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1154:". The directive specifies different procedures according to the class of the device ranging from the simple Declaration of Conformity (Annex VII) for Class I devices to EC verification (Annex IV), Production quality assurance (Annex V), Product quality assurance (Annex VI) and Full quality assurance (Annex II). The Medical Device Directive specifies detailed procedures for Certification. In general terms, these procedures include tests and verifications that are to be contained in specific deliveries such as the risk management file, the technical file, and the quality system deliveries. The risk management file is the first deliverable that conditions the following design and manufacturing steps. The risk management stage shall drive the product so that product risks are reduced at an acceptable level with respect to the benefits expected for the patients for the use of the device. The
1380:– the first (and more general) of two licensure examinations for most U.S. jurisdictions—does now cover biology (although technically not BME). For the second exam, called the Principles and Practices, Part 2, or the Professional Engineering exam, candidates may select a particular engineering discipline's content to be tested on; there is currently not an option for BME with this, meaning that any biomedical engineers seeking a license must prepare to take this examination in another category (which does not affect the actual license, since most jurisdictions do not recognize discipline specialties anyway). However, the Biomedical Engineering Society (BMES) is, as of 2009, exploring the possibility of seeking to implement a BME-specific version of this exam to facilitate biomedical engineers pursuing licensure.
1355:(PE), but, in US, in industry such a license is not required to be an employee as an engineer in the majority of situations (due to an exception known as the industrial exemption, which effectively applies to the vast majority of American engineers). The US model has generally been only to require the practicing engineers offering engineering services that impact the public welfare, safety, safeguarding of life, health, or property to be licensed, while engineers working in private industry without a direct offering of engineering services to the public or other businesses, education, and government need not be licensed. This is notably not the case in many other countries, where a license is as legally necessary to practice engineering as it is for law or medicine.
908:-level redesigns and reconfigurations, as opposed to revolutionary research & development or ideas that would be many years from clinical adoption; however, there is a growing effort to expand this time-horizon over which clinical engineers can influence the trajectory of biomedical innovation. In their various roles, they form a "bridge" between the primary designers and the end-users, by combining the perspectives of being both close to the point-of-use, while also trained in product and process engineering. Clinical engineering departments will sometimes hire not just biomedical engineers, but also industrial/systems engineers to help address operations research/optimization, human factors, cost analysis, etc. Also, see
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large biotechnology sector and an impressive education system, has encountered trouble in creating uniform standards as the
European community attempts to supplant some of the national jurisdictional barriers that still exist. Recently, initiatives such as BIOMEDEA have sprung up to develop BME-related education and professional standards. Other countries, such as Australia, are recognizing and moving to correct deficiencies in their BME education. Also, as high technology endeavors are usually marks of developed nations, some areas of the world are prone to slower development in education, including in BME.
501:(also known as neuroengineering) is a discipline that uses engineering techniques to understand, repair, replace, or enhance neural systems. Neural engineers are uniquely qualified to solve design problems at the interface of living neural tissue and non-living constructs. Neural engineering can assist with numerous things, including the future development of prosthetics. For example, cognitive neural prosthetics (CNP) are being heavily researched and would allow for a chip implant to assist people who have prosthetics by providing signals to operate assistive devices.
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897:, selecting technological products/services and logistically managing their implementation, working with governmental regulators on inspections/audits, and serving as technological consultants for other hospital staff (e.g. physicians, administrators, I.T., etc.). Clinical engineers also advise and collaborate with medical device producers regarding prospective design improvements based on clinical experiences, as well as monitor the progression of the state of the art so as to redirect procurement patterns accordingly.
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include the identification of candidate genes and nucleotides (SNPs). Often, such identification is made with the aim of better understanding the genetic basis of disease, unique adaptations, desirable properties (esp. in agricultural species), or differences between populations. In a less formal way, bioinformatics also tries to understand the organizational principles within nucleic acid and protein sequences.
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1259:) degree in BME (Biomedical Engineering) or another branch of engineering with considerable potential for BME overlap. As interest in BME increases, many engineering colleges now have a Biomedical Engineering Department or Program, with offerings ranging from the undergraduate (B.Sc., B.S., B.Eng. or B.S.E.) to doctoral levels. Biomedical engineering has only recently been emerging as
1178:", accredited by the European Member States. The Notified Bodies must ensure the effectiveness of the certification process for all medical devices apart from the class I devices where a declaration of conformity produced by the manufacturer is sufficient for marketing. Once a product has passed all the steps required by the Medical Device Directive, the device is entitled to bear a
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195:. Also included under the scope of a biomedical engineer is the management of current medical equipment in hospitals while adhering to relevant industry standards. This involves procurement, routine testing, preventive maintenance, and making equipment recommendations, a role also known as a Biomedical Equipment Technician (BMET) or as a
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the majority (except in academia). In fact, the perceived need for some kind of graduate credential is so strong that some undergraduate BME programs will actively discourage students from majoring in BME without an expressed intention to also obtain a master's degree or apply to medical school afterwards.
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development, graduate education is almost a requirement (as undergraduate degrees typically do not involve sufficient research training and experience). This can be either a
Masters or Doctoral level degree; while in certain specialties a Ph.D. is notably more common than in others, it is hardly ever
961:
While some rehabilitation engineers have master's degrees in rehabilitation engineering, usually a subspecialty of
Biomedical engineering, most rehabilitation engineers have an undergraduate or graduate degrees in biomedical engineering, mechanical engineering, or electrical engineering. A Portuguese
862:
Artificial body part replacements are one of the many applications of bionics. Concerned with the intricate and thorough study of the properties and function of human body systems, bionics may be applied to solve some engineering problems. Careful study of the different functions and processes of the
1336:
Education in BME also varies greatly around the world. By virtue of its extensive biotechnology sector, its numerous major universities, and relatively few internal barriers, the U.S. has progressed a great deal in its development of BME education and training opportunities. Europe, which also has a
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A product is safe if patients, users, and third parties do not run unacceptable risks of physical hazards (death, injuries, ...) in its intended use. Protective measures have to be introduced on the devices to reduce residual risks at an acceptable level if compared with the benefit derived from the
801:
An implant is a kind of medical device made to replace and act as a missing biological structure (as compared with a transplant, which indicates transplanted biomedical tissue). The surface of implants that contact the body might be made of a biomedical material such as titanium, silicone or apatite
481:
Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM) and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct manipulation of an organism's genes. Unlike traditional breeding, an indirect method of genetic manipulation, genetic engineering utilizes modern tools such as
957:
is the systematic application of engineering sciences to design, develop, adapt, test, evaluate, apply, and distribute technological solutions to problems confronted by individuals with disabilities. Functional areas addressed through rehabilitation engineering may include mobility, communications,
871:
In recent years biomedical sensors based in microwave technology have gained more attention. Different sensors can be manufactured for specific uses in both diagnosing and monitoring disease conditions, for example microwave sensors can be used as a complementary technique to X-ray to monitor lower
660:
Class I devices present minimal potential for harm to the user and are often simpler in design than Class II or Class III devices. Devices in this category include tongue depressors, bedpans, elastic bandages, examination gloves, and hand-held surgical instruments, and other similar types of common
1207:
The scope of RoHS 2 is widened to include products previously excluded, such as medical devices and industrial equipment. In addition, manufacturers are now obliged to provide conformity risk assessments and test reports – or explain why they are lacking. For the first time, not only manufacturers
1198:
Directive 2011/65/EU, better known as RoHS 2 is a recast of legislation originally introduced in 2002. The original EU legislation "Restrictions of
Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronics Devices" (RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC) was replaced and superseded by 2011/65/EU published in
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is a particularly important aspect in BME. While many engineering fields (such as mechanical or electrical engineering) do not need graduate-level training to obtain an entry-level job in their field, the majority of BME positions do prefer or even require them. Since most BME-related professions
1224:
The mandatory date for implementation of the EN European version of the standard is June 1, 2013. The US FDA requires the use of the standard on June 30, 2013, while Health Canada recently extended the required date from June 2012 to April 2013. The North
American agencies will only require these
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The different regulatory arrangements sometimes result in particular technologies being developed first for either the U.S. or in Europe depending on the more favorable form of regulation. While nations often strive for substantive harmony to facilitate cross-national distribution, philosophical
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contains all the documentation data and records supporting medical device certification. FDA technical file has similar content although organized in a different structure. The
Quality System deliverables usually include procedures that ensure quality throughout all product life cycles. The same
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placement systems. For example, ENvizion
Medical's ENvue, an electromagnetic navigation system for enteral feeding tube placement. The system uses an external field generator and several EM passive sensors enabling scaling of the display to the patient's body contour, and a real-time view of the
283:
Bioinformatics is considered both an umbrella term for the body of biological studies that use computer programming as part of their methodology, as well as a reference to specific analysis "pipelines" that are repeatedly used, particularly in the field of genomics. Common uses of bioinformatics
1324:
Graduate programs in BME, like in other scientific fields, are highly varied, and particular programs may emphasize certain aspects within the field. They may also feature extensive collaborative efforts with programs in other fields (such as the university's
Medical School or other engineering
1304:
As with many degrees, the reputation and ranking of a program may factor into the desirability of a degree holder for either employment or graduate admission. The reputation of many undergraduate degrees is also linked to the institution's graduate or research programs, which have some tangible
1133:
The medical device engineering area is among the most heavily regulated fields of engineering, and practicing biomedical engineers must routinely consult and cooperate with regulatory law attorneys and other experts. The Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) is the principal healthcare regulatory
1103:
Regulatory issues have been constantly increased in the last decades to respond to the many incidents caused by devices to patients. For example, from 2008 to 2011, in US, there were 119 FDA recalls of medical devices classified as class I. According to U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA),
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for a discussion of the procedures used to design safe systems. The clinical engineering department is constructed with a manager, supervisor, engineer, and technician. One engineer per eighty beds in the hospital is the ratio. Clinical engineers are also authorized to audit pharmaceutical and
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Biomedical optics combines the principles of physics, engineering, and biology to study the interaction of biological tissue and light, and how this can be exploited for sensing, imaging, and treatment. It has a wide range of applications, including optical imaging, microscopy, ophthalmoscopy,
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for home healthcare electro-medical devices defining the requirements for devices used in the home healthcare environment. IEC 60601-1-11 (2010) must now be incorporated into the design and verification of a wide range of home use and point of care medical devices along with other applicable
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university provides an undergraduate degree and a master's degree in Rehabilitation Engineering and Accessibility. Qualification to become a Rehab' Engineer in the UK is possible via a University BSc Honours Degree course such as Health Design & Technology Institute, Coventry University.
