801:(Molybdenum Corporation of America). The lanthanide composition of the ore included 0.1% europium oxide, which was needed by the color television industry, to provide the red phosphor, to maximize picture brightness. The composition of the lanthanides was about 49% cerium, 33% lanthanum, 12% neodymium, and 5% praseodymium, with some samarium and gadolinium, or distinctly more lanthanum and less neodymium and heavies as compared to commercial monazite. The europium content was at least double that of a typical monazite. Mountain Pass bastnäsite was the world's major source of lanthanides from the 1960s to the 1980s. Thereafter, China became an increasingly important rare earth supply. Chinese deposits of bastnäsite include several in
845:, and purify the other individual components of the ore. A further product included a lanthanide mix, depleted of much of the cerium, and essentially all of samarium and heavier lanthanides. The calcination of bastnäsite had driven off the carbon dioxide content, leaving an oxide-fluoride, in which the cerium content had become oxidized to the less basic quadrivalent state. However, the high temperature of the calcination gave less-reactive oxide, and the use of hydrochloric acid, which can cause reduction of quadrivalent cerium, led to an incomplete separation of cerium and the trivalent lanthanides. By contrast, in China, processing of bastnäsite, after concentration, starts with heating with
858:
532:
813:, which had been discovered early in the 20th century, but not exploited until much later. Bayan Obo is currently (2008) providing the majority of the world's lanthanides. Bayan Obo bastnäsite occurs in association with monazite (plus enough magnetite to sustain one of the largest steel mills in China), and unlike carbonatite bastnäsites, is relatively closer to monazite lanthanide compositions, with the exception of its generous 0.2% content of europium.
606:
32:
485:
355:
833:. Marketable products include each of the major intermediates of the ore dressing process: flotation concentrate, acid-washed flotation concentrate, calcined acid washed bastnäsite, and finally a cerium concentrate, which was the insoluble residue left after the calcined bastnäsite had been leached with
797:. This discovery alerted geologists to the existence of a whole new class of rare earth deposit: the rare earth containing carbonatite. Other examples were soon recognized, particularly in Africa and China. The exploitation of this deposit began in the mid-1960s after it had been purchased by
772:
OH crystals changes progressively to more complex spherulitic or dendritic morphologies. The development of these crystal morphologies has been suggested to be controlled by the level at which supersaturation is reached in the aqueous solution during the breakdown of the amorphous precursor. At
879:
Steam is consistently used to condition the ground ore, along with soda ash fluosilicate, and usually Tail Oil C-30. This is done to coat the various types of rare earth metals with either flocculent, collectors, or modifiers for easier separation in the next
520:
F. There is little difference in the three in terms of physical properties and most bastnäsite is bastnäsite-(Ce). Cerium in most natural bastnäsites usually dominates the others. Bastnäsite and the
589:
Bastnäsite forms a series with the minerals hydroxylbastnäsite-(Ce) and hydroxylbastnäsite-(Nd). The three are members of a substitution series that involves the possible substitution of
865:
Bastnäsite ore is typically used to produce rare-earth metals. The following steps and process flow diagram detail the rare-earth-metal extraction process from the ore.
777:) the amorphous precursor breaks down rapidly and the fast supersaturation promotes spherulitic growth. At a lower temperature (e.g., 165 °C) and slow heating (100
1264:
Vallina, B., Rodriguez-Blanco, J. D., Blanco, J. A. and
Benning, L. G. (2014) The effect of heating on the morphology of crystalline neodymium hydroxycarbonate, NdCO
1314:
Dana's System of
Mineralogy, Volume II: Halides, Nitrates, Borates, Carbonates, Sulfates, Phosphates, Arsenates, Tungstates, Molybdates, Etc. (Seventh Edition)"
781:) the supersaturation levels are approached more slowly than required for spherulitic growth, and thus more regular triangular pyramidal shapes form.
