Cargo cult - Knowledge (XXG)

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indigenous churches and political movements. The term has largely fallen out of favour and is now seldom used among anthropologists, though its use as a metaphor (in the sense of engaging in ritual action to obtain material goods) is widespread outside of anthropology in popular commentary and critique, based on stereotypes of cargo cultists as "primitive and confused people who use irrational means to pursue rational ends". Recent scholarship on "cargo cults" has challenged the suitability of the term for the movements associated with it, with recent anthropological sources arguing that the term is born of colonialism and prejudice and does not accurately convey the diversity or nature of the movements within the label, though some anthropologists continue to see the term as having some descriptive value, despite the "heterogeneous, uncertain, and confusing ethnographic reality".

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indigenous people, but the foreigners had unfairly gained control of these objects through malice or mistake. Thus, a characteristic feature of cargo cults was the belief that spiritual agents would, at some future time, give much valuable cargo and desirable manufactured products to the cult members. The goods promised by prophets and the means by which they would arrive both changed with the times, across eras of Western colonization. The earliest known cults foretold their ancestors with the goods would arrive on a canoe, then by sail, then by steamship, and the goods could be matches, steel, or

2057:(or airlifted to airstrips) to troops on these islands meant drastic changes to the lifestyle of the islanders, many of whom had never seen outsiders before. Manufactured clothing, medicine, canned food, tents, weapons and other goods arrived in vast quantities for the soldiers, who often shared some of it with the islanders who were their guides and hosts. This was true of the Japanese Army as well, at least initially before relations deteriorated in most regions. 2026: 88: 2232:, in contrast, placed more emphasis on cultural change, and on the use of memories of myths to comprehend new realities, including the "secret" of European material possessions. His emphasis on cultural change follows from Worsley's argument on the effects of capitalism; Burridge points out these movements were more common in coastal areas which faced greater intrusions from European colonizers. 815:

the goods the people desire, and ushering in a reign of eternal bliss. The people therefore prepare themselves for the Day by setting up cult organizations, and by building storehouses, jetties, and so on to receive the goods, known as ‘cargo’ in the local pidgin English. Often, also, they abandon their gardens, kill off their livestock, eat all their food, and throw away their money.

1990:-style economy. The movement began with a promised return to a golden age of ancestral potency. Minor alterations to priestly practices were undertaken to update them and attempt to recover some kind of ancestral efficacy. Colonial authorities saw the leader of the movement, Tuka, as a troublemaker, and he was exiled, although their attempts to stop him returning proved fruitless. 2214:'s analysis of cargo cults placed the emphasis on the economic and political causes of these popular movements. He viewed them as "proto-national" movements by indigenous peoples seeking to resist colonial interventions. He observed a general trend away from millenarianism towards secular political organization through political parties and cooperatives. 38: 2104:, many built life-size replicas of airplanes out of straw and cut new military-style landing strips out of the jungle, hoping to attract more airplanes. The cult members thought that the foreigners had some special connection to the deities and ancestors of the natives, who were the only beings powerful enough to produce such riches. 1085: 1903:

Elements that Ton Otto considered characteristic of most cargo cults include the synthesis of indigenous and foreign elements in the belief system, the expectation of help from ancestors, the presence of charismatic leaders, and strong belief in the appearance of an abundance of goods. The indigenous

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Groups labeled as cargo cults were subject to a considerable number of anthropological publications throughout the 1960s. After Melanesian countries gained political independence, few new groups matching the term have emerged since the 1970s, with some surviving "cargo cult" groups transitioning into

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following Western colonisation of the region in the late 19th century. Although the term "cargo cult" has been used by anthropologists to "label almost any sort of organised, village-based social movement with religious and political aspirations", features common to most cargo cult groups include the

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In attempts to get cargo to fall by parachute or land in planes or ships again, islanders imitated the same practices they had seen the military personnel use. Cult behaviors usually involved mimicking the day-to-day activities and dress styles of US soldiers, such as performing parade ground drills

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With the end of the war, the military abandoned the airbases and stopped dropping cargo. In response, charismatic individuals developed cults among remote Melanesian populations that promised to bestow on their followers deliveries of food, arms, Jeeps, etc. The cult leaders explained that the cargo

