245:
372:
341:
level cut against the tree trunk, but this technique is currently avoided as evidence has shown that flush cuts increase the wound size and encourage the invasion of the wound by microorganisms and decay. Therefore, the current recommendation encourages that branches should be removed outside the branch collar as this technique facilitates a circular closure around the wound, while flush cuts often result in a distorted closure that exposes the wood to discolouration and decay.
171:
131:
328:
453:(DBKL) tree maintenance workers on correct pruning techniques and conditions illustrated a need for improved education of optimal pruning practices. This would be beneficial as a clear understanding of optimal pruning techniques would improve the quality of their roadside tree pruning and consequently the health of the trees and the individuals living in communities with trees situated nearby.
465:
29:
379:
Remove damaged, weak diseased, or insect infested growth or small unwanted branches anytime. It is most beneficial to prune prior to the annual period of most rapid growth, which is usually spring. Conversely, pruning when growth is nearly complete for the season tends to retard and stunt growth. The
145:
Tree branches are attached to the trunk with a series of trunk collars that annually envelope the branch collar. The branch tissues develop a basal collar first in spring, then trunk tissue envelops the collar later during seasons of growth. This rhythm of growth results in a tissue arrangement that
262:
Events such as storms or incorrect pruning activity can cause damage to the branch collar When the trunk collar is injured, the trunk xylem below it is rapidly infected and decays. Within the branch collar there is a narrow cone of cells known as the branch defence zone, these cells activate
157:
within the tight pocket above the branch collar known as the "crotch", causes the cells to be compacted to form the hard zone of connective tissue between the branch and the trunk. The formation of narrow channels and loops within the branch collar tissue are the pathways left behind by the flowing
340:
tissue free of defects and therefore possessing greater wood strength. Furthermore, Natural target pruning recommended guidelines aiming to retain the integrity of the branch collar has been shown to facilitate effective wound closure. The traditional method of pruning branches was to make an even
205:
The presence of visible branch collars is a good indicator of low branch junction conductivity, this is because branch collars with perpendicular branches have significantly lower hydraulic conductivities than more upright branches. Within the branch collar there are water flow restriction zones,
196:
angles and density are adapted locally within the branch and branch collar, to develop patterns within the branch collar that best protect the plant from stress damage caused by loads on the branch and tension from branch growth. The points on the branch closest to the branch collar structure can
307:
start at the branch collar. For young trees branches crotch and collar could confine the infection within itself, in older trees (older than 4 years of age) there were more stem cankers which frequently originated on pruning scars. Wounds infection of the stem also originated in wounds caused by
218:
The circular tissues within the branch junctions directly influence the growth and dimensions of the tree, by affecting the shedding of branches and by attenuating their ability to withstand mechanical load, and indirectly, by affecting the movement of growth regulators and ascent of sap, which
187:
The branch collar forms a sturdy foundation structure, the enveloping of branch tissue by trunk tissue gives the branch unique properties of strength. The branch collar junction due to various regions of differing elasticity allows the branch collar to withstand mechanical loads by distributing
440:
The branch collar has a variety of functions one of which is a natural defence system from disease and infection. Therefore, proper pruning techniques by maintaining the structurally integrity of the branch collar, allows for the branch collar to develop callus tissue which seals of the wound
335:
The generally accepted guideline for urban pruning has been a technique commonly referred to as "natural target pruning". Natural target pruning aims to retain the branch collar on the primary trunk while removing the rest of the branch, thereby promoting the development of the wood wound
417:
the first cut should be done from the underside of the branch around 6 to 12 inches away from the branch's union to the trunk. This cut is done to prevent the falling weight of the branch from tearing the stem tissue as it pulls away from the tree, which can cause damage and infection.
388:
trees should be pruned before growth in spring. Spring flowering trees should be pruned towards the end of late spring as this tends to be their period of new growth, this can be indicated by the fading of flowers. Summer trees should be pruned before growth in late winter or spring.
349:
Pruning according to the branch collar is integral in maintaining the health of woody plants. When pruning injures or removes the branch collar, the trunk xylem above and below the cut is rapidly infected by the microorganisms inhabiting the wood and decay of the plant occurs.
222:
Trees can also self-prune by the bark building a ring notch at the branch collar which becomes a weak point so that at some stage the branch will be knocked off. Then the bark then grows over the wound and seals the tree. This function allows plants such as the crack willow
117:, the "shoulder" junction structure between the branch and the trunk is known as the branch collar. This structure can be identified as a raised ring of tissue around the base of the branch The branch collar and trunk collar are collectively called the branch collar.
357:
Young trees should be pruned enough to control the direction of the plants growth and to correct any form of weakness along the branch. The tree should be pruned at its desired height. When pruning choose roughly five to seven main branches and prune the rest.