673:
Although a scarce mineral and never in great concentrations, it is one of the more common rare-earth carbonates. Bastnäsite has been found in karst
1075:
857:
908:
Solvents are added (solvent type and concentration based on area, availability, and cost) to help separate Eu, Sm, and Gd from La, Nd, and Pr.
1163:
1129:
821:
At
Mountain Pass, bastnäsite ore was finely ground, and subjected to flotation to separate the bulk of the bastnäsite from the accompanying
1355:
610:
414:
F. Some of the bastnäsites contain OH instead of F and receive the name of hydroxylbastnasite. Most bastnäsite is bastnäsite-(Ce), and
768:
OH) can also occur via the crystallization of a rare-earth bearing amorphous precursor. With increasing temperature, the habit of NdCO
582:) added to two formula units of bastnäsite. In fact, the two have been shown to alter back and forth with the addition or loss of CaCO
1269:
1105:
794:
88:
1186:
Sahlström, Fredrik; Jonsson, Erik; Högdahl, Karin; Troll, Valentin R.; Harris, Chris; Jolis, Ester M.; Weis, Franz (2019-10-23).
895:
Oxidizing roast further concentrates the solution to approximately 85% REO. This is done at ~100 °C and higher if necessary.
892:
Add HCl to solution to reduce pH to < 5. This enables certain REM (rare-earth metals) to become soluble (Ce is an example).
535:
Crystal structure of bastnäsite-(Ce). Color code: carbon, C, blue-gray; fluorine, F, green; cerium, Ce, white; oxygen, O, red.
195:
Tabular to equant striated crystals, deep grooves may resemble thin plates stack, oriented overgrowths, also granular, massive
1335:
244:
1283:
The
Principal Rare Earth Elements Deposits of the United States -- A Summary of Domestic Deposits and a Global Perspective.
1188:"Interaction between high-temperature magmatic fluids and limestone explains 'Bastnäs-type' REE deposits in central Sweden"
790:
718:
277:
1330:
1281:
Long, Keith R., Bradley S. Van Gosen, Nora K. Foley, and Daniel
Cordier. "Scientific Investigations Report 2010--5220".
1350:
1340:
452:. Bastnäsite also occurs as very high-quality specimens at the Zagi Mountains, Pakistan. Bastnäsite occurs in alkali
1345:
869:
After extraction, bastnasite ore is typically used in this process, with an average of 7% REO (rare-earth oxides).
103:
504:
in its generalized formula but officially the mineral is divided into three minerals based on the predominant
725:, US. At Mountain Pass, bastnäsite is the leading ore mineral. Some bastnäsite has been found in the unusual
642:
618:
78:
750:
234:
224:
1072:
1252:
1199:
995:
661:
in 1839. Hisinger, who was also the owner of the Bastnäs mine, chose to name one of the new minerals
650:
267:
257:
488:
Bastnäsite crystal from the
Manitou District, El Paso County, Colorado, USA (size: 4.3×3.8×3.3 cm)
1013:
838:
830:
738:
505:
426:
210:
923:
Solvent is recycled into step 11. Additional solvent is added based on concentration and purity.
531:
1235:
1217:
1159:
1125:
1101:
834:
419:
149:
53:
1225:
1207:
1003:
802:
646:
638:
433:
305:
287:
200:
60:
1033:
861:
Process flow diagram for pyrometallurgy extraction of rare-earth metals from bastnasite ore
574:) and a different ratio of constituent ions. Parisite could be viewed as a formula unit of
418:
is by far the most common of the rare earths in this class of minerals. Bastnäsite and the
1079:
948:
typically added at a very high molarity (1–5 M), depending on La concentration and amount.
544:
883:
Flotation using the previous chemicals to separate the gangue from the rare-earth metals.
1203:
999:
1230:
1187:
810:
730:
630:
605:
445:
98:
837:. The lanthanides that dissolved as a result of the acid treatment were subjected to
1324:
1017:
846:
798:
329:
190:
110:
1048:
758:
626:
473:
441:
31:
1153:
1119:
873:
694:
690:
484:
465:
358:
339:
158:
133:
1212:
898:
Enables solution to concentrate further and filters out large particles again.