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strange religious movements in the South Pacific during the last few decades. In these movements, a prophet announces the imminence of the end of the world in a cataclysm which will destroy everything. Then the ancestors will return, or God, or some other liberating power, will appear, bringing all

744:. Claims made by these prophets varied greatly from movement to movement, with some predicting the return of the dead or an abundance of food. The movements usually sought to appease "ancestral spirits or other powerful beings" by either reviving ancestral traditions or adopting new rituals, such as 851:, or culture-contact or adjustment movements". Lindstrom writes that while many anthropologists suggest that "cargo" often signified literal material goods, it could also reflect desires for "moral salvation, existential respect, or proto-nationalistic, anti-colonial desire for political autonomy". 2072:

drinking (which had been suppressed by missionaries) and to maintain historic traditions. The movement predicted American assistance, which as foretold arrived in 1942. The movements rituals were influenced by Christianity, and also included similar elements to other cargo cults like "marching and

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or actions imitative of colonial practices, like flag-raising and marching. Cargo cults often served to unite previously opposing groups. In some movements, the leaders engaged in authoritarian behaviour in order to uphold the new social order, with a particular focus on the issues of sorcery and

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arguing that it does not refer to an identifiable empirical reality, and that the emphasis on "cargo" says more about Western ideological bias than it does about the movements concerned. Nancy McDowell argues that the focus on cargo cult isolates the phenomenon from the wider social and cultural

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Contact with colonizing groups brought about a considerable transformation in the way indigenous peoples of Melanesia have thought about other societies. Early theories of cargo cults began from the assumption that practitioners simply failed to understand technology, colonization, or capitalist

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Anthropologist Lamont Lindstrom has written that some anthropologists consider the term to be a "false category" because it "bundles together diverse and particular uprisings, disturbances, and movements that may have little in common". Lindstrom also writes that "anthropologists and journalists

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Stemming directly from religious teaching of equality, and its resulting sense of injustice, is what is generally known as ‘Vailala Madness’, or ‘Cargo Cult’. . . . A native, infected with the disorder, states that a great number of ships loaded with ‘cargo’ had been sent by the ancestor of the

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Lamont Lindstrom takes this analysis one step further through his examination of "cargoism", the discourse of the West about cargo cults. His analysis is concerned with Western fascination with the phenomenon in both academic and popular writing. In his opinion, the name "cargo cult" is deeply

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Theodore Schwartz was the first to emphasize that both Melanesians and Europeans place great value on the demonstration of wealth. "The two cultures, broadly speaking, met on the common ground of materialistic, competitive striving for prestige through entrepreneurial achievement of wealth."

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of the cults often maintained that the manufactured goods of the non-native culture had been created by spiritual means, such as through their deities and ancestors, or that an ancestor had learned how to manufacture the goods. These leaders claimed that the goods were intended for the local

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Faced, through colonialism, with foreigners with a seemingly unending supply of goods for exchange, indigenous Melanesians experienced "value dominance". That is, they were dominated by others in terms of their own (not the foreign) value system. Many Melanesians found the concept of money

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or imitating the actions of colonists and military personnel. Most groups foretold the coming of a bounty of Western goods or money as part of their prophecy, although this was not a universal feature of such movements, with other prophets telling their followers to abandon Western goods.

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reform; in this model, cargo cults are a misunderstanding of the systems involved in resource distribution, and an attempt to acquire such goods in the wake of interrupted trade. However, many of these practitioners actually focus on the importance of sustaining and creating new

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native for the benefit of the natives of a particular village or area. But the white man, being very cunning, knows how to intercept these ships and takes the ‘cargo’ for his own use. . . By his very nature the New Guinea native is peculiarly susceptible to these ‘cults’

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incomprehensible, and many cargo cult movements ordered followers to abandon colonial money by either dumping it into the sea or spending it rapidly, with the prophets promising that it would be replaced by new money and they would be freed from their debts.

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problematic because of its pejorative connotation of backwardness, since it imputes a goal (cargo) obtained through the wrong means (cult); the actual goal is not so much obtaining material goods as creating and renewing social relationships under threat.