428:
7. Make a third and final cut outside the previously marked point, at a 45 to 60 degree angle to the branch ridge, while cutting do so in a precise manner as to maintain the structurally integrity of the branch collar (in step 3).
90:
Branch collars serve as a strong foundation to the branch, and its orientation and internal characteristics allow the branch to withstand stress from numerous directions. Functionally the branch collars also influence the
353:
Optimal pruning is carried out by cutting with respect to the perimeter of the branch collar and cutting adjacent to it. When cutting it is important to use sharp equipment, as any crushing will damage the branch collar.
294:
diagnosis of infected trees. Furthermore, the ability to conduct an epidemiological study using branch collar is useful as it can be used instead of leaves, which allows for the diagnosing of trees without any leaves.
421:
5. The second cut; called the top cut is made above and is further along the branch than the undercut. As beforementioned it is important to prevent any ripping while cutting and manipulating the branch.
153:
The expanding cambium of the trunk, over time, slowly overtakes the newly forming branch tissue, which causes the branch collar to swallow up more of the branch as the tree grows. The development of
146:
wraps around the branch, creating the branch collar. This processes where the branch tissue develops basipetally and the trunk tissue develops perpendicular to the branch, results in the
87:
tissue. The shape of the branch collar is due to two separate growth patterns, initially the branch grows basipetally, followed by seasonal trunk growth which envelops the branch.
290:. Branch collar cortical tissue is soft compared to other tissues used for bacterial measure like the pith, making the tissue of the branch collar easier and more efficient in the
270:
formation may provide a barrier to further mycelial advance, and the abundant production of resin may constitute further protection. However periderm barriers can be penetrated by
699:
Nakanishi, Yoshihiro; Takesaki, Ken; Miyaji, Katsuhiko; Kitazawa, Hiroaki (2016-09-01). "Detection of
Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus from branch collars of citrus trees".
1428:. ASLI (Annual Serial Landmark International) Conferences on QoL 2016. AMER International Conference on Quality of Life, AicQoL2016Medan, Indonesia, 25–27 February 2016.
1364:
210:
elements and non-functional circular vessels these structures help enhance the segmentation of the plant and promotes the movement of water and sap up the central xylem.
244:
410:
3. Mark a point outside both the branch bark ridge and the branch collar, mark a line angling down away following the angle of the branch collar.
1394:"Branch Collar & Branch Bark Ridge | Tree Pruning, Tree Trimming, Tree Removal, Oak Pruning, Arborist and 24 Hour Tree Service | Rick Rudnick Arborist"
286:
The branch collar can be used to diagnose dying trees, Liberibacter asiaticus bacteria was found in higher concentration in the branch collar than the
192:
within critical regions of the branch collar can change their physical orientation to withstand and match stress from various directions. Furthermore,
361:
Older trees need to be pruned more delicately – they are more susceptible to infections. When pruning older trees, prune out dead, weak, diseased and
274:, especially in weather favouring the rapid extension of canker, and it is common to find a succession of such barriers which have been crossed by
1069:
Guariguata, Manuel R.; Gilbert, Gregory S. (1996). "Interspecific
Variation in Rates of Trunk Wound Closure in a Panamanian Lowland Forest".
98:
The branch collar which provides a protective barrier to prevent infection and decay, can also be useful in diagnosing bacterial diseases.
945:
407:(raised strip of bark at the top of the branch union or crotch that sits above the branch itself connecting to the trunk of the plant.
1349:
105:
techniques should accommodate for the branch collar structure, as by damaging the tree it is likely to decay or become diseased.
368:
The quality of pruning has significant effect on the infection by fungal pathogens, which can consequently cause stem disease.
1323:
1246:
578:
Müller, Ulrich; Gindl, Wolfgang; Jeronimidis, George (2006-09-01). "Biomechanics of a branch – stem junction in softwood".
92:
1018:"Studies on a Canker Disease of Cypresses in East Africa, Caused by Monochaetia Unicornis (cooke & Ellis) Sacc"
1472:
1153:"Factors that affect compartmentalization and wound closure of Quercus rubra infested with Enaphalodes rufulus"
197:
take the most duress, similarly the branch collar provides the length of the branch with a strong foundation.
1017:
1152:
1477:
450:
228:
1487:
1482:
371:
337:
404:
1054:
761:"Vascular differentiation in branch junctions of trees: circular patterns and functional significance"
1422:"Knowledge in Tree Pruning for Sustainable Practices in Urban Setting: Improving Our Quality of Life"
1113:
901:
308:
large wildlife. Proper pruning techniques of the branches can prevent the development of cankers.
