332:, Terence Hawkes writes that the fundamental close reading technique is based on the assumption that "the subject and the object of study—the reader and the text—are stable and independent forms, rather than products of the unconscious process of signification," an assumption which he identifies as the "ideology of liberal humanism," which is attributed to the New Critics who are "accused of attempting to disguise the interests at work in their critical processes." For Hawkes, ideally, a critic ought to be considered to " the finished work by his reading of it, and remain simply an inert consumer of a 'ready-made' product."
336:
Critics have preferred to stress the writing rather than the writer, so have they given less stress to the reader—to the reader's response to the work. Yet no one in his right mind could forget the reader. He is essential for 'realizing' any poem or novel. ... Reader response is certainly worth studying." However, Brooks tempers his praise for the reader-response theory by noting its limitations, pointing out that, "to put meaning and valuation of a literary work at the mercy of any and every individual would reduce the study of literature to reader psychology and to the history of taste."
133:
taking this approach under the influence of nineteenth-century German scholarship. The New
Critics felt that this approach tended to distract from the text and meaning of a poem and entirely neglect its aesthetic qualities in favor of teaching about external factors. On the other hand, the New Critics disparaged the literary appreciation school, which limited itself to pointing out the "beauties" and morally elevating qualities of the text, as too subjective and emotional. Condemning this as a version of Romanticism, they aimed for a newer, systematic and objective method.
152:) was a staple of French literary studies, but in the United States, aesthetic concerns and the study of modern poets were the province of non-academic essayists and book reviewers rather than serious scholars. The New Criticism changed this. Though their interest in textual study initially met with resistance from older scholars, the methods of the New Critics rapidly predominated in American universities until challenged by
892:
136:
It was felt, especially by creative writers and by literary critics outside the academy, that the special aesthetic experience of poetry and literary language was lost in the welter of extraneous erudition and emotional effusions. Heather Dubrow notes that the prevailing focus of literary scholarship
335:
In response to critics like Hawkes, Cleanth Brooks, in his essay "The New
Criticism" (1979), argued that the New Criticism was not diametrically opposed to the general principles of reader-response theory and that the two could complement one another. For instance, he stated, "If some of the New
140:
New
Critics believed the structure and meaning of the text were intimately connected and should not be analyzed separately. In order to bring the focus of literary studies back to analysis of the texts, they aimed to exclude the reader's response, the author's intention, historical and cultural
132:
New
Criticism developed as a reaction to the older philological and literary history schools of the US North, which focused on the history and meaning of individual words and their relation to foreign and ancient languages, comparative sources, and the biographical circumstances of the authors,
339:
Another objection against New
Criticism is that it misguidedly tries to turn literary criticism into an objective science, or at least aims at "bringing literary study to a condition rivaling that of science." One example of this is Ransom's essay "Criticism, Inc.", in which he advocated that
137:
was on "the study of ethical values and philosophical issues through literature, the tracing of literary history, and ... political criticism". Literature was approached via its moral, historical and social background and literary scholarship did not focus on analysis of texts.
237:", which served as a kind of sister essay to "The Intentional Fallacy" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the
350:
The New
Criticism is not supported by Feminist Theory which is often concerned with sexual identity and the human body. Nor is it aligned with post-colonial theory which deals with dual-identity, personal experience and political bias in writing.
324:
It was frequently alleged that the New
Criticism treated literary texts as autonomous and divorced from historical context, and that its practitioners were "uninterested in the human meaning, the social function and effect of literature."
230:, or "intended meaning" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting.
211:, is a very elusive beast", meaning that there was no clearly defined "New Critical" manifesto, school, or stance. Nevertheless, a number of writings outline inter-related New Critical ideas.
403:
300:) are still fundamental tools of literary criticism, underpinning a number of subsequent theoretic approaches to literature including poststructuralism, deconstruction theory,
49:, particularly of poetry, to discover how a work of literature functioned as a self-contained, self-referential aesthetic object. The movement derived its name from
344:, however, argued against this by noting that a number of the New Critics outlined their theoretical aesthetics in contrast to the "objectivity" of the sciences.