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Since the late twentieth century, alternative theories have arisen. For example, some scholars, such as Kaplan and Lindstrom, focus on Europeans' characterization of these movements as a fascination with manufactured goods and what such a focus says about

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borrowed the term to label almost any sort of organised, village-based social movement with religious and political aspirations", and that their usage of the term "could encompass a variety of forms of social unrest that ethnographers elsewhere tagged

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Discussions of cargo cults usually begin with a series of movements that occurred in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century. The earliest recorded movement that has been described as a "cargo cult" was the Tuka Movement that began in

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Cargo cult is one of anthropology's most successful conceptual offspring. Like "culture," "worldview," or "ethnicity," its usage has spread beyond our discipline. Other communities nowadays find the term as alluring as anthropologists used to

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field (such as politics and economics) that gives it meaning. She states that people experience change as dramatic and complete, rather than as gradual and evolutionary. This sense of a dramatic break is expressed through cargo cult ideology.

2243:") thought to be recoverable by a return to traditional morality. This leader may characterize the present state as a dismantling of the old social order, meaning that social hierarchy and ego boundaries have been broken down. 2259:. Others point to the need to see each movement as reflecting a particularized historical context, even eschewing the term "cargo cult" for them unless there is an attempt to elicit an exchange relationship from Europeans. 2045:

forces used their foreknowledge of local cargo cult beliefs, intentionally misrepresenting themselves as the ancestors of the Melanesians and distributing goods freely in order to acquire compliance and labor. Later the

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in the Melanesian culture. The leaders typically held cult rituals well away from established towns and colonial authorities, thus making reliable information about these practices very difficult to acquire.

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Anthropologists have described cargo cults as rooted in pre-existing aspects of Melanesian society, as a reaction to colonial oppression and inequality disrupting traditional village life, or both.

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Cargo cults often develop during a combination of crises. Under conditions of social stress, such a movement may form under the leadership of a charismatic figure. This leader may have a "

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The term "cargo cult" is widely used negatively as a metaphor outside anthropology. Usage often relates to the ideas of desire (particularly for wealth and material goods) and relatedly

1912:" political system in which individuals gained prestige through gift exchanges. The more wealth a man could distribute, the more people who were in his debt, and the greater his renown. 2299:, ritual action and the expectation of rational results from irrational means, though the term has been used as a general pejorative for "almost anything that some critic depreciates". 2228:

was able to add greater historical depth to the study of cargo cults, and observed the striking continuity in the indigenous value systems from pre-cult times to the time of his study.

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Melanesians felt "relative deprivation" in their standard of living, and thus came to focus on cargo as an essential expression of their personhood and

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As of 1993, Lamont Lindstrom reports that many Melanesian political movements "must take care to deny explicitly" any connection with cargo cults.

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Nowadays, for example, many Melanesian political movements must take care to deny explicitly that they are any sort of cargo cult. .....

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was any religious activity designed to produce goods in this way and assumed to have been taught the leader by the deity. ... A cargo

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Many cargo cults existed in opposition to colonial rule, often linked to burdens placed on villagers by colonial authorities, such as

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The term "cargo cult" in anthropology is increasingly avoided for failing to represent the complexity of Melanesian beliefs.

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thus argues in favor of erasing the term altogether, though other writers like Ton Otto have argued the term remains useful.

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from wood and wore them while sitting in fabricated control towers. They waved the landing signals while standing on the

1015: 2005:, one of the first anthropologists to conduct fieldwork in Papua New Guinea. Less dramatic cargo cults have appeared in 205: 2954: 2927: 2824: 1965: 24: 3096: 3396: 666: 790:. From this issue, the term became used in anthropology following the publications of Australian anthropologists 2240: 1993:

Cargo cults occurred periodically in many parts of the island of New Guinea, including the Taro Cult in northern

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Schwartz, Theodore (1976). "The Cargo Cult: A Melanesian Type-Response to Change". In DeVos, George A. (ed.).

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sexual activity. In some movements sexual morality was relaxed, ignoring the pre-existing customs regarding

1688: 1638: 1419: 1252: 1040: 763: 386: 3341: 2746:. University of Manchester at the University Press. pp. Introduction, page 5, second full paragraph. 2353: 2319: 2150: 2108: 2047: 2002: 1909: 1633: 1465: 1460: 1322: 1055: 613: 190: 121: 112: 2567: 1960:, the goods could be shoes, canned meat, knives, rifles, or ammunition, and they would arrive by armored 2698: 2655: 2335: 2236: 2203: 1866: 1648: 1485: 1377: 1372: 1327: 1297: 782:

Previous similar phenomena, first documented in the late 19th century, had been labelled with the term "

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would be gifts from their own ancestors, or other sources, as had occurred with the outsider armies.