1293:
1180:
1094:
985:
837:
788:
724:
650:
627:
603:
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the development of wood wound which is a callus tissue that grows when the branch is broken off.
425:
6. Once both these cuts have been completed the branch should fall and be removed.
1443:
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44:
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977:
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772:
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642:
587:
555:
488:
170:
130:
965:
905:
1467:
1033:
207:
84:
913:
83:; the inflammation formed at the base of the branch is caused by annually overlapping
1461:
1168:
674:
654:
478:
267:
256:
219:
influence the development of branches especially the dominance of the leader branch.
135:
114:
1393:
1297:
1184:
989:
841:
792:
728:
607:
327:
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stress within tissue regions of varying strengths. Additionally, the orientation of
808:"The role of material properties for the mechanical adaptation at branch junctions"
470:
291:
224:
1332:
744:. 2002. Directed by A. Shigo. Durham, New Hampshire: Shigo and Trees, Associates.
248:
Sycamore Canker caused by
Pseudomonas bacteria. Lambroughton Woods, North Ayrshire
150:
of the upper segments of the branch collar to develop in a right-angle formation.
1438:
1421:
1281:
362:
193:
175:
80:
1129:
922:
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807:
806:
Jungnikl, Karin; Goebbels, Jürgen; Burgert, Ingo; Fratzl, Peter (2009-06-01).
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The stages in pruning living branches with respect to branch collar:
385:
381:
1245:
Tarigan, M.; Wingfield, M. J.; Van Wyk, M.; Tjahjono, B.; Roux, J. (2011).
873:
856:
646:
464:
28:
76:
948:. US Forest Service for the US Department of Agriculture. Archived from
375:
Pamphlet entitled; How to prune trees, an example of a pruning resource.
252:
The branch collar inhibits infection by acting as a protective barrier.
1098:
776:
317:
159:
147:
102:
1289:
966:"Pruning Wounds and Occlusion: A Long-Standing Conundrum in Forestry"
304:
275:
1082:
559:
437:
Proper pruning techniques are integral in keeping the tree healthy.
1221:
546:
Shigo, Alex L. (1985). "How tree branches are attached to trunks".
380:
period of growth tends to vary for different trees, but generally;
628:"Branch Morphology Impacts Compartmentalization of Pruning Wounds"
370:
326:
303:
While most infections occur commonly at the main branch crotches,
271:
243:
189:
169:
154:
129:
1114:"Mechanical injury and occlusion: An urban, tropical perspective"
1059:. Static.colostate.edu. (2020). Retrieved 10 October 2020, from
287:
400:
1. Decide where the branch collar begins and ends
857:"Branch-to-stem diameter ratio affects strength of attachment"
675:"The mechanical adaption of tree to environmental influences"
365:
branches and also remove low, broken and crossing branches.
1112:
Ow, Lai Fern; Ghosh, Subhadip; Sim, Eng Koon (2013-01-01).
1420:
Badrulhisham, Norainiratna; Othman, Noriah (2016-10-31).
1365:"A Guide to Successful Pruning, Pruning Deciduous Trees"
1331:. University of California. pp. 1–2. Archived from
626:
Eisner, Nathan; Gilman, Edward; Grabosky, Jason (2002).
1202:
Fertilizing, Pruning, and
Thinning Hardwood Plantations
231:
where the shed branch will then root itself and grow.
61:
53:
43:
35:
21:
1151:Haavik, Laurel J.; Stephen, Frederick M. (2011).
255:Trees compartmentalize their injury by producing
679:Proceedings of 3rd Plant Biomechanics Conference
1270:Southern Forests: A Journal of Forest Science
331:Branch collar that has been pruned correctly.
8:
759:Lev-Yadun, Simcha; Aloni, Roni (June 1990).
1200:Mckenna, Jim & Woeste, Keith. (2020).
27:
1437:
1426:Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences
921:
872:
823:
445:Application of Optimal Pruning Techniques
1056:Pruning Cuts - Colorado State University
954:Features a diagram of the branch collar.
890:"Compartmentalization of Decay in Trees"
178:) with its branch collar circled in red
505:
259:substances then growing over the area.
1415:
1413:
1317:
1315:
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1311:
1309:
1307:
1247:"Pruning quality affects infection of
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18:
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1210:
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1194:
673:Gardiner, Barry; Quine, Christopher.
541:
539:
537:
535:
533:
531:
529:
384:trees should be pruned when dormant.
7:
754:
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750:
694:
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666:
664:
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619:
617:
573:
571:
569:
527:
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521:
519:
517:
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513:
511:
509:
282:Epidemiology using the branch collar
206:which are the combination of narrow
1118:Urban Forestry & Urban Greening
1157:Agricultural and Forest Entomology
1034:10.1111/j.1744-7348.1953.tb01086.x
701:Journal of General Plant Pathology
681:: 71–82 – via Research Gate.