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have been grown in laboratories and transplanted successfully into human patients. Bioartificial organs, which use both synthetic and biological component, are also a focus area in research, such as with hepatic assist devices that use liver cells within an artificial bioreactor construct.
1373:. The Institution also runs the Engineering in Medicine and Health Division. The Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (IPEM) has a panel for the accreditation of MSc courses in Biomedical Engineering and Chartered Engineering status can also be sought through IPEM.
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in 2006 from President George Bush for his more than 50 years of contributions that have spawned innovations ranging from burn treatments to miniature defibrillators, ligament repair to tiny blood pressure monitors for premature infants, as well as a new method for performing
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In 2012 there were about 19,400 biomedical engineers employed in the US, and the field was predicted to grow by 5% (faster than average) from 2012 to 2022. Biomedical engineering has the highest percentage of female engineers compared to other common engineering professions.
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The previous features have to be ensured for all the manufactured items of the medical device. This requires that a quality system shall be in place for all the relevant entities and processes that may impact safety and effectiveness over the whole medical device lifecycle.
279:
is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data. As an interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combines computer science, statistics, mathematics, and engineering to analyze and interpret biological data.
363:. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science.
872:
extremity trauma. The sensor monitor the dielectric properties and can thus notice change in tissue (bone, muscle, fat etc.) under the skin so when measuring at different times during the healing process the response from the sensor will change as the trauma heals.
1236:
is the Australian and New Zealand standards for the management of medical devices. The standard specifies the procedures required to maintain a wide range of medical assets in a clinical setting (e.g. Hospital). The standards are based on the IEC 606101 standards.
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being used to create physical objects. Beyond modeling organs and the human body, emerging engineering techniques are also currently used in the research and development of new devices for innovative therapies, treatments, patient monitoring, of complex diseases.
1125:
A product is effective if it performs as specified by the manufacturer in the intended use. Effectiveness is achieved through clinical evaluation, compliance to performance standards or demonstrations of substantial equivalence with an already marketed device.
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factors for rating, such as research funding and volume, publications and citations. With BME specifically, the ranking of a university's hospital and medical school can also be a significant factor in the perceived prestige of its BME department/program.
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Beyond governmental registration, certain private-sector professional/industrial organizations also offer certifications with varying degrees of prominence. One such example is the Certified Clinical Engineer (CCE) certification for Clinical engineers.
182:
is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare applications (e.g., diagnostic or therapeutic purposes). BME is also traditionally logical sciences to advance health care treatment, including
442:
One of the goals of tissue engineering is to create artificial organs (via biological material) for patients that need organ transplants. Biomedical engineers are currently researching methods of creating such organs. Researchers have grown solid
490:), the manufacture of synthetic human insulin through the use of modified bacteria, the manufacture of erythropoietin in hamster ovary cells, and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the oncomouse (cancer mouse) for research.
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depending on what is the most functional. In some cases, implants contain electronics, e.g. artificial pacemakers and cochlear implants. Some implants are bioactive, such as subcutaneous drug delivery devices in the form of implantable pills or
672:
Class III devices generally require premarket approval (PMA) or premarket notification (510k), a scientific review to ensure the device's safety and effectiveness, in addition to the general controls of Class I. Examples include replacement
482:
molecular cloning and transformation to directly alter the structure and characteristics of target genes. Genetic engineering techniques have found success in numerous applications. Some examples include the improvement of crop technology (
696:. This area deals with enabling clinicians to directly or indirectly "view" things not visible in plain sight (such as due to their size, and/or location). This can involve utilizing ultrasound, magnetism, UV, radiology, and other means.
1149:
In the European context, safety effectiveness and quality is ensured through the "Conformity Assessment" which is defined as "the method by which a manufacturer demonstrates that its device complies with the requirements of the European
139:
965:
The rehabilitation process for people with disabilities often entails the design of assistive devices such as Walking aids intended to promote the inclusion of their users into the mainstream of society, commerce, and recreation.
1142:. In addition, because biomedical engineers often develop devices and technologies for "consumer" use, such as physical therapy devices (which are also "medical" devices), these may also be governed in some respects by the
1254:
Biomedical engineers require considerable knowledge of both engineering and biology, and typically have a Bachelor's (B.Sc., B.S., B.Eng. or B.S.E.) or Master's (M.S., M.Sc., M.S.E., or M.Eng.) or a doctoral (Ph.D., or
414:
in the heart. Fluorescence microscopy involves labeling specific molecules with fluorescent dyes and visualizing them using light, providing insights into biological processes and disease mechanisms. More recently,
2276:
Jacobson, Lewis E.; Olayan, May; Williams, Jamie M.; Schultz, Jacqueline F.; Wise, Hannah M.; Singh, Amandeep; Saxe, Jonathan M.; Benjamin, Richard; Emery, Marie; Vilem, Hilary; Kirby, Donald F. (1 November 2019).
1208:
but also importers and distributors share a responsibility to ensure Electrical and Electronic Equipment within the scope of RoHS complies with the hazardous substances limits and have a CE mark on their products.
557:—essentially covering all health care products that do not achieve their intended results through predominantly chemical (e.g., pharmaceuticals) or biological (e.g., vaccines) means, and do not involve metabolism.
1240:
The standard covers a wide range of medical equipment management elements including, procurement, acceptance testing, maintenance (electrical safety and preventive maintenance testing) and decommissioning.
1203:
seeks to limit the dangerous substances in circulation in electronics products, in particular toxins and heavy metals, which are subsequently released into the environment when such devices are recycled.
664:
Class II devices are subject to special controls in addition to the general controls of Class I devices. Special controls may include special labeling requirements, mandatory performance standards, and
1138:
products. The paramount objectives driving policy decisions by the FDA are safety and effectiveness of healthcare products that have to be assured through a quality system in place as specified under
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1190:
of regulation can be a hindrance; more restrictive regulations seem appealing on an intuitive level, but critics decry the tradeoff cost in terms of slowing access to life-saving developments.