722:
622:
437:
121:
1221:
901:
Reduction agents (based on area) are used to remove Ce as Ce carbonate or CeO
637:. Ore from the Bastnäs Mine led to the discovery of several new minerals and
806:
773:
higher temperature (e.g., 220 °C) and after rapid heating (e.g. < 1
746:
702:
658:
571:
521:
497:
461:
399:
383:
1239:
789:
In 1949, the huge carbonatite-hosted bastnäsite deposit was discovered at
1294:
McIllree, Roderick. "Kvanefjeld
Project – Major Technical Breakthrough".
842:
706:
594:
590:
540:
525:
422:
387:
1091:
Beatty, Richard; 2007; Th℮ Lanthanides; Publish℮d by
Marshall Cavendish.
1008:
983:
354:
1121:
The history and use of our earth's chemical elements: a reference guide
826:
742:
726:
686:
678:
674:
575:
567:
501:
457:
453:
407:
37:
528:
are the two largest sources of cerium, an important industrial metal.
1298:. Greenland Minerals and Energy LTD, 23 Feb. 2012. Web. 03 Mar. 2014.
1060:
822:
778:
754:
734:
714:
710:
698:
682:
654:
634:
508:. There is bastnäsite-(Ce) with a more accurate formula of (Ce, La)CO
493:
469:
449:
415:
391:
1100:
Gupta, C. K. (2004) Extractive metallurgy of rare earths, CRC Press
911:
Reduction agents (based on area) are used to oxidize Eu, Sm, and Gd.
604:
530:
516:
F. And finally there is bastnäsite-(Y) with a formula of (Y, Ce)CO
483:
886:
Concentrate the rare-earth metals and filter out large particles.
774:
958:
Solvent from La, Nd, and Pr separation is recycled to step 11.
512:
F. There is also bastnäsite-(La) with a formula of (La, Ce)CO
955:. HCl is added at 1 M to 5 M depending on La concentration.
1152:
Adrian P. Jones; Frances Wall; C. Terry
Williams (1996).
929:
Nd and Pr separated. SX goes on for recovery and recycle.
1155:
Rare earth minerals: chemistry, origin and ore deposits
1316:
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, pp. 289–291.
432:
Bastnäsite was first described by the
Swedish chemist
352:
Strongly piezoelectric; dark red cathodoluminescence,
539:
Bastnäsite is closely related to the mineral series
365:
348:
344:
Faint, E > O, colorless to pale yellow or orange
338:
328:
304:
296:
286:
276:
266:
256:
243:
233:
223:
209:
199:
189:
181:
176:
148:
132:
109:
97:
87:
77:
59:
49:
44:
21:
693:, a rare carbonate igneous intrusive rock, at the
951:Another method is to add HCl to La, creating LaCl
876:using rod mills, ball mills, or autogenous mills.
425:are the two largest sources of cerium and other
889:Remove excess water by heating to ~100 °C.
657:, which was described by Hisinger in 1803, and
1312:Palache, P.; Berman H.; Frondel, C. (1960). "
1082:. Mineral Galleries. Retrieved on 2011-10-14.
8:
1044:
1042:
665:when it was first described by him in 1838.
1268:OH. Mineralogical Magazine, 78, 1391–1397.
1029:
1027:
262:Vitreous, greasy, pearly on basal partings
30:
1229:
1211:
1007:
764:The formation of hydroxylbastnasite (NdCO
856:
653:. Among these are the chemical elements
974:
964:Pr is precipitated as an oxide product.
961:Nd is precipitated as an oxide product.
205:Dauphine law, Brazil law and Japan law
18:
729:of the Langesundsfjord area, Norway;
390:minerals, which includes bastnäsite-(
7:
984:"IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols"
932:One way to collect La is adding HNO
611:Federally Administered Tribal Areas
609:Bastnäsite crystal, Zagi Mountain,
1063:. Mindat. Retrieved on 2011-10-14.