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Classification of groups as cargo cults was sometimes controversial. For example, the separatist

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Journeys to the Past: Travels in New Guinea, Madagascar, and the Northern Territory of Australia

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Otto, Ton (2009). "What happened to Cargo Cults? Material Religions in Melanesia and the West".

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Road belong cargo: a study of the Cargo Movement in the Southern Madang District, New Guinea

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Road Belong Cargo: A Study of the Cargo Movement in the Southern Madang District, New Guinea

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This article is about religious movements in Melanesia. For the colloquial expression, see

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was classed by Australian authorities as a cargo cult, but this was denied by its leaders

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Since the modern manufacturing process was largely unknown to them, members, leaders, and

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village and provides answers about the faith and its practices. Penguin Books, 1992.

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Burridge, Kenelm (1993). Lockwood, V. S.; Harding, T. G.; B. J., Wallace (eds.).

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The John Frum movement has come to be described as the "archetypal" cargo cult.

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Neither cargo nor cult: ritual politics and the colonial imagination in Fiji

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Kago, Kastom and Kalja: The Study of Indigenous Movements in Melanesia Today

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The term "cargo cult" first appeared in print in the November 1945 issue of

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were various spiritual and political movements that arose among indigenous

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Kago, Kastom, Kalja: the study of indigenous movements in Melanesia today

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The most widely known period of cargo cult activity occurred among the

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a complex of ritual activity associated with a particular cargo myth".

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The vast amounts of military equipment and supplies that both sides

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provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject

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Lindstrom, Lamont (2013), Abong, Marcellin; Tabani, Marc (eds.),

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Contemporary Pacific Societies: Studies in Development and Change

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in Vanuatu. This tradition urged islanders to resume dancing and

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2006 Smithsonian Magazine article entitled: "In John They Trust"

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Like Fire - The Paliau Movement and Millenarianism in Melanesia

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Cargo cult: strange stories of desire from Melanesia and beyond

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Cargo Cult: Strange Stories of Desire from Melanesia and Beyond

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Cargo Cult: Strange Stories of desire from Melanesia and beyond

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Cargo Cult: Strange Stories of Desire from Melanesia and Beyond

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Cargo Cult: Strange Stories of Desire from Melanesia and Beyond

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Cargo Cult: Strange Stories of Desire from Melanesia and Beyond

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Like Fire - The Paliau Movement and Millenarianism in Melanesia

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The trumpet shall sound: a study of "cargo" cults in Melanesia

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The Trumpet Shall Sound: A Study of 'Cargo Cults' in Melanesia

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Lindstrom, Lamont (31 March 2019). "CARGO CULTS EVERYWHERE".

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Lindstrom, Lamont (1993). "1 WHAT HAPPENED TO CARGO CULTS?".

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Lindstrom, Lamont (1993). "1 WHAT HAPPENED TO CARGO CULTS?".

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Cargo cults were typically created by individual leaders, or

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Members of the John Frum cult at a ceremonial flag-raising.

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Une pirogue pour le paradis: le culte de John Frum à Tanna

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figures foretelling an imminent cataclysm and/or a coming

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Inglis, Judy. "Cargo Cults: The Problem of Explanation",

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More recent work has debated the suitability of the term

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that arose from 1919 to 1922. The last was documented by

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New Heaven, New Earth: A study of Millenarian Activities

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relationships, with material relations being secondary.

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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

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Responses to Change: Society, Culture, and Personality

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Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches: The Riddles of Culture

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Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches: The Riddles of Culture

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with wooden or salvaged rifles. The islanders carved

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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

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A Cargo Situation in the Markham Valley, New Guinea

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Sociological classifications of religious movements