2163:
1690:, which supported research and education in BME by providing over $ 700 million to various universities, helping to create 30 BME programs and helping finance the construction of 13 buildings
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standards for new device submissions, while the EU will take the more severe approach of requiring all applicable devices being placed on the market to consider the home healthcare standard.
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Biomedical engineering has recently emerged as its own field of study, as compared to many other engineering fields. Such an evolution is common as a new field transitions from being an
421:
is helping imaging by correcting aberrations in biological tissue, enabling higher resolution imaging and improved accuracy in procedures such as laser surgery and retinal imaging.
677:, hip and knee joint implants, silicone gel-filled breast implants, implanted cerebellar stimulators, implantable pacemaker pulse generators and endosseous (intra-bone) implants.
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Regardless of the country-specific legislation, the main regulatory objectives coincide worldwide. For example, in the medical device regulations, a product must be: 1) safe
1968:
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is associated to "a situation in which there is a reasonable probability that the use of, or exposure to, a product will cause serious adverse health consequences or death"
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P. Hunter Peckham – Donnell Professor of Biomedical Engineering and Orthopaedics at Case Western Reserve University. Pioneer in Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES)
2348:"Split-Ring Resonator Sensor Penetration Depth Assessment Using In Vivo Microwave Reflectivity and Ultrasound Measurements for Lower Extremity Trauma Rehabilitation"
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divisions), owing again to the interdisciplinary nature of BME. M.S. and Ph.D. programs will typically require applicants to have an undergraduate degree in BME, or
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J. Thomas Mortimer – Emeritus professor of biomedical engineering at Case Western Reserve University. Pioneer in Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES)
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as a four-year B.Eng. program. The Polytechnique in Montreal is also offering a bachelors's degree in biomedical engineering as is Flinders University.
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rather than a cross-disciplinary hybrid specialization of other disciplines; and BME programs at all levels are becoming more widespread, including the
3149:
1146:. The greatest hurdles tend to be 510K "clearance" (typically for Class 2 devices) or pre-market "approval" (typically for drugs and class 3 devices).
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1578:. Pioneer in regenerative tissue, biomechanics, and author of over 300 published works. His works have been cited more than 20,000 times cumulatively.
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is an interdisciplinary science that includes drug engineering, novel drug delivery and targeting, pharmaceutical technology, unit operations of
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Curtis, Adam SG; Dalby, Matthew; Gadegaard, Nikolaj (2006). "Cell signaling arising from nanotopography: implications for nanomedical devices".
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hearing, vision, and cognition, and activities associated with employment, independent living, education, and integration into the community.
669:. Devices in this class are typically non-invasive and include X-ray machines, PACS, powered wheelchairs, infusion pumps, and surgical drapes.
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specialization among already-established fields to being considered a field in itself. Much of the work in biomedical engineering consists of
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Shah, Syaiful; Velander, Jacob; Mathur, Parul; Perez, Mauricio; Asan, Noor; Kurup, Dhanesh; Blokhuis, Taco; Augustine, Robin (2018-02-21).
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Biomedical engineering is regulated in some countries, such as Australia, but registration is typically only recommended and not required.
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Imaging technologies are often essential to medical diagnosis, and are typically the most complex equipment found in a hospital including:
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1636:(deceased) – Institute Professor at MIT, contributed to the development of the BME field, medical devices (e.g. intra-aortic balloons)
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eyes, ears, and other organs paved the way for improved cameras, television, radio transmitters and receivers, and many other tools.
107:
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1463:(deceased) – One of the first specialists in neurophysiological research and a founding member of the Biomedical Engineering Society
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Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of the mechanical aspects of biological systems, at any level from whole
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As with other learned professions, each state has certain (fairly similar) requirements for becoming licensed as a registered
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and technologies in hospitals or other clinical settings. Major roles of clinical engineers include training and supervising
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2027:. Tracheobronchial bio-engineering: biotechnology fulfilling unmet medical needs. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2011; 63(4–5): 367–74.
402:(PDT). OCT, for example, uses light to create high-resolution, three-dimensional images of internal structures, such as the
210:, spanning a broad array of subfields (see below). Prominent biomedical engineering applications include the development of
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1275:. The number of biomedical engineers is expected to rise as both a cause and effect of improvements in medical technology.
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as accredited bioengineering/biomedical engineering programs. As of 2023, 155 programs are currently accredited by ABET.
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schematic used in monitoring low voltage biological signals, an example of a biomedical engineering application of
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1737: – Branch of medical science that applies biological and physiological principles to clinical practice
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feeding tube tip location and direction, which helps the medical staff ensure the correct placement in the
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standard (ISO EN 13485) is usually applied for quality management systems in the US and worldwide.
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2279:"Feasibility and safety of a novel electromagnetic device for small-bore feeding tube placement"
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3142:"P. Hunter Peckham, PhD | Distinguished University Professor | Case Western Reserve University"
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1743: – interdisciplinary science that stands at the junction of cardiology and medical physics
1565:– Physicist, entrepreneur and philanthropist. A pioneer in the field of Biomedical Engineering.
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3235:
3009:
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2469:
2395:
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2137:
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1943:
1900:
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1633:
1608:
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989:
985:
943:
890:
833:
641:
635:
600:
533:
410:
242:
196:
184:
378:
spectroscopy, and therapy. Examples of biomedical optics techniques and technologies include
5243:
5228:
5105:
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4268:
4177:
3748:
3715:
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3001:
2385:
2367:
2306:
2290:
2242:
2197:
2127:
2111:
1935:
1890:
1836:
1792:
1531:
1509:, electrical engineer, inventor, and educator of over 2000 biomedical engineers, received a
1502:
752:
604:
588:
300:
211:
2669:
5571:
5516:
5377:
5362:
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5285:
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2898:
2594:
2420:
2081:
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2024:
1881:
1854:
1755:
1714:
1657:
1618:
1571:
1485:
1308:
947:
935:
813:
760:
700:
687:
596:
584:
417:
322:
188:
4732:
2810:
2363:
2115:
2099:
5403:
5357:
5170:
5100:
4919:
4387:
4372:
4336:
3753:
3730:
3636:
3631:
3571:
3556:
3520:
3405:
2826:"Biomedical Engineering Curriculum: A Comparison Between the USA, Europe and Australia"
2390:
2347:
2311:
2132:
1758: – Application of physics concepts, theories and methods to medicine or healthcare
1614:
1562:
1362:
1317:
1313:
1272:
1170:
joints, are generally extensively regulated due to the invasive nature of such devices.
1167:
1155:
1105:
693:
616:
529:
459:
355:
is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with living systems. As a science,
330:
326:
259:
218:
4588:
3364:
1721:
5596:
5486:
5275:
5270:
5132:
5072:
4975:
3651:
3606:
3515:
3330:
1939:
1740:
1596:
1543:
1294:
1293:
offers an M.A.Sc, an MD/PhD, and a PhD in Biomedical engineering. The first Canadian
1279:
1175:
845:
576:
444:
436:
2529:
1912:
622:
5551:
5491:
5476:
5302:
5027:
4877:
4862:
4808:
4514:
3803:
3788:
3700:
3641:
3540:
3510:
3419:
2412:
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Medical & Radiation Emitting Device Recalls
2219:
1674:
1624:
1600:
1525:
1497:
1476:
975:
708:
674:
312:
304:
160:
156:
17:
889:
is the branch of biomedical engineering dealing with the actual implementation of
3245:
3060:
2632:
1267:
which includes enough biological science content that many students use it as a "
27:
Application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology
5350:
5295:
5192:
5047:
5022:
4840:
4311:
3923:
3793:
3783:
3778:
1995:
1734:
1628:
1588:
1466:
1406:
1006:
969:
744:
464:
435:
Tissue engineering, like genetic engineering (see below), is a major segment of
346:
221:
ranging from clinical equipment to micro-implants, imaging technologies such as
42:
5438:
1256:
5323:
5290:
5062:
5012:
4997:
4992:
4985:
4970:
4960:
4326:
3720:
3673:
3596:
3505:
3034:
2294:
2202:
2185:
1895:
1876:
1651:
1627:(deceased) – biophysicist with significant contributions to BME, working with
1179:
931:
817:
809:
776:
772:
719:
652:
Medical devices are regulated and classified (in the US) as follows (see also
547:
463:
Micromass cultures of C3H-10T1/2 cells at varied oxygen tensions stained with
269:
238:
214:
143:
3005:
2922:
2792:
2381:
2302:
2254:
2123:
1361:
In the UK, mechanical engineers working in the areas of Medical Engineering,
5511:
5253:
5248:
5112:
5090:
4965:
4929:
4620:
4137:
3112:
2877:
2278:
2246:
1604:
1470:
1217:
828:
727:
scan of a human head, an example of a biomedical engineering application of
334:
292:
3013:
2634:
Scientific and Technical Terms in Bioengineering and Biological Engineering
2399:
2320:
2262:
2211:
2141:
1904:
980:
an example of widely used clinical medical equipment (operates by applying
927:
904:
implementation of technology has tended to keep them oriented more towards
3288:
1947:
1840:
5017:
4794:
4661:
4651:
4509:
3823:
3725:
2950:
Celebrating 35 years of Biomedical Engineering: An Historical Perspective
1761:
939:
704:
517:
318:
1469:(deceased) – Invented the first transistorised pacemaker, co-founder of
264:
5496:
4956:
4924:
4817:
3763:
3656:
3434:
3429:
1431: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1268:
1031: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
857:
768:
192:
164:
2372:
2156:""Nano": The new nemesis of cancer Hede S, Huilgol N – J Can Res Ther"
3808:
3400:
2586:
404:
3146:
Distinguished University Professor | Case Western Reserve University
2892:
Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2014–15 Edition: Biomedical Engineers
2433:"Medical Device Regulations: Global overview and guiding principles"
3261:
3710:
2098:
Andersen, Richard A.; Hwang, Eun Jung; Mulliken, Grant H. (2010).