468:
Lauter, Paul (June 1995). ""Versions of
Nashville, Visions of American Studies": Presidential Address to the American Studies Association, October 27, 1994".
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also made significant contributions to New criticism. It was
Wimsatt who gave the idea of intentional and affective fallacy. Also very influential were the
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248:
The hey-day of the New
Criticism in American high schools and colleges was the Cold War decades between 1950 and the mid-seventies. Brooks and Warren's
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Studying a passage of prose or poetry in New Critical style required careful, exacting scrutiny of the passage itself. Formal elements such as
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would go on to develop the aesthetics that came to be known as the New Criticism. Indeed, for Paul Lauter, a Professor of American Studies at
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1926:
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245:, was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his essay "Literature in the Reader" (1970).
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Although the New Criticism is no longer a dominant theoretical model in American universities, some of its methods (like
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For an overview, see Gerald Graff, Professing Literature, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1987.
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654:. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. Available online in PDF from the University of Washington
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contexts, and moralistic bias from their analysis. These goals were articulated in Ransom's "Criticism, Inc." and
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686:. General Editor, Sacvan Bercovitch. New York; Cambridge, University Press, 1996. pp. 261–471.
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Although the New Critics were never a formal group, an important inspiration was the teaching of
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Duvall, John N. "Eliot's Modemism and Brook's New Criticism: poetic and religious thinking".
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Wellek defended the New Critics in his essay "The New Criticism: Pro and Contra" (1978).
207:. In his essay, "The New Criticism", Cleanth Brooks notes that "The New Critic, like the
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The Cambridge History of American Literature volume 8: Poetry and Criticism (1940–1995)
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T.S. Eliot's essays "Tradition and the Individual Talent" and "Hamlet and His Problems"
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Russo, John Paul. "The Tranquilized Poem: The Crisis of New Criticism in the 1950s."
664:. Swallow, 2008. Anthology that includes some of the keys texts of the New Criticism.
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Pivato, Joseph. "Echo: Essays on Other Literatures." Toronto: Guernica, 1994, 2003.
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Lentricchia, Frank. "After the New Criticism". University of Chicago Press, 1980.
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to help establish the single best and most unified interpretation of the text.
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108:", in which Eliot developed his notions of the "theory of impersonality" and "
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Brooks, Cleanth. "Criticism and Literary History: Marvell's Horatian Ode".
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school of literary theory. One of the leading theorists from this school,
112:" respectively. Eliot's evaluative judgments, such as his condemnation of
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of the text. In addition to the theme, the New Critics also looked for
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and for showing significant ideological and historical parallels with
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340:"criticism must become more scientific, or precise and systematic".
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published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled "
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650:, 2nd edition. Edited by Michael Groden, Martin Kreiswirth, and
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Texts and Contexts: Writing about Literature with Critical Theory
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Ransom's essays "Criticism, Inc" and "The Ontological Critic"
308:. It has been credited with anticipating the insights of the
226:", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an
700:. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1987.
454:
Dubrow, Heather. "Twentieth Century Shakespeare Criticism."
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in the 1970s. Other schools of critical theory, including,
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in the middle decades of the 20th century. It emphasized
535:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 13–14.
404:
The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry
1857:
1832:
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558:Wellek, René. "The New Criticism: Pro and Contra."
387:Tate's essay "Miss Emily and the Bibliographer"
562:, Vol. 4, No. 4. (Summer, 1978), pp. 611–624.
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519:. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2001.
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517:The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism
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648:The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory
582:The Cultural Politics of the New Criticism
721:. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
715:A History of Modern Criticism, 1750–1950.
584:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
708:Texas Studies in Literature and Language
554:
552:
203:, New Criticism is a reemergence of the
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409:Warren's essay "Pure and Impure Poetry"
145:'s "Miss Emily and the Bibliographer".
617:Ransom, John Crowe. "Criticism, Inc."
604:Brooks, Cleanth. "The New Criticism."
502:Brooks, Cleanth. "The New Criticism."
273:, and plot were used to identify the
258:both became staples during this era.
