. Alexander (1991).
2296:
2258:
2166:
2044:
1139:"Ballgame imagery of the Maya Lowlands: History and Iconography"
1982:
253:
playing alleys, and the Maya Northern Lowlands slightly wider.
1968:
248:
Ballcourts vary considerably in size. One of the smallest, at
935:-style ballcourts, after the Spanish word for basin (p. 106).
1676:"The Architectural Background of the Pre-Hispanic Ballgame"
1424:"Pre-Hispanic Ballcourts from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico"
134:
in the mountains of southern Mexico, dating to 1374 BCE.
1418:
Kowalewski, Stephen A.; Gary M. Feinman; Laura Finsten;
807:
Blomster, Jeffrey P.; Salazar Chávez, Víctor E. (2020).
490:
in the Guatemala Highlands, features rounded side walls.
1848:
The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1680:
The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1186:
The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame
641:
the stairs in what would seem to be a Maya version of
1563:. Palo Alto, CA: Peek Publications. pp. 63–69.
1316:(1998). "Ball court design dates back 3,400 years".
2335:
2277:
2117:
2016:
910:
See Hill, Blake, and Clark (1998); Schuster (1998).
1765:Yaxchilan: The Design of a Maya Ceremonial City
678:One of two Mesoamerican ballgame courts at Cobá
1012:The Hudson Museum, University of Maine website
437:game, the Mesoamerican ballgame's descendant.
1994:
931:Quirarte. Taladoire refers to this type as a
8:
1631:"Newsbriefs: Mesoamerica's Oldest Ballcourt"
1561:Pre-Columbian Art History: Selected Readings
564:into the wall at mid-court, appeared in the
103:, the largest city of the ballgame-obsessed
2406:Indigenous sports and games of the Americas
2001:
1987:
1979:
1629:Schuster, Angela M.H. (July–August 1998).
1471:"Ballcourts of the Northern Maya Lowlands"
32:Court (disambiguation) § Architecture
1717:Taladoire, Eric; Benoit Colsenet (1991).
842:
832:
1465:Kurjack, Edward B.; Ruben Maldonado C.;
258:
724:
668:
148:
690:The Tehuacalco Mesoamerican ball court
520:and the North and South Ballcourts at
65:for more than 2,700 years to play the
1855:, Charlotte, NC ed.). New York:
1686:, Charlotte, NC ed.). New York:
1192:, Charlotte, NC ed.). New York:
7:
1944:Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute
594:Court marker from the Mayan site of
1678:. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.).
1645:Archaeological Institute of America
1184:. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.).
609:, were also used as court markers.
107:, has at least 18 ballcourts while
874:Day, p. 76, and Taladoire, p. 114.
548:Rings, markers, and other features
25:
1882:Wilkerson, S. Jeffrey K. (1991).
788:Kurjack, Maldonado C., Robertson.
2108:
1845:Whittington, E. Michael (2001).
1312:Hill, Warren D.; Michael Blake;
1090:Society for American Archaeology
707:
695:
683:
671:
464:
228:
218:
206:
189:
181:
166:
151:
70:
533:surprising to find that in the
75:-shape when viewed from above.
1:
1326:(6679). London and New York:
2010:Native American architecture
1925:Zender, Mark (Spring 2004).
1180:Day, Jane Stevenson (2001).
421:
418:
415:
410:
400:
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372:
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302:
292:
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286:
283:
61:structure of a type used in
1896:University of Arizona Press
1731:University of Arizona Press
1600:University of Arizona Press
1526:University of Arizona Press
1483:University of Arizona Press
1436:University of Arizona Press
1389:University of Arizona Press
1375:Kelley, J. Charles (1991).
1283:University of Arizona Press
1237:University of Arizona Press
1151:University of Arizona Press
173:Mesoamerican ball court at
2427:
1890:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1806:Cambridge University Press
1725:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1594:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1520:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1477:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1430:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1383:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1277:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1271:"Ballgames and Boundaries"
1231:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1145:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1043:Schele and Miller, p. 247.
217:. Note the characteristic
29:
27:Pre-Columbian sports venue
2106:
1892:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1814:10.1017/S0956536106060032
1769:University of Texas Press
1727:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1596:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1522:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1479:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1432:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1385:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1279:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1233:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1182:"Performing on the Court"
1147:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
953:Kowalewski et al., p. 38.