1161:
968:
926:
827:
808:
764:
718:
621:
541:
458:
291:
263:
155:
138:
2911:"Dr. Julia Apter, Ophthalmologist And Researcher, 61, in Chicago"
1835:. Smart Materials Series. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.
1134:
authority in the United States, having jurisdiction over medical
3424:
3299:
2075:
Trial begins for first artificial liver device using human cells
1283:
296:
4767:
3896:
3303:
2414:
http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfres/res.cfm
1926:
Hatze, Herbert (1974). "The meaning of the term biomechanics".
3892:
3414:
3410:
2045:
1539:
1400:
1000:
724:
359:
is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called
226:
222:
36:
3850:
List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization
2186:"Nanotechnology: Intelligent Design to Treat Complex Disease"
567:
in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease.
516:, and Pharmaceutical Analysis. It may be deemed as a part of
1174:
In the European Union, there are certifying entities named "
913:
associated stores to monitor FDA recalls of invasive items.
4763:
3199:
2700:"2010-2011 Undergraduate Calendar - Biomedical Engineering"
2563:
Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering – Purdue University
1542:, runs the largest BME laboratory in the world, pioneer in
3091:
2465:
AS/NZS 3551:2012 Management programs for medical equipment
3092:"Alfred E. Mann Foundation for Scientific Research (AMF)"
2947:
Fagette Jr., Paul H.; Horner, Patricia I., eds. (2004).
836:, an example of a biomedical engineering application of
1764: – Wholistic physiological dynamics of an organism
973:
Schematic representation of a normal ECG trace showing
268:
Example of an approximately 40,000 probe spotted oligo
2890:
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
1329:
discipline (plus certain life science coursework), or
1786:
1784:
1698:
1555:(deceased) – one of the co-discoverers of insulin at
1479:(deceased) – aviator and pioneer in the invention of
1115:
2) effective and 3) for all the manufactured devices
237:
tissue growth, and the development of pharmaceutical
163:, a process of purifying the blood of a person whose
30:
For the journal known as Biomedical Engineering, see
3061:"Colleagues honor Langer for 30 years of innovation"
1745:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
699:
Alternatively, navigation-guided equipment utilizes
5454:
5392:
5153:
5081:
5036:
4945:
4816:
4801:
4660:
4644:
4596:
4360:
4302:
4221:
4146:
4073:
3966:
3953:
3832:
3739:
3619:
3549:
3498:
3489:
3448:
3393:
3372:
3337:
3035:"Leslie Geddes – 2006 National Medal of Technology"
2987:"YC "Bert" Fung: The Father of Modern Biomechanics"
67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1768:Biomedical Engineering and Instrumentation Program
3171:"Robert Plonsey, Pfizer-Pratt Professor Emeritus"
1496:, considered by many to be the founder of modern
692:Medical/biomedical imaging is a major segment of
2755:"Bachelor of Engineering (Biomedical) (Honours)"
451:from human stem cells towards this end. Several
361:biomaterials science or biomaterials engineering
2184:Couvreur, Patrick; Vauthier, Christine (2006).
1791:John Denis Enderle; Joseph D. Bronzino (2012).
1221:standards in the IEC 60601 3rd edition series.
2070:
2068:
2041:"Doctors grow organs from patients' own cells"
4779:
3908:
3315:
1265:Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering
8:
1829:Fakhrullin, Rawil; Lvov, Yuri, eds. (2014).
1528:as well as in the field of artificial organs
938:(black butterfly-like shape) a hyperplastic
564:the diagnosis of disease or other conditions
1679:Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements
5068:Reproductive endocrinology and infertility
4813:
4786:
4772:
4764:
3963:
3915:
3901:
3893:
3495:
3322:
3308:
3300:
1752: – Interdisciplinary field of biology
1136:devices, drugs, biologics, and combination
5409:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery
2674:McMaster School of Biomedical Engineering
2438:. World Health Organization (WHO). 2003.
2389:
2371:
2310:
2201:
2131:
2035:
2033:
1894:
1447:Learn how and when to remove this message
1282:programs are also becoming recognized by
1091:Learn how and when to remove this message
560:A medical device is intended for use in:
439:– which overlaps significantly with BME.
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
3355:Competitions and prizes in biotechnology
1312:involve scientific research, such as in
1199:July 2011 and commonly known as RoHS 2.
895:biomedical equipment technicians (BMETs)
149:Federal Center of Neurosurgery in Tyumen
2994:Mechanics & Chemistry of Biosystems
1780:
1705:
1333:(plus certain engineering coursework).
739:to view an animated sequence of slices.
4695:Electrical and electronics engineering
3263:Biomed: From the Student's Perspective
3071:from the original on February 18, 2014
1794:Introduction to Biomedical Engineering
3059:O'Neill, Kathryn M. (July 20, 2006).
2846:. Engineers Australia. Archived from
2559:"Physician-Engineer Training Program"
1990:
1988:
1278:In the U.S., an increasing number of
303:impacts are integral to the field of
217:, various diagnostic and therapeutic
7:
5547:
5308:Physical medicine and rehabilitation
4728:
3875:
2735:from the original on 12 October 2020
2702:. University of Guelph. 2010-09-07.
2680:from the original on 24 October 2019
2505:Johns Hopkins Biomedical Engineering
2283:Trauma Surgery & Acute Care Open
2006:from the original on 11 October 2009
1429:adding citations to reliable sources
1029:adding citations to reliable sources
820:, and the left arm is an example of
65:adding citations to reliable sources
5557:
4738:
3231:The Biomedical Engineering Handbook
2874:Institution of Mechanical Engineers
2824:Lithgow, B. J. (October 25, 2001).
2468:. Standards Australia. 2016-10-18.
2116:10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100503
1962:"Introduction to Biomedical Optics"
1505:(deceased) – professor emeritus at
1494:University of California, San Diego
1371:Institution of Mechanical Engineers
1365:or Biomedical engineering can gain
816:: The right arm is an example of a
5444:Medical Scientist Training Program
3228:Bronzino, Joseph D. (April 2006).
2725:"Baccalauréat en Génie biomédical"
1996:"Jaw bone created from stem cells"
1144:Consumer Product Safety Commission
272:with enlarged inset to show detail
25:
2765:from the original on 26 July 2024
2327:from the original on 3 March 2023
2053:from the original on May 25, 2017
763:, projection radiography such as
5576:
5566:
5556:
5546:
5537:
5536:
4747:
4737:
4727:
4718:
4717:
4587:
3874:
3863:
3862:
3363:
3287:
2809:. September 2005. Archived from
1797:. Academic Press. pp. 16–.
1720:
1708:
1405:
1378:Fundamentals of Engineering exam
1005:
41:
5577:
3840:Index of biotechnology articles
3260:Villafane, Carlos (June 2009).