617:Bastnäsite gets its name from its
14:
1270:DOI: 10.1180/minmag.2014.078.6.05
926:La separated from Nd, Pr, and SX.
914:Eu is precipitated and calcified.
795:San Bernardino County, California
761:sources have also been reported.
613:, Pakistan. Size: 1.5×1.5×0.3 cm.
353:
920:Sm is precipitated as an oxide.
917:Gd is precipitated as an oxide.
853:Extraction of rare-earth metals
1285:USGS, 2010. Web. 03 Mar. 2014.
1124:. Greenwood Publishing Group.
641:by Swedish scientists such as
543:. The two are both rare-earth
402:) with a formula of (La, Ce)CO
394:) with a formula of (Ce, La)CO
382:) is one of a family of three
361:if uranium and/or thorium-rich
215:Imperfect to indistinct on {10
1:
805:, and the massive deposit at
719:Mountain Pass rare earth mine
436:in 1838. It is named for the
410:) with a formula of (Y, Ce)CO
547:, but parisite's formula of
1356:Minerals in space group 190
185:Honey-yellow, reddish brown
1372:
1213:10.1038/s41598-019-49321-8
1078:November 13, 2007, at the
282:Transparent to translucent
1036:. Handbook of mineralogy.
586:in natural environments.
29:
1118:Robert E. Krebs (2006).
115:Ditrigonal dipyramidal (
570:(and a small amount of
36:Bastnäsite from Gakara
988:Mineralogical Magazine
862:
689:region. Also found in
614:
536:
489:
1336:Radioactive gemstones
872:The ore goes through
860:
751:Northwest Territories
608:
534:
487:
349:Other characteristics
219:0}, parting on {0001}
89:Strunz classification
651:Carl Gustav Mosander
643:Jöns Jakob Berzelius
464:. It also occurs in
1331:Lanthanide minerals
1253:Fieldtrip guidebook
1204:2019NatSR...915203S
1009:10.1180/mgm.2021.43
1000:2021MinM...85..291W
982:Warr, L.N. (2021).
427:rare-earth elements
406:F, and bastnäsite-(
166:= 9.762(1) Å;
1351:Hexagonal minerals
1341:Carbonate minerals
1192:Scientific Reports
863:
839:solvent extraction
739:Mont Saint-Hilaire
615:
537:
506:rare-earth element
490:
468:and in associated
460:and in associated
297:Optical properties
16:Family of minerals
1346:Fluorine minerals
1317:
1296:ASX Announcements
1165:978-0-412-61030-1
1131:978-0-313-33438-2
841:, to capture the
835:hydrochloric acid
639:chemical elements
420:phosphate mineral
372:
371:
172:(bastnäsite-(Ce))
54:Carbonate mineral
1363:
1311:
1299:
1292:
1286:
1279:
1273:
1262:
1256:
1250:
1244:
1243:
1233:
1215:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1149:
1143:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1115:
1109:
1098:
1092:
1089:
1083:
1070:
1064:
1058:
1052:
1046:
1037:
1031:
1022:
1021:
1011:
979:
936:, creating La(NO
803:Sichuan Province
647:Wilhelm Hisinger
565:
545:fluorocarbonates
434:Wilhelm Hisinger
357:
306:Refractive index
288:Specific gravity
249:
218:
157:= 7.118(1)
143:
127:
118:
66:
65:(repeating unit)
34:
19:
1371:
1370:
1366:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1361:
1360:
1321:
1320:
1308:
1303:
1302:
1293:
1289:
1280:
1276:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1251:
1247:
1185:
1184:
1180:
1170:
1168:
1166:
1151:
1150:
1146:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1117:
1116:
1112:
1099:
1095:
1090:
1086:
1080:Wayback Machine
1071:
1067:
1059:
1055:
1049:Bastnasite-(Ce)
1047:
1040:
1032:
1025:
981:
980:
976:
971:
954:
947:
943:
939:
935:
904:
855:
819:
787:
771:
767:
713:; Kizilcaoren,
709:; Kangankunde,
671:
603:
585:
581:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
519:
515:
511:
492:Bastnäsite has
482:
413:
405:
398:F, bastnäsite-(
397:
323:
317:
315:
247:
216:
171:
170: = 6
162:
141:
125:
120:
116:
72:
64:
63:
40:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1369:
1367:
1359:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1323:
1322:
1319:
1318:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1300:
1287:
1274:
1265:
1257:
1245:
1178:
1164:
1144:
1130:
1110:
1093:
1084:
1065:
1053:
1038:
1023:
994:(3): 291–320.