213:One of the ballcourts at
1942:(4). San Francisco, CA:
1674:Taladoire, Eric (2001).
1512:Parsons, Lee A. (1991).
1137:Cohodas, Marvin (1991).
714:poc-ta-tok field, Mexico
105:Classic Veracruz culture
1328:Nature Publishing Group
779:Taladoire and Colsenet.
54:
1467:Merle Greene Robertson
1025:, among other sources.
1023:British Museum website
865:Santley et al., p. 14.
834:10.1126/sciadv.aay6964
599:
557:
503:
445:
274:length-to-width ratio
47:Mesoamerican ballcourt
42:
2411:Sports venues by type
1559:; Jean Stern (eds.).
1223:Fox, John W. (1991).
901:Quirarte, p. 205-208.
593:
555:
497:
480:and at smaller sites.
443:
194:-shape ball court in
67:Mesoamerican ballgame
40:
2182:Mesoamerican pyramid
1971:online reproduction)
892:Quirarte, p.209-210.
768:Current Anthropology
612:Various sculptures,
566:Terminal Classic era
2391:Mesoamerican sports
2098:Territorial Revival
1857:Thames & Hudson
1797:Ancient Mesoamerica
1688:Thames & Hudson
1557:Alana Cordy-Collins
1336:1998Natur.392..878H
1267:Gillespie, Susan D.
1194:Thames & Hudson
825:2020SciA....6.6964B
365:(Small ceremonial)
158:Great Ballcourt at
1888:Vernon Scarborough
1853:Mint Museum of Art
1723:Vernon Scarborough
1684:Mint Museum of Art
1592:Vernon Scarborough
1518:Vernon Scarborough
1475:Vernon Scarborough
1428:Vernon Scarborough
1420:Richard E. Blanton
1381:Vernon Scarborough
1275:Vernon Scarborough
1229:Vernon Scarborough
1190:Mint Museum of Art
1143:Vernon Scarborough
1088:(4). Menasha, WI:
1081:American Antiquity
1017:2007-12-01 at the
742:American Southwest
600:
558:
507:Walls and surfaces
504:
446:
343:(Grand Ballcourt)
235:Ballgame court at
43:
2378:
2377:
1076:Aveni, Anthony F.
797:Taladoire, p. 99.
426:
425:
51:Nahuatl languages
16:(Redirected from
2418:
2112:
2003:
1996:
1989:
1980:
1974:
1972:
1962:. Archived from
1935:The PARI Journal
1931:
1921:
1878:
1841:
1804:(1). Cambridge:
1790:
1761:Tate, Carolyn E.
1756:
1713:
1670:
1668:
1667:
1625:
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1308:
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1176:
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1035:
1032:
1026:
1009:
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994:
987:
981:
978:
972:
971:Parsons, p. 200.
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945:
942:
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702:Yagul Ball Court
699:
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675:
535:Valley of Oaxaca
478:Terminal Classic
468:
449:Paso de la Amada
325:Classic Veracruz
268:length (meters)
259:
232:
222:
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193:
185:
170:
155:
74:
21:
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1643:(4). New York:
1628:
1614:
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1511:
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1464:
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1417:
1403:
1374:
1311:
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1222:
1208:
1179:
1165:
1136:
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1038:
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1019:Wayback Machine
1010:
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943:
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930:
926:
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914:
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883:Uriarte, p. 23.
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271:width (meters)
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85:votive deposits
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2401:Ancient sports
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2119:Building types
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2014:
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2008:
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1998:
1991:
1983:
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1973:on 2008-09-10.
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1908:
1879:
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1098:10.2307/279020
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244:Size and shape
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2370:Talud-tablero
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2191:Twin-pyramids
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2060:Mayan Revival
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2032:
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2019:
2015:
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1909:0-8165-1360-0
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1344:10.1038/31837
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1314:John E. Clark
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665:Image gallery
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588:
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582:
578:
577:Aztec codices
573:
571:
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560:Stone rings,
554:
547:
545:
543:
542:Cotzumalhuapa
538:
536:
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60:
57:) is a large
56:
52:
48:
39:
33:
19:
2286:
2147:Guachimontón
2031:Mesoamerican
1964:the original
1939:
1933:
1891:
1847:
1801:
1795:
1764:
1726:
1679:
1664:. Retrieved
1640:
1634:
1595:
1560:
1521:
1478:
1431:
1384:
1323:
1317:
1278:
1232:
1185:
1146:
1085:
1079:
1061:Tate, p. 97.