27:Formalist movement in literary theory
7:
187:, whose students (all Southerners),
74:The Principles of Literary Criticism
646:Searle, Leroy. "New Criticism" in
532:Metamodernism: The Future of Theory
458:2nd ed. Houghton Mifflin, 1997: 35.
102:Tradition and the Individual Talent
1147:Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling
515:Leitch, Vincent B. , et al., eds.
25:
302:New Testament narrative criticism
1937:20th-century American literature
890:
390:Wimsatt and Beardsley's essays "
362:Principles of Literary Criticism
330:reader-response school of theory
682:Carton, Evan and Gerald Graff.
529:Storm, Jason Josephson (2021).
120:, his liking for the so-called
1:
1217:Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve
1187:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
1142:Anne Louise Germaine de Staël
719:American Criticism, 1900–1950
620:The Virginia Quarterly Review
1927:English-language literature
1883:Plain Folk of the Old South
1841:Ode to the Confederate Dead
154:feminist literary criticism
1953:
1182:Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
1654:Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
1047:Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux
888:
857:Reader-response criticism
691:The Mississippi Quarterly
456:The Riverside Shakespeare
412:Wellek and Warren's book
1097:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
852:Psychoanalytic criticism
580:Jancovich, Mark (1993).
376:Seven Types of Ambiguity
166:deconstructionist theory
41:that dominated American
1152:Samuel Taylor Coleridge
436:. Addison-Wesley, 2001.
392:The Intentional Fallacy
224:The Intentional Fallacy
106:Hamlet and His Problems
1890:The Unregenerate South
872:Sociological criticism
842:Postcolonial criticism
777:Biographical criticism
306:reader-response theory
78:The Meaning of Meaning
1896:Vanderbilt University
1794:Frank Lawrence Owsley
1789:Herman Clarence Nixon
1317:Ferdinand de Saussure
900:Theorists and critics
698:Professing Literature
396:The Affective Fallacy
256:Understanding Fiction
235:The Affective Fallacy
110:objective correlative
1848:Lee in the Mountains
1222:James Russell Lowell
1197:Francesco De Sanctis
1177:Percy Bysshe Shelley
1157:Wilhelm von Humboldt
1002:Lodovico Castelvetro
787:Cultural materialism
772:Archetypal criticism
414:Theory of Literature
251:Understanding Poetry
150:explication de texte
1866:The American Review
1784:Andrew Nelson Lytle
1764:John Gould Fletcher
1322:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss
1257:Friedrich Nietzsche
1212:Ralph Waldo Emerson
1172:Thomas Love Peacock
1167:Arthur Schopenhauer
1117:Mary Wollstonecraft
802:Descriptive poetics
792:Darwinian criticism
710:30 (1988): 198–227.
693:: 46 (1992): 23–38.
679:55 (1947): 199–222.
366:Practical Criticism
233:In another essay, "
70:Practical Criticism
1922:Literary criticism
1814:Robert Penn Warren
1731:Southern Agrarians
1624:Hans-Georg Gadamer
1456:Philip Wheelwright
1446:Simone de Beauvoir
1242:Charles Baudelaire
1137:William Wordsworth
1132:Friedrich Schlegel
1127:Friedrich Schiller
957:Christine de Pizan
867:Semiotic criticism
812:Feminist criticism
756:Literary criticism
606:The Sewanee Review
506:87: 4 (1979): 592.
504:The Sewanee Review
470:American Quarterly
328:Indicative of the
314:logical positivism
228:author's intention
216:William K. Wimsatt
205:Southern Agrarians
197:Robert Penn Warren
162:post-structuralism
148:Close reading (or
122:metaphysical poets
68:, especially his
43:literary criticism
1904:
1903:
1819:Richard M. Weaver
1799:John Crowe Ransom
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1679:Oswald de Andrade
1516:Hans Robert Jauss
1491:E. D. Hirsch, Jr.