973:
972:
970:
967:
966:
965:
962:
959:
956:
952:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
930:
927:
924:
921:
918:
915:
912:
909:
906:
902:
899:
896:
893:
890:
887:
884:
881:
877:
870:
854:
851:
818:
817:Ore technology
815:
811:Inner Mongolia
786:
785:Mining history
783:
769:
765:
731:Kola Peninsula
670:
667:
602:
599:
593:(F) ions with
583:
579:
562:
558:
554:
550:
549:Ca(Ce, La, Nd)
517:
513:
509:
481:
478:
411:
403:
395:
370:
369:
367:
363:
362:
350:
346:
345:
342:
336:
335:
334:δ = 0.101 max.
332:
326:
325:
321:
313:
308:
302:
301:
298:
294:
293:
290:
284:
283:
280:
274:
273:
270:
264:
263:
260:
254:
253:
250:
241:
240:
237:
231:
230:
227:
221:
220:
213:
207:
206:
203:
197:
196:
193:
187:
186:
183:
179:
178:
177:Identification
174:
173:
152:
146:
145:
136:
130:
129:
113:
107:
106:
101:
99:Crystal system
95:
94:
91:
85:
84:
81:
75:
74:
70:
67:
57:
56:
51:
47:
46:
42:
41:
35:
27:
26:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1368:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1328:
1326:
1315:
1310:
1309:
1305:
1297:
1291:
1288:
1284:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1261:
1258:
1254:
1249:
1246:
1241:
1237:
1232:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1182:
1179:
1167:
1161:
1157:
1156:
1148:
1145:
1133:
1127:
1123:
1122:
1114:
1111:
1107:
1106:0-415-33340-7
1103:
1097:
1094:
1088:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1074:
1069:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1054:
1051:. Webmineral.
1050:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1010:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
978:
975:
968:
963:
960:
957:
950:
931:
928:
925:
922:
919:
916:
913:
910:
907:
900:
897:
894:
891:
888:
885:
882:
878:
875:
871:
868:
867:
866:
859:
852:
850:
848:
847:sulfuric acid
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
816:
814:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
791:Mountain Pass
784:
782:
780:
776:
762:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
668:
666:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
619:type locality
612:
607:
600:
598:
596:
592:
587:
577:
573:
569:
546:
542:
533:
529:
527:
523:
507:
503:
499:
495:
486:
479:
477:
475:
474:metasomatites
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
430:
428:
424:
421:
417:
409:
401:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
368:
364:
360:
356:
351:
347:
343:
341:
337:
333:
331:
330:Birefringence
327:
324:= 1.818–1.823
320:
316:= 1.717–1.722
312:
309:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
289:
285:
281:
279:
275:
271:
269:
265:
261:
259:
255:
251:
246:
242:
238:
236:
232:
228:
226:
222:
214:
212:
208:
204:
202:
198:
194:
192:
191:Crystal habit
188:
184:
180:
175:
169:
165:
160:
156:
153:
151:
147:
140:
137:
135:
131:
123:
114:
112:
111:Crystal class
108:
105:
102:
100:
96:
92:
90:
86:
82:
80:
76:
69:(La, Ce, Y)CO
68:
62:
58:
55:
52:
48:
43:
39:
33:
28:
25:, bastnaesite
24:
20:
1313:
1306:Bibliography
1295:
1290:
1282:
1277:
1260:
1248:
1198:(1): 15203.