1057:
1048:
1039:
1030:
1007:
998:
985:
976:
967:
958:
949:
940:
932:
927:
915:
906:
897:
888:
879:
870:
861:
816:
812:
802:
793:
784:
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767:
762:
753:
745:
736:
727:
650:Linda Schele
647:
638:
627:
611:
604:
601:
580:
575:As shown on
574:
559:
539:
531:
518:Chichen Itza
510:
471:
461:
447:
432:
341:Chichen Itza
255:
247:
160:Chichen Itza
136:
129:
97:Late Classic
94:
91:Distribution
77:
46:
44:
2350:Corbel arch
2317:Rope bridge
2247:Sweat lodge
2202:Plank house
2142:Earth lodge
2093:Territorial
2055:San Bartolo
1898:. pp.
1733:. pp.
1690:. pp.
1636:Archaeology
1602:. pp.
1528:. pp.
1485:. pp.
1438:. pp.
1391:. pp.
1330:: 878–879.
1285:. pp.
1239:. pp.
1196:. pp.
1153:. pp.
1092:: 510–517.
757:Day, p. 69.
654:Mary Miller
624:Maya stairs
581:length-wise
528:Orientation
514:Classic era
502:as Type IV.
488:La Lagunita
299:Monte Albán
284:Xochicalco
237:Monte Albán
200:El Salvador
117:Teotihuacan
63:Mesoamerica
2396:Ball games
2385:Categories
2307:Moki steps
2279:Structures
2073:Neo-Andean
1894:. Tucson:
1767:. Austin:
1729:. Tucson:
1666:2007-06-08
1598:. Tucson:
1524:. Tucson:
1481:. Tucson:
1434:. Tucson:
1387:. Tucson:
1281:. Tucson:
1235:. Tucson:
1149:. Tucson:
1068:References
962:Taladoire.
920:Chinkultic
744:which are
643:stoop ball
570:Xochicalco
500:Toluquilla
280:Xochicalco
215:Xochicalco
175:Teotenango
125:Tortuguero
2355:Roof comb
2287:Ballcourt
2172:Longhouse
2132:Corn crib
1952:1531-5398
1838:162613065
1822:0956-5361
1808:: 17–38.
1653:0003-8113
1360:204441622
1352:0028-0836
1130:162233018
1106:0002-7316
980:Quirarte.
933:palangana
659:cosmogram
635:Yaxchilan
596:Lubaantun
453:Soconusco
429:Evolution
385:Yaxchilan
132:Etlatongo
18:Ballcourt
2337:Elements
2252:Temazcal
2127:Barabara
1960:44780248
1918:51873028
1875:49029226
1830:88827568
1787:23464300
1763:(1991).
1753:51873028
1710:49029226
1661:89268419
1622:51873028
1548:51873028
1505:51873028
1469:(1991).
1458:51873028
1422:(1991).
1411:51873028
1305:51873028
1269:(1991).
1259:51873028
1216:49029226
1173:51873028
1021:and the
1015:Archived
853:32201726
522:El Tajin
469:-shape.
320:El Tajin
265:Culture
196:Cihuatan
188:Classic
121:Bonampak
101:El Tajin
99:site of
55:tlachtli
2302:E-Group
2292:Chultun
2242:Shabono
2222:Quiggly
2186:Triadic
2137:Chickee
2083:Revival
2050:Río Bec
1735:167–174
1579:3843930
1530:195–212
1487:145–159
1368:4394291
1332:Bibcode
1287:317–345
1241:213–238
1155:251–288
1122:1479302
844:7069692
821:Bibcode
639:against
562:tenoned
304:Zapotec
113:Chiapas
109:Cantona
59:masonry
2365:Sipapu
2360:Sascab
2345:Ashlar
2269:Wigwam
2232:Ramada
2227:Qullqa
2217:Qarmaq
2207:Pukara
2177:Maloca
2078:Pueblo
2068:Muisca
2018:Styles
1958:
1950:
1916:
1906:
1873:
1863:
1836:
1828:
1820:
1785:
1775:
1751:
1741:
1708:
1698:
1692:97–115
1659:
1651:
1647:: 22.