441:minimizing disease and infection.
95:of nutrients and growth patterns.
79:" between the branch and trunk of
14:
914:10.1038/scientificamerican0485-96
1169:10.1111/j.1461-9563.2011.00522.x
463:
134:A branch collar on a common oak
433:Consequences of Optimal Pruning
1:
403:2. Identify the
16:German term: a part of a tree
1439:10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.236
1282:10.2989/20702620.2011.639498
855:Gilman, E (September 2003).
214:Influence on growth patterns
742:TREES, ASSOCIATES and SHIGO
1504:
1354:. Extension.purdue.edu. .
1325:Garden Information Pruning
1130:10.1016/j.ufug.2013.02.004
548:Canadian Journal of Botany
315:
240:Compartmentalising disease
1022:Annals of Applied Biology
964:O'Hara, Kevin L. (2007).
825:10.1007/s00468-008-0305-9
713:10.1007/s10327-016-0666-7
592:10.1007/s00468-006-0079-x
266:Suberization followed by
26:
1261:Lasiodiplodia theobromae
1226:celosangeles.ucdavis.edu
861:Journal of Arboriculture
635:Journal of Arboriculture
1398:rickrudnickarborist.com
1351:Tree Pruning Essentials
1257:Ceratocystis acaciivora
1016:Jones, D. Rudd (1953).
888:Shigo, Alex L. (1985).
345:Optimal pruning summary
49:Plant Structural Member
874:10.48044/jauf.2003.033
647:10.48044/jauf.2002.013
451:Kuala Lumpur City Hall
376:
332:
249:
229:vegetative propagation
179:
142:
982:10.1093/jof/105.3.131
374:
330:
247:
173:
133:
1222:"Los Angeles County"
946:"Tree pruning guide"
183:Structural integrity
158:of large volumes of
1369:www.pubs.ext.vt.edu
1348:Purcell, L., 2015.
970:Journal of Forestry
923:2027/uva.x002416568
906:1985SciAm.252d..96S
894:Scientific American
393:Pruning methodology
235:Ecology and disease
952:on April 26, 2007.
777:10.1007/BF00226240
377:
333:
250:
180:
143:
1322:Hodel, Donald R.
484:Branch attachment
405:branch bark ridge
69:
68:
45:Biological system
1495:
1473:Plant morphology
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1361:
1355:
1346:
1340:
1339:
1337:
1330:
1319:
1302:
1301:
1276:(3–4): 187–191.
1267:
1242:
1236:
1235:
1233:
1232:
1218:
1205:
1198:
1189:
1188:
1148:
1142:
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1046:
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961:
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852:
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845:
827:
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732:
696:
683:
682:
670:
659:
658:
632:
623:
612:
611:
575:
564:
563:
554:(8): 1391–1401.
543:
489:Plant morphology
473:
468:
467:
449:Studies testing
413:4.
201:Low Conductivity
160:hormonal signals
31:
19:
1503:
1502:
1498:
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1111:
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1083:10.2307/2388768
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577:
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567:
560:10.1139/b85-193
545:
544:
507:
502:
469:
462:
459:
447:
435:
415:Ternary Method;
395:
363:insect-infested
347:
325:
320:
314:
301:
299:Canker diseases
292:epidemiological
284:
242:
237:
216:
203:
185:
174:A bottlebrush (
168:
128:
123:
111:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1501:
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1453:
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1380:
1356:
1341:
1338:on 2020-11-13.
1303:
1253:A. crassicarpa
1249:Acacia mangium
1237:
1206:
1190:
1163:(3): 291–300.
1143:
1124:(2): 255–261.
1104:
1061:
1047:
1028:(2): 323–343.
995:
976:(3): 131–138.
956:
937:
880:
867:(5): 291–294.
847:
818:(3): 605–610.
798:
746:
734:
707:(5): 248–253.
684:
660:
613:
586:(5): 643–648.
565:
504:
503:
501:
498:
497:
496:
491:
486:
481:
475:
474:
458:
455:
446:
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394:
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346:
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316:Main article:
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241:
238:
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225:Salix Fragilis
215:
212:
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184:
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127:
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67:
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33:
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24:
23:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1500:
1489:
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1478:Plant anatomy
1476:
1474:
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1227:
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951:
947:
941:
938:
933:
929:
924:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
900:(4): 96–103.
899:
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870:
866:
862:
858:
851:
848:
843:
839:
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691:
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685:
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676:
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665:
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656:
652:
648:
644:
641:(2): 99–105.
640:
636:
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