1195:
1191:
1181:
1169:. Retrieved
1158:. Springer.
1154:
1147:
1135:. Retrieved
1120:
1113:
1096:
1087:
1068:
1056:
991:
987:
977:
905:, typically.
864:
820:
788:
763:
759:Hydrothermal
691:carbonatites
677:deposits in
672:
662:
627:Riddarhyttan
616:
588:
538:
491:
466:carbonatites
442:Riddarhyttan
431:
379:
375:
374:The mineral
373:
318:
310:
300:Uniaxial (+)
167:
163:
154:
138:
22:
874:comminution
695:Fen Complex
631:Västmanland
597:(OH) ions.
480:Composition
446:Västmanland
380:bastnaesite
359:Radioactive
340:Pleochroism
278:Diaphaneity
134:Space group
1325:Categories
1171:14 October
1137:14 October
1073:Bastnasite
1061:Bastnasite
1034:Bastnäsite
969:References
749:deposits,
723:California
669:Occurrence
472:and other
462:pegmatites
440:mine near
376:bastnäsite
366:References
245:Mohs scale
122:H-M symbol
79:IMA symbol
23:Bastnäsite
1255:mcgill.ca
1222:2045-2322
1018:235729616
807:Bayan Obo
747:Thor Lake
703:Bayan Obo
663:bastnäsit
659:lanthanum
572:neodymium
566:contains
522:phosphate
498:lanthanum
384:carbonate
150:Unit cell
104:Hexagonal
1240:31645579
1076:Archived
843:europium
831:dolomite
799:Molycorp
727:granites
717:and the
707:Mongolia
685:and the
595:hydroxyl
591:fluoride
541:parisite
526:monazite
524:mineral
423:monazite
388:fluoride
292:4.95–5.0
248:hardness
235:Tenacity
225:Fracture
211:Cleavage
201:Twinning
93:5.BD.20a
50:Category
1231:6811582
1200:Bibcode
996:Bibcode
827:calcite
743:Ontario
741:mines,
687:Balkans
679:Hungary
675:bauxite
623:Bastnäs
576:calcite
568:calcium
502:yttrium
470:fenites
458:syenite
454:granite
438:Bastnäs
239:Brittle
61:Formula
45:General
38:Burundi
1238:
1228:
1220:
1162:
1128:
1104:
1016:
829:, and
823:barite
755:Canada
745:, and
735:Russia
715:Turkey
711:Malawi
699:Norway
683:Greece
655:cerium
635:Sweden
625:Mine,
621:, the
494:cerium
450:Sweden
416:cerium
268:Streak
258:Luster
229:Uneven
1014:S2CID
944:. HNO
880:step.
578:(CaCO
272:White
182:Color
1236:PMID
1218:ISSN
1173:2011
1160:ISBN
1139:2011
1126:ISBN
1102:ISBN
649:and
601:Name
500:and
456:and
378:(or
119:m2)
1226:PMC
1208:doi
1004:doi
779:min
721:in
553:(CO
252:4–5
128:m2)
124:: (
83:Bsn
1327::
1234:.
1224:.
1216:.
1206:.
1194:.
1190:.
1041:^
1026:^
1012:.
1002:.
992:85
990:.
986:.
849:.
825:,
809:,
793:,
757:.
753:,
737:;
733:,
705:,
701:;
697:,
681:,
645:,
633:,
629:,
496:,
476:.
448:,
444:,
429:.
400:La
392:Ce
161:,
144:2c
1272:.
1266:3
1242:.
1210::
1202::
1196:9
1175:.
1141:.
1108:.
1020:.
1006::
998::
953:3
946:3
942:3
940:)
938:3
934:3
903:2
775:h
770:3
766:3
584:3
580:3
563:2
561:F
559:3
557:)
555:3
551:2
518:3
514:3
510:3
412:3
408:Y
404:3
396:3
386:-
322:ε
319:n
314:ω
311:n
217:1
168:Z
164:c
159:Å
155:a
142:6
139:P
126:6
117:6
73:F
71:3
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