3206:from the original on 2011-09-25
3181:from the original on 2009-06-05
3152:from the original on 2024-07-26
3123:from the original on 2023-05-02
3041:from the original on 2021-11-07
3000:(1). Tech Science Press: 5–22.
2967:from the original on 2023-03-01
2929:from the original on 2023-03-01
2870:"Medical Engineering: Homepage"
2844:"National Engineering Register"
2789:U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
2706:from the original on 2024-07-26
2651:from the original on 2024-07-26
2587:U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
2569:from the original on 2022-11-29
2540:from the original on 2022-11-29
2511:from the original on 2022-11-29
2482:from the original on 2014-03-11
2445:from the original on 2013-10-25
2166:from the original on 2015-12-22
1974:from the original on 2024-07-26
1811:from the original on 2024-07-26
1662:University of Wisconsin–Madison
1576:Georgia Institute of Technology
1557:Case Western Reserve University
1416:needs additional citations for
1216:The new International Standard
1016:needs additional citations for
546:Schematic of silicone membrane
52:needs additional citations for
5434:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
4868:Oral and maxillofacial surgery
3845:List of biotechnology articles
2958:Biomedical Engineering Society
2100:"Cognitive Neural Prosthetics"
1877:"Mechanics of animal movement"
1621:, pioneer of electrophysiology
488:biological systems engineering
1:
3689:Genetically modified organism
3456:Biotechnology industrial park
3090:Gallegos, Emma (2010-10-25).
2631:Goyal, Megh R. (2018-01-03).
2607:"Disciplines. Countries. USA"
1875:Alexander R. McNeill (2005).
1686:(deceased) – provider of the
1593:University of Texas at Austin
1516:cardiopulmonary resuscitation
703:tracking technology, such as
5414:Bachelor of Medical Sciences
5181:Neurosurgical anesthesiology
3945:List of engineering branches
1940:10.1016/0021-9290(74)90060-8
1670:electrophysiological signals
1664:, a pioneer in the field of
1660:– professor emeritus at the
1511:National Medal of Technology
757:positron emission tomography
707:placement into the brain or
524:Hospital and medical devices
381:optical coherence tomography
249:Subfields and related fields
3679:Environmental biotechnology
2985:Kassab, Ghassan S. (2004).
2785:"Job Outlook for Engineers"
2104:Annual review of psychology
1297:BME program was offered at
1271:" major in preparation for
1117:(why is this part deleted?)
453:artificial urinary bladders
5619:
3117:CSE Faculty/Staff Profiles
2593:February 19, 2006, at the
1666:instrumentation amplifiers
1642:– University Professor at
1344:
1245:Training and certification
955:Rehabilitation engineering
923:Rehabilitation engineering
920:
917:Rehabilitation engineering
879:
858:Bionics § In medicine
855:
794:
749:magnetic resonance imaging
685:
644:is a practical example of
615:, somato prosthetics, and
527:
510:Pharmaceutical engineering
505:Pharmaceutical engineering
474:
428:
370:
344:
310:
257:
29:
5532:
4713:
4585:
3930:
3858:
3361:
3350:Timeline of biotechnology
3200:"The Whitaker Foundation"
2295:10.1136/tsaco-2019-000330
2203:10.1007/s11095-006-0284-8
1896:10.1016/j.cub.2005.08.016
628:instrumentation amplifier
484:not a medical application
5368:Transplantation medicine
5259:Clinical neurophysiology
5176:Obstetric anesthesiology
5096:Interventional radiology
4856:Digestive system surgery
3706:Microbial biodegradation
3385:Industrial biotechnology
3345:History of biotechnology
3119:. engineering.case.edu.
3006:10.3970/mcb.2004.001.005
2589:– Profile for Engineers
1832:Cell Surface Engineering
1640:Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic
1617:– professor emeritus at
1574:– professor emeritus at
1524:(deceased) – pioneer of
1152:Medical Device Directive
1040:"Biomedical engineering"
900:Their inherent focus on
555:extremely broad category
208:research and development
167:are not working normally
76:"Biomedical engineering"
5239:Intensive care medicine
5213:Mass gathering medicine
5058:Maternal–fetal medicine
4606:Bachelor of Engineering
4448:Engineering mathematics
3380:Colors of biotechnology
3037:. YouTube. 2007-07-31.
2676:. www.eng.mcmaster.ca.
2247:10.2217/17435889.1.1.67
2190:Pharmaceutical Research
1928:Journal of Biomechanics
1587:– Chaired Professor in
1341:Licensure/certification
842:biocompatible materials
667:postmarket surveillance
387:fluorescence microscopy
373:Medical optical imaging
333:, using the methods of
5603:Biomedical engineering
4831:Cardiothoracic surgery
4705:Structural engineering
4700:Mechanical engineering
4443:Engineering management
3774:Biomedical engineering
3481:Pharmaceutical company
3461:Biotechnology products
3294:Biomedical engineering
2729:Polytechnique Montréal
1481:mechanical ventilators
1186:differences about the
1171:
993:
982:electronic engineering
951:
848:
838:mechanical engineering
825:
740:
729:electrical engineering
638:
632:electronic engineering
571:Some examples include
550:
467:
308:
273:
172:Biomedical engineering
168:
153:
32:Meditsinskaya Tekhnika
5482:Personalized medicine
5341:Reproductive medicine
5266:Occupational medicine
5220:Evolutionary medicine
4685:Aerospace engineering
4598:Engineering education
2795:on December 19, 2011.
2534:Dartmouth Engineering
2086:University of Chicago
1841:10.1039/9781782628477
1750:Computational anatomy
1668:for the recording of
1353:Professional Engineer
1347:Professional engineer
1165:
1140:21 CFR 829 regulation
972:
930:
856:Further information:
831:
812:
722:
625:
545:
462:
295:
267:
159:
142:
5502:Traditional medicine
5462:Alternative medicine
5329:Addiction psychiatry
5143:Transfusion medicine
5138:Medical microbiology
5053:Gynecologic oncology
4905:Reproductive surgery
4626:Graduate certificate
3799:Chemical engineering
3662:Reproductive cloning
3526:Hybridoma technology
3476:Human Genome Project
3296:at Wikimedia Commons
3266:(First ed.). .
3234:(Third ed.). .
3113:"J. Thomas Mortimer"
3023:on December 2, 2007.
2196:(7): 1417–1450(34).
2002:. October 10, 2009.
1461:Julia Tutelman Apter
1425:improve this article
1299:University of Guelph
1025:improve this article
887:Clinical engineering
882:Clinical engineering
876:Clinical engineering
514:Chemical Engineering
399:photodynamic therapy
61:improve this article
5524:History of medicine
5507:Veterinary medicine
5314:Preventive medicine
5166:Adolescent medicine
5008:Infectious diseases
4611:Bachelor of Science
4453:Engineering physics
4437:Engineering drawing
3959:Interdisciplinarity
3684:Genetic engineering
3667:Therapeutic cloning
3647:Bionic architecture
3627:Animal cell culture
3394:Biological concepts
2759:Flinders University
2731:. 15 January 2018.