1387:John Crowe Ransom
1282:Stéphane Mallarmé
1252:Søren Kierkegaard
1072:Giambattista Vico
862:Russian formalism
827:Marxist criticism
542:978-0-226-78665-0
181:John Crowe Ransom
174:Reception studies
86:John Crowe Ransom
55:The New Criticism
51:John Crowe Ransom
18:Cambridge Critics
16:(Redirected from
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1809:John Donald Wade
1774:Henry Blue Kline
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1674:Yokomitsu Riichi
1644:J. Hillis Miller
1609:Geoffrey Hartman
1566:Elaine Showalter
1526:Raymond Williams
1486:Martin Heidegger
1476:Gaston Bachelard
1441:Jean-Paul Sartre
1426:Monroe Beardsley
1382:Georges Bataille
1362:Boris Eikhenbaum
1337:Viktor Shklovsky
1207:John Stuart Mill
1192:Giacomo Leopardi
1037:Pierre Corneille
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877:Source criticism
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660:Davis, Garrick.
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1604:Jonathan Culler
1531:Lionel Trilling
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1501:Jacques Derrida
1377:Mikhail Bakhtin
1332:Walter Benjamin
1297:Antonio Gramsci
1292:Benedetto Croce
1237:Hippolyte Taine
1227:Edgar Allan Poe
1102:Joshua Reynolds
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193:Cleanth Brooks
185:Kenyon College
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82:Cleanth Brooks
66:I. A. Richards
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90:W. K. Wimsatt
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60:The works of
58:
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53:'s 1941 book
52:
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47:close reading
44:
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36:
32:
31:New Criticism
19:
1888:
1881:
1876:
1864:
1749:Herbert Agar
1664:André Breton
1639:M. H. Abrams
1634:Peter Szondi
1629:Paul Ricoeur
1619:Hayden White
1556:Stanley Fish
1546:Harold Bloom
1496:Noam Chomsky
1451:Ronald Crane
1357:Leon Trotsky
1262:Walter Pater
1092:Edward Young
1077:Edmund Burke
967:Rajashekhara
962:Bharata Muni
882:Thing theory
847:Postcritique
831:
822:Geocriticism
807:Ecocriticism
718:
714:
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243:Stanley Fish
232:
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178:
149:
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77:
73:
69:
59:
54:
37:movement in
30:
29:
1824:Stark Young
1689:Octavio Paz
1594:René Girard
1575:Susan Gubar
1561:Edward Said
1541:Paul de Man
1407:Paul Valéry
1342:T. S. Eliot
1327:T. E. Hulme
1302:Umberto Eco
1287:Leo Tolstoy
1277:Oscar Wilde
1057:John Dennis
1042:John Dryden
652:Imre Szeman
342:René Wellek
100:, such as "
98:T. S. Eliot
1911:Categories
1804:Allen Tate
1739:Associated
1267:Émile Zola
1162:John Keats
1082:David Hume
1052:John Locke
717:Volume 6:
476:(2): 195.
420:References
189:Allen Tate
176:followed.
143:Allen Tate
1932:Semiotics
1872:Fugitives
1833:Key works
1352:Carl Jung
1247:Karl Marx
952:Boccaccio
912:Aristotle
817:Formalism
320:Criticism
283:ambiguity
265:, meter,
214:In 1946,
62:Cambridge
35:formalist
1850:" (1934)
1843:" (1928)
1669:Mina Loy
937:Boethius
927:Plotinus
922:Longinus
394:" and "
373:'s book
64:scholar
1858:Related
1741:writers
1684:Hu Shih
992:Liu Xie
972:Valmiki
942:Aquinas
640:Sources
490:2713279
291:tension
279:paradox
267:setting
104:" and "
982:Cao Pi
917:Horace
588:
539:
488:
304:, and
289:, and
195:, and
172:, and
168:, the
164:, and
118:Dryden
114:Milton
88:, and
33:was a
987:Lu Ji
947:Dante
907:Plato
486:JSTOR
287:irony
275:theme
263:rhyme
209:Snark
1587:and
1573:and
1424:and
586:ISBN
537:ISBN
364:and
254:and
218:and
156:and
116:and
76:and
478:doi
183:of
96:of
1913::
570:^
551:^
484:.
474:47
472:.
316:.
285:,
281:,
269:,
191:,
84:,
72:,
57:.
1846:"
1839:"
1723:e
1716:t
1709:v
748:e
741:t
734:v
657:.
594:.
565:.
545:.
492:.
480::
398:"
20:)
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