1620:
1610:
1577:
1567:
1546:
1536:
1503:
1493:
1456:
1446:
1409:
1399:
1393:87–100
1366:
1358:
1350:
1319:Nature
1303:
1293:
1257:
1247:
1214:
1204:
1171:
1161:
1128:
1120:
1114:279020
1112:
1104:
851:
841:
631:risers
618:Tonina
614:stelae
606:hachas
412:Toltec
198:site,
123:, and
80:Mexico
2327:Ushnu
2322:Sacbe
2264:Tupiq
2212:Qargi
2162:Jacal
2157:Igloo
2152:Hogan
2035:Aztec
1930:(PDF)
1900:45–71
1886:. In
1834:S2CID
1721:. In
1590:. In
1516:. In
1473:. In
1440:25–44
1426:. In
1379:. In
1364:S2CID
1273:. In
1227:. In
1198:65–77
1141:. In
1126:S2CID
1110:JSTOR
720:Notes
585:Copan
435:ulama
363:Tikal
354:30.4
262:Site
250:Tikal
144:state
139:Aztec
2297:Cuel
2259:Tipi
2237:Ruka
2167:Kiva
2088:Deco
2045:Puuc
2040:Maya
2026:Inca
1956:OCLC
1948:ISSN
1914:OCLC
1904:ISBN
1871:OCLC
1861:ISBN
1826:OCLC
1818:ISSN
1783:OCLC
1773:ISBN
1749:OCLC
1739:ISBN
1706:OCLC
1696:ISBN
1657:OCLC
1649:ISSN
1618:OCLC
1608:ISBN
1604:3–24
1575:OCLC
1565:ISBN
1544:OCLC
1534:ISBN
1501:OCLC
1491:ISBN
1454:OCLC
1444:ISBN
1407:OCLC
1397:ISBN
1356:OCLC
1348:ISSN
1301:OCLC
1291:ISBN
1255:OCLC
1245:ISBN
1212:OCLC
1202:ISBN
1169:OCLC
1159:ISBN
1118:OCLC
1102:ISSN
991:here
849:PMID
652:and
422:4.1
407:Tula
401:3.6
391:Maya
379:3.2
369:Maya
357:3.2
347:Maya
335:5.1
329:126
314:5.2
293:5.7
2197:Oca
1969:PDF
1810:doi
1340:doi
1324:392
1094:doi
839:PMC
829:doi
746:not
661:".
419:10
416:41
395:18
387:II
373:16
351:96
332:25
308:26
287:51
2387::
1954:.
1946:.
1938:.
1932:.
1912:.
1902:.
1869:.
1859:.
1832:.
1824:.
1816:.
1802:17
1800:.
1781:.
1771:.
1747:.
1737:.
1704:.
1694:.
1655:.
1641:41
1639:.
1633:.
1616:.
1606:.
1573:.
1542:.
1532:.
1499:.
1489:.
1452:.
1442:.
1405:.
1395:.
1362:.
1354:.
1346:.
1338:.
1322:.
1299:.
1289:.
1253:.
1243:.
1210:.
1200:.
1167:.
1157:.
1124:.
1116:.
1108:.
1100:.
1086:41
1084:.
847:.
837:.
827:.
815:.
811:.
645:.
457:BC
451:,
398:5
376:5
311:5
290:9
146:.
127:.
119:,
53::
45:A
2193:)
2184:(
2062:)
2033:(
2002:e
1995:t
1988:v
1967:(
1940:4
1920:.
1877:.
1840:.
1812::
1789:.
1755:.
1712:.
1669:.
1624:.
1581:.
1550:.
1507:.
1460:.
1413:.
1370:.
1342::
1334::
1307:.
1261:.
1218:.
1175:.
1132:.
1096::
993:.
855:.
831::
823::
817:6
770:.
49:(
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