2364:2018Senso..18..636S
2088:, February 25, 1999
1688:Whitaker Foundation
1644:Columbia University
1536:Institute Professor
1369:status through the
1327:another engineering
1291:McMaster University
822:myoelectric control
804:drug-eluting stents
785:electron microscopy
477:Genetic engineering
471:Genetic engineering
393:confocal microscopy
180:medical engineering
144:Telemedicine system
18:Biomedical Engineer
5472:Molecular oncology
5429:Doctor of Medicine
5419:Master of Medicine
5336:Radiation oncology
5208:Emergency medicine
5161:Addiction medicine
5128:Clinical chemistry
5123:Clinical pathology
4915:Transplant surgery
4873:Orthopedic surgery
4851:Colorectal surgery
4213:Telecommunications
4118:Naval architecture
3740:Interdisciplinary
3694:Molecular genetics
3440:Selective breeding
3175:Faculty – Duke BME
2915:The New York Times
2897:2021-04-17 at the
2419:2013-09-30 at the
2080:2011-01-05 at the
1648:tissue engineering
1585:Nicholas A. Peppas
1548:tissue engineering
1522:Willem Johan Kolff
1490:professor emeritus
1367:Chartered Engineer
1309:Graduate education
1261:its own discipline
1172:
1166:Implants, such as
994:
952:
934:representation of
910:safety engineering
867:Biomedical sensors
849:
826:
797:Implant (medicine)
781:optical microscopy
741:
733:diagnostic imaging
639:
613:facial prosthetics
609:ocular prosthetics
581:heart-lung machine
551:
538:Medical technology
499:Neural engineering
494:Neural engineering
468:
431:Tissue engineering
425:Tissue engineering
408:in the eye or the
309:
274:
243:biopharmaceuticals
169:
154:
5590:
5589:
5424:Master of Surgery
5388:
5387:
5373:Tropical medicine
5319:Prison healthcare
5234:Hospital medicine
5198:Disaster medicine
5188:Aviation medicine
5003:Hospital medicine
4910:Surgical oncology
4895:Pediatric surgery
4889:
4836:Endocrine surgery
4761:
4760:
4690:Civil engineering
4636:Licensed engineer
4631:Engineer's degree
4583:
4582:
4415:Building services
4398:Health technology
4259:Chemical reaction
4208:Signal processing
3890:
3889:
3819:Nanobiotechnology
3814:Molecular biology
3615:
3614:
3466:Biotechnology law
3292:Media related to
3273:978-1-61539-663-4
3241:978-0-8493-2124-5
3148:. 25 April 2018.
2850:on 5 January 2008
2644:978-1-351-36035-7
2475:978-1-74342-277-9
2373:10.3390/s18020636
2160:cancerjournal.net
2049:. April 3, 2006.
1889:(16): R616–R619.
1850:978-1-78262-847-7
1804:978-0-12-374979-6
1609:nanobiotechnology
1507:Purdue University
1457:
1456:
1449:
1101:
1100:
1093:
1075:
997:Regulatory issues
990:medical diagnosis
986:electrophysiology
950:working together.
944:practical science
891:medical equipment
642:Stereolithography
636:electrophysiology
605:cochlear implants
601:corrective lenses
589:artificial organs
534:medical equipment
411:coronary arteries
367:Biomedical optics
204:interdisciplinary
197:clinical engineer
137:
136:
129:
111:
16:(Redirected from
5610:
5580:
5579:
5570:
5560:
5559:
5550:
5549:
5540:
5539:
5244:Medical genetics
5229:General practice
5106:Nuclear medicine
4981:Gastroenterology
4937:Vascular surgery
4887:
4814:
4788:
4781:
4774:
4765:
4751:
4741:
4740:
4731:
4730:
4721:
4720:
4591:
4178:Electromechanics
3964:
3917:
3910:
3903:
3894:
3878:
3877:
3866:
3865:
3716:Pharmacogenomics
3496:
3490:Basic techniques
3471:Green Revolution
3449:General concepts
3367:
3324:
3317:
3310:
3301:
3291:
3277:
3256:
3254:
3253:
3244:. Archived from
3215:
3214:
3212:
3211:
3202:. Whitaker.org.
3196:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3186:
3177:. Fds.duke.edu.
3167:
3161:
3160:
3158:
3157:
3138:
3132:
3131:
3129:
3128:
3109:
3103:
3102:
3100:
3099:
3087:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3076:
3056:
3050:
3049:
3047:
3046:
3031:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3016:. Archived from
2991:
2982:
2976:
2975:
2973:
2972:
2966:
2956:. Landover, MD:
2955:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2934:
2907:
2901:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2876:. Archived from
2866:
2860:
2859:
2857:
2855:
2840:
2834:
2833:
2828:. Archived from
2821:
2815:
2814:
2803:
2797:
2796:
2791:. Archived from
2781:
2775:
2774:
2772:
2770:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2740:
2721:
2715:
2714:
2712:
2711:
2696:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2685:
2670:"Degree Options"
2666:
2660:
2659:
2657:
2656:
2628:
2622:
2621:
2619:
2618:
2609:. Archived from
2603:
2597:
2584:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2574:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2517:
2516:
2501:"MD-PhD Program"
2497:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2487:
2460:
2454:
2453:
2451:
2450:
2444:
2437:
2429:
2423:
2410:
2404:
2403:
2393:
2375:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2332:
2314:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2205:
2181:
2175:
2174:
2172:
2171:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2135:
2095:
2089:
2072:
2063:
2062:
2060:
2058:
2037:
2028:
2022:
2016:
2015:
2013:
2011:
1992:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1979:
1973:
1966:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1898:
1872:
1866:
1865:
1863:
1862:
1853:. Archived from
1826:
1820:
1819:
1817:
1816:
1788:
1746:
1725:
1724:
1713:
1712:
1711:
1704:
1452:
1445:
1441:
1438:
1432:
1409:
1401:
1388:Career prospects
1234:AS/ANS 3551:2012
1229:AS/NZS 3551:2012
1096:
1089:
1085:
1082:
1076:
1074:
1033:
1009:
1001:
942:. An example of
814:Artificial limbs
791:Medical implants
753:nuclear medicine
646:medical modeling
597:artificial limbs
301:crash test dummy
132:
125:
121:
118:
112:
110:
69:
45:
37:
21:
5618:
5617:
5613:
5612:
5611:
5609:
5608:
5607:
5593:
5592:
5591:
5586:
5528:
5517:Chief physician
5450:
5395:
5384:
5378:Travel medicine
5363:Sports medicine
5346:Sexual medicine
5286:Palliative care
5281:Pain management
5225:Family medicine
5203:Diving medicine
5149:
5077:
5039:
5032:
4948:
4941:
4900:Plastic surgery
4846:General surgery
4826:Cardiac surgery
4807:
4805:
4797:
4792:
4762:
4757:
4709:
4656:
4640:
4616:Master's degree
4592:
4579:
4493:Instrumentation
4356:
4298:
4264:Electrochemical
4217:
4203:Radio frequency
4142:
4069:
4033:Municipal/Urban
3957:
3955:
3949:
3926:
3921:
3891:
3886:
3854:
3828:
3769:Biopharmacology
3741:
3735:
3611:
3582:Electrophoresis
3577:Kidney dialysis
3567:Crystallization
3545:
3491:
3485:
3444:
3389:
3368:
3359:
3333:
3328:
3284:
3274:
3259:
3251:
3249:
3242:
3227:
3224:
3222:Further reading
3219:
3218:
3209:
3207:
3198:
3197:
3193:
3184:
3182:
3169:
3168:
3164:
3155:
3153:
3140:
3139:
3135:
3126:
3124:
3111:
3110:
3106:
3097:
3095:
3089:
3088:
3084:
3074:
3072:
3065:MIT News Office
3058:
3057:
3053:
3044:
3042:
3033:
3032:
3028:
3020:
2989:
2984:
2983:
2979:
2970:
2968:
2964:
2953:
2946:
2945:
2941:
2932:
2930:
2909:
2908:
2904:
2899:Wayback Machine
2889:
2885:
2880:on May 2, 2007.
2868:
2867:
2863:
2853:
2851:
2842:
2841:
2837:
2832:on May 1, 2008.
2823:
2822:
2818:
2813:on May 6, 2008.
2805:
2804:
2800:
2783:
2782:
2778:
2768:
2766:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2738:
2736:
2723:
2722:
2718:
2709:
2707:
2698:
2697:
2693:
2683:
2681:
2668:
2667:
2663:
2654:
2652:
2645:
2630:
2629:
2625:
2616:
2614:
2605:
2604:
2600:
2595:Wayback Machine
2585:
2581:
2572:
2570:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2543:
2541:
2528:
2527:
2523:
2514:
2512:
2499:
2498:
2494:
2485:
2483:
2476:
2462:
2461:
2457:
2448:
2446:
2442:
2435:
2431:
2430:
2426:
2421:Wayback Machine
2411:
2407:
2345:
2344:
2340:
2330:
2328:
2275:
2274:
2270:
2232:
2231:
2227:
2183:
2182:
2178:
2169:
2167:
2154:
2153:
2149:
2097:
2096:
2092:
2082:Wayback Machine
2073:
2066:
2056:
2054:
2039:
2038:
2031:
2023:
2019:
2009:
2007:
1994:
1993:
1986:
1977:
1975:
1971:
1964:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1934:(12): 189–190.
1925:
1924:
1920:
1882:Current Biology
1874:
1873:
1869:
1860:
1858:
1851:
1828:
1827:
1823:
1814:
1812:
1805:
1790:
1789:
1782:
1777:
1756:Medical physics
1744:
1731:
1719:
1709:
1707:
1699:
1697:
1658:John G. Webster
1619:Duke University
1572:Robert M. Nerem
1453:
1442:
1436:
1433:
1422:
1410:
1399:
1397:Notable figures
1390:
1349:
1343:
1252:
1247:
1231:
1214:
1196:
1176:Notified Bodies
1097:
1086:
1080:
1077:
1034:
1032:
1022:
1010:
999:
948:medical science
936:urinary bladder
925:
919:
884:
878:
869:
860:
854:
799:
793:
701:electromagnetic
694:medical devices
690:
688:Medical imaging
684:
682:Medical imaging
617:dental implants
540:
528:Main articles:
526:
507:
496:
479:
473:
433:
427:
418:adaptive optics
375:
369:
349:
343:
331:cell organelles
315:
290:
262:
256:
251:
219:medical devices
133:
122:
116:
113:
70:
68:
58:
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5616:
5614:
5606:
5605:
5595:
5594:
5588:
5587:
5585:
5584:
5574:
5564:
5554:
5544:
5533:
5530:
5529:
5527:
5526:
5521:
5520:
5519:
5509:
5504:
5499:
5494:
5489:
5484:
5479:
5474:
5469:
5464:
5458:
5456:
5455:Related topics
5452:
5451:
5449:
5448:
5447:
5446:
5436:
5431:
5426:
5421:
5416:
5411:
5406:
5404:Medical school
5400:
5398:
5390:
5389:
5386:
5385:
5383:
5382:
5381:
5380:
5370:
5365:
5360:
5358:Sleep medicine
5355:
5354:
5353:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5332:
5331:
5321:
5316:
5311:
5305:
5300:
5299:
5298:
5288:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5262:
5261:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5231:
5222:
5217:
5216:
5215:
5205:
5200:
5195:
5190:
5185:
5184:
5183:
5178:
5171:Anesthesiology
5168:
5163:
5157:
5155:
5151:
5150:
5148:
5147:
5146:
5145:
5140:
5135:
5130:
5125:
5120:
5110:
5109:
5108:
5103:
5101:Neuroradiology
5098:
5087:
5085:
5079:
5078:
5076:
5075:
5070:
5065:
5060:
5055:
5050:
5044:
5042:
5038:Obstetrics and
5034:
5033:
5031:
5030:
5025:
5020:
5015:
5010:
5005:
5000:
4995:
4990:
4989:
4988:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4963:
4953:
4951:
4943:
4942:
4940:
4939:
4934:
4933:
4932:
4922:
4920:Trauma surgery
4917:
4912:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4892:
4891:
4890:
4883:Otolaryngology
4880:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4859:
4858:
4853:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4822:
4820:
4811:
4809:subspecialties
4799:
4798:
4793:
4791:
4790:
4783:
4776:
4768:
4759:
4758:
4756:
4755:
4745:
4735:
4725:
4714:
4711:
4710:
4708:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4681:
4680:
4675:
4666:
4664:
4658:
4657:
4655:
4654:
4648:
4646:
4645:Related topics
4642:
4641:
4639:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4602:
4600:
4594:
4593:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4580:
4578:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4565:Sustainability
4562:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4501:
4500:
4490:
4485:
4480:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4434:
4429:
4427:Geoengineering
4424:
4423:
4422:
4412:
4411:
4410:
4408:Rehabilitation
4405:
4403:Pharmaceutical
4400:
4395:
4390:
4388:Bioinformatics
4380:
4375:
4370:
4364:
4362:
4358:
4357:
4355:
4354:
4349:
4347:Semiconductors
4344:
4339:
4337:Nanotechnology
4334:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4308:
4306:
4300:
4299:
4297:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4255:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4234:
4227:
4225:
4219:
4218:
4216:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4169:
4168:
4158:
4152:
4150:
4144:
4143:
4141:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4079:
4077:
4071:
4070:
4068:
4067:
4066:
4065:
4060:
4053:Transportation
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4009:
4008:
4003:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3972:
3970:
3961:
3951:
3950:
3948:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3931:
3928:
3927:
3922:
3920:
3919:
3912:
3905:
3897:
3888:
3887:
3885:
3884:
3872:
3859:
3856:
3855:
3853:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3836:
3834:
3830:
3829:
3827:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3759:Bioengineering
3756:
3754:Bioelectronics
3751:
3745:
3743:
3737:
3736:
3734:
3733:
3731:Tissue culture
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3697:
3696:
3691:
3681:
3676:
3671:
3670:
3669:
3664:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3637:Bioinformatics
3634:
3632:Biofabrication
3629:
3623:
3621:
3617:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3610:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3572:Chromatography
3569:
3564:
3559:
3557:Centrifugation
3553:
3551:
3550:Chemical field
3547:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3521:Flow cytometry
3518:
3513:
3508:
3502:
3500:
3493:
3487:
3486:
3484:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3452:
3450:
3446:
3445:
3443:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3408:
3403:
3397:
3395:
3391:
3390:
3388:
3387:
3382:
3376:
3374:
3370:
3369:
3362:
3360:
3358:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3341:
3339:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3327:
3326:
3319:
3312:
3304:
3298:
3297:
3283:
3282:External links
3280:
3279:
3278:
3272:
3257:
3240:
3223:
3220:
3217:
3216:
3191:
3162:
3133:
3104:
3082:
3051:
3026:
2977:
2939:
2917:. 1979-04-18.
2902:
2883:
2861:
2835:
2816:
2798:
2776:
2746:
2716:
2691:
2661:
2643:
2623:
2598:
2579:
2550:
2521:
2492:
2474:
2455:
2424:
2405:
2338:
2289:(1): e000330.
2268:
2225:
2176:
2147:
2090:
2064:
2029:
2017:
1984:
1953:
1918:
1867:
1849:
1821:
1803:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1772:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1753:
1747:
1738:
1730:
1729:
1717:
1696:
1693:
1692:
1691:
1681:
1677:, coauthor of
1672:
1655:
1637:
1634:Ascher Shapiro
1631:
1622:
1615:Robert Plonsey
1612:
1582:
1579:
1569:
1566:
1563:Alfred E. Mann
1560:
1550:
1529:
1519:
1500:
1483:
1474:
1464:
1455:
1454:
1437:September 2016
1413:
1411:
1404:
1398:
1395:
1389:
1386:
1363:Bioengineering
1342:
1339:
1318:medical device
1314:pharmaceutical
1273:medical school
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1230:
1227:
1213:
1210:
1195:
1192:
1188:optimal extent
1168:artificial hip
1156:technical file
1106:Class I recall
1099:
1098:
1013:
1011:
1004:
998:
995:
921:Main article:
918:
915:
880:Main article:
877:
874:
868:
865:
853:
850:
834:prosthetic eye
795:Main article:
792:
789:
723:A T1-weighted
686:Main article:
683:
680:
679:
678:
670:
662:
577:infusion pumps
569:
568:
565:
530:Medical device
525:
522:
506:
503:
495:
492:
475:Main article:
472:
469:
429:Main article:
426:
423:
371:Main article:
368:
365:
345:Main article:
342:
339:
311:Main article:
299:obtained from
289:
286:
277:Bioinformatics
260:Bioinformatics
258:Main article:
255:
254:Bioinformatics
252:
250:
247:
135:
134:
49:
47:
40:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5615:
5604:
5601:
5600:
5598:
5583:
5575:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5563:
5555:
5553:
5545:
5543:
5535:
5534:
5531:
5525:
5522:
5518:
5515:
5514:
5513:
5510:
5508:
5505:
5503:
5500:
5498:
5495:
5493:
5490:
5488:
5487:Public health
5485:
5483:
5480:
5478:
5475:
5473:
5470:
5468:
5467:Allied health
5465:
5463:
5460:
5459:
5457:
5453:
5445:
5442:
5441:
5440:
5437:
5435:
5432:
5430:
5427:
5425:
5422:
5420:
5417:
5415:
5412:
5410:
5407:
5405:
5402:
5401:
5399:
5397:
5391:
5379:
5376:
5375:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5359:
5356:
5352:
5349:
5348:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5330:
5327:
5326:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5297:
5294:
5293:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5282:
5279:
5277:
5276:Oral medicine
5274:
5272:
5271:Ophthalmology
5269:
5267:
5264:
5260:
5257:
5256:
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5162:
5159:
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5152:
5144:
5141:
5139:
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5134:
5133:Cytopathology
5131:
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5121:
5119:
5116:
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5102:
5099:
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5084:
5080:
5074:
5073:Urogynecology
5071:
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5059:
5056:
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5001:
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4996:
4994:
4991:
4987:
4984:
4983:
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4979:
4977:
4976:Endocrinology
4974:
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4967:
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4962:
4958:
4955:
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4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
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4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4108:Manufacturing
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4098:Biomechanical
4096:
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4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3998:
3997:
3996:Environmental
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3976:Architectural
3974:
3973:
3971:
3969:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3952:
3946:
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3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
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3787:
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3777:
3775:
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3750:
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3729:
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3709:
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3702:
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3695:
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3687:
3686:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3652:Cell immunity
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3624:
3622:
3618:
3608:
3607:Sedimentation
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3552:
3548:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3516:Cultured meat
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3503:
3501:
3499:Biology field
3497:
3494:
3488:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3453:
3451:
3447:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3398:
3396:
3392:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3377:
3375:
3371:
3366:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3342:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3331:Biotechnology
3325:
3320:
3318:
3313:
3311:
3306:
3305:
3302:
3295:
3290:
3286:
3285:
3281:
3275:
3269:
3265:
3264:
3258:
3248:on 2015-02-24
3247:
3243:
3237:
3233:
3232:
3226:
3225:
3221:
3205:
3201:
3195:
3192:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3166:
3163:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3137:
3134:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3108:
3105:
3093:
3086:
3083:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3055:
3052:
3040:
3036:
3030:
3027:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2988:
2981:
2978:
2963:
2960:. p. 4.
2959:
2952:
2951:
2943:
2940:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2906:
2903:
2900:
2896:
2893:
2887:
2884:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2865:
2862:
2849:
2845:
2839:
2836:
2831:
2827:
2820:
2817:
2812:
2808:
2802:
2799:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2780:
2777:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2750:
2747:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2720:
2717:
2705:
2701:
2695:
2692:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2665:
2662:
2650:
2646:
2640:
2637:. CRC Press.
2636:
2635:
2627:
2624:
2613:on 2023-02-20
2612:
2608:
2602:
2599:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2583:
2580:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2554:
2551:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2525:
2522:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2496:
2493:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2467:
2466:
2459:
2456:
2441:
2434:
2428:
2425:
2422:
2418:
2415:
2409:
2406:
2401:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2374:
2369:
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2357:
2353:
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2326:
2322:
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2313:
2308:
2304:
2300:
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2288:
2284:
2280:
2272:
2269:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2180:
2177:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2151:
2148:
2143:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2094:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2076:
2071:
2069:
2065:
2052:
2048:
2047:
2042:
2036:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2021:
2018:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1991:
1989:
1985:
1970:
1963:
1957:
1954:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1919:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1883:
1878:
1871:
1868:
1857:on 2021-01-25
1856:
1852:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1833:
1825:
1822:
1810:
1806:
1800:
1796:
1795:
1787:
1785:
1781:
1774:
1769:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1757:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1742:
1741:Cardiophysics
1739:
1736:
1733:
1732:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1716:
1706:
1702:
1694:
1689:
1685:
1684:U.A. Whitaker
1682:
1680:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1649:
1646:, pioneer in
1645:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1626:
1623:
1620:
1616:
1613:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1597:drug delivery
1595:, pioneer in
1594:
1590:
1586:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1573:
1570:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1558:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1545:
1544:drug delivery
1541:
1537:
1533:
1532:Robert Langer
1530:
1527:
1523:
1520:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1503:Leslie Geddes
1501:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1488:(deceased) –
1487:
1484:
1482:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1451:
1448:
1440:
1430:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1414:This section
1412:
1408:
1403:
1402:
1396:
1394:
1387:
1385:
1381:
1379:
1374:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1348:
1340:
1338:
1334:
1332:
1328:
1322:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1300:
1296:
1295:undergraduate
1292:
1287:
1285:
1281:
1280:undergraduate
1276:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1249:
1244:
1242:
1238:
1235:
1228:
1226:
1222:
1219:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1202:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1183:
1181:
1177:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1157:
1153:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1118:
1114:
1109:
1107:
1095:
1092:
1084:
1073:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1049:
1045:
1042: –
1041:
1037:
1036:Find sources:
1030:
1026:
1020:
1019:
1014:This section
1012:
1008:
1003:
1002:
996:
991:
987:
983:
979:
977:
971:
967:
963:
959:
956:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
924:
916:
914:
911:
907:
903:
898:
896:
892:
888:
883:
875:
873:
866:
864:
859:
851:
847:
846:ophthalmology
843:
839:
835:
830:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
805:
798:
790:
788:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
738:
734:
730:
726:
721:
717:
715:
710:
706:
702:
697:
695:
689:
681:
676:
671:
668:
663:
659:
658:
657:
655:
650:
647:
643:
637:
633:
629:
624:
620:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
566:
563:
562:
561:
558:
556:
549:
544:
539:
535:
531:
523:
521:
519:
515:
511:
504:
502:
500:
493:
491:
489:
485:
478:
470:
466:
461:
457:
454:
450:
446:
440:
438:
437:biotechnology
432:
424:
422:
420:
419:
413:
412:
407:
406:
401:
400:
395:
394:
389:
388:
383:
382:
374:
366:
364:
362:
358:
354:
348:
340:
338:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
314:
306:
302:
298:
294:
287:
285:
281:
278:
271:
266:
261:
253:
248:
246:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
213:
212:biocompatible
209:
205:
200:
198:
194:
190:
186:
181:
177:
173:
166:
162:
158:
152:
150:
145:
141:
131:
128:
120:
109:
106:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78: –
77:
73:
72:Find sources:
66:
62:
56:
55:
50:This article
48:
44:
39:
38:
33:
19:
5492:Rural health
5477:Nanomedicine
5028:Rheumatology
4959: /
4878:Hand surgery
4863:Neurosurgery
4669:Engineering
4515:Mechatronics
4382:
4368:Agricultural
4018:Geotechnical
3986:Construction
3879:
3867:
3804:Microbiology
3789:Biochemicals
3773:
3701:Gene therapy
3642:Biosynthesis
3620:Applications
3541:Spectroscopy
3511:Cell culture
3420:Fermentation
3262:
3250:. Retrieved
3246:the original
3230:
3208:. Retrieved
3194:
3183:. Retrieved
3174:
3165:
3154:. Retrieved
3145:
3136:
3125:. Retrieved
3116:
3107:
3096:. Retrieved
3085:
3073:. Retrieved
3064:
3054:
3043:. Retrieved
3029:
3018:the original
2997:
2993:
2980:
2969:. Retrieved
2949:
2942:
2931:. Retrieved
2914:
2905:
2886:
2878:the original
2873:
2864:
2852:. Retrieved
2848:the original
2838:
2830:the original
2819:
2811:the original
2801:
2793:the original
2788:
2779:
2767:. Retrieved
2758:
2749:
2737:. Retrieved
2728:
2719:
2708:. Retrieved
2694:
2682:. Retrieved
2673:
2664:
2653:. Retrieved
2633:
2626:
2615:. Retrieved
2611:the original
2601:
2582:
2571:. Retrieved
2562:
2553:
2542:. Retrieved
2533:
2524:
2513:. Retrieved
2504:
2495:
2484:. Retrieved
2464:
2458:
2447:. Retrieved
2427:
2408:
2355:
2351:
2341:
2329:. Retrieved
2286:
2282:
2271:
2241:(1): 67–72.
2238:
2235:Nanomedicine
2234:
2228:
2193:
2189:
2179:
2168:. Retrieved
2159:
2150:
2107:
2103:
2093:
2055:. Retrieved
2044:
2020:
2008:. Retrieved
1999:
1976:. Retrieved
1956:
1931:
1927:
1921:
1886:
1880:
1870:
1859:. Retrieved
1855:the original
1831:
1824:
1813:. Retrieved
1793:
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3094:. Aemf.org
3045:2011-09-24
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2739:11 October
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3492:and tools
3075:March 16,
2923:0362-4331
2382:1424-8220
2303:2397-5776
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2004:Archived
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