3390:A chapter named "The oddest island in Vanuatu" in 2566:Schwartz, Theodore; Smith, Michael French (2021). 2450: 2448: 2446: 2444: 2442: 2440: 2438: 2135:Some cargo cults are still active. These include: 2436: 2434: 2432: 2430: 2428: 2426: 2424: 2422: 2420: 2418: 777:Norris Mervyn Bird, Pacific Islands Monthly, 1945 3268:Schwartz, Theodore & Smith, Michael French. 806:defined cargo cults as follows in his 1957 book 3297:, vol. 2, Hastings, NE: Crosier Missions, 1974. 3286:. Marseilles: Pacific-Credo Publications, 2013. 2769: 2767: 2765: 2763: 812: 769: 2606:. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 1–12. 2546: 2544: 2542: 2540: 2538: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2399: – Material wealth–based Christian belief 3400:pages 267–277 describes Theroux's visit to a 3307:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. 3254:. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993. 3230:. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2004. 2850: 2848: 2846: 2819: 2817: 2815: 2705:, University of Hawaii Press, pp. 9–10, 2697:Jebens, Holger (2004), Jebens, Holger (ed.), 2050:arrived in the islands and did this as well. 1884: 880:Two ancient anthropomorphic figures from Peru 705: 8: 3415:Vanuatu cargo cult marks 50 years (BBC News) 3358:Several pages are devoted to cargo cults in 2502: 2500: 1986:in 1885 at the height of the colonial era's 3291:Cargo cult in Asmat: Examples and prospects 2809:. New York: Random House, 1974, pg. 133-152 2778:. New York: Van Nostrand. p. 164,174. 2662:, University of Hawaii Press, p. 210, 2498: 2496: 2494: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2480: 2146:The Tom Navy cult on Tanna Island (Vanuatu) 1927:drinking, and/or adopt new rituals such as 3003:. University of Hawai'i Press. p. 4. 2313: – 2007 film by Richard Martin-Jordan 1891: 1877: 858: 712: 698: 640:Network Analysis and Ethnographic Problems 106: 3340:, feature documentary (2007, 52 min), by 2986:. Vol. 32, no. 12. 1 July 1962. 2801: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2468: 2176:The Paliau movement on Papua New Guinea ( 75:Learn how and when to remove this message 2654:Otto, Ton (2004), Jebens, Holger (ed.), 2206:conceptualized the "Tuka movement" as a 2183:The Peli association on Papua New Guinea 2073:drilling, flags and poles, and flowers". 1399:Anthropological Perspectives on Religion 823:described the term as follows: "A cargo 3084:. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 2414: 2153:on the island of Tanna, which worships 866: 660:Political and Legal Anthropology Review 120: 3237:. Durham: Duke University Press, 1995. 3193:My Friends, The New Guinea Headhunters 3054:. London: Basil Blackwell. p. 48. 2461:Cambridge Encyclopedia of Anthropology 316:Societies without hierarchical leaders 57:providing more context for the reader 21:the Wiktionary entry for "cargo cult" 7: 3314:, London: MacGibbon & Kee, 1957. 3282:Tabani, Marc & Abong, Marcelin. 3263:Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 3247:. Manchester University Press, 1964. 2955:"On The Trail of the Cargo Cultists" 1088:Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants 3371:A chapter named "Cargo Cult" is in 2868:Lindstrom, Lamont (31 March 2019). 2455:Lindstrom, Lamont (29 March 2018). 2163:based on Pentecost island (Vanuatu) 1940:, while in other movements, strict 1908:were typically characterized by a " 740:for followers—a worldview known as 3279:. Paris: Editions de la MSH, 2008. 2953:Inder, Stuart (1 September 1960). 2928:"They Still Believe in Cargo Cult" 2332: – Novel by Christopher Moore 1218:Archaeology of religion and ritual 798:in the late 1940s and early 1950s. 757:Origin of the term and definitions 14: 2703:Cargo, Cult, and Culture Critique 2660:Cargo, Cult, and Culture Critique 634:Political economy in anthropology 2366:(cargo cults used as a metaphor) 2169:cargo cult on Papua New Guinea ( 2155:Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh 874: 36: 3212:. New York: Random House, 1974. 2959:XXXI(2) Pacific Islands Monthly 2856:Parliament of a Thousand Tribes 2829:XVII(4) Pacific Islands Monthly 2329:Island of the Sequined Love Nun 931:Evolutionary origin of religion 3124:. University of Hawaii Press. 2932:XX(10) Pacific Islands Monthly 2874:. University of Hawaii Press. 2378: – New religious movement 2324: – 1980 film by Jamie Uys 2143:cult on Tanna Island (Vanuatu) 2037:in the years during and after 1086:Treatise on the Apparitions of 855:Causes, beliefs, and practices 496:Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges 1: 3293:, in: F. Trenkenschuh (ed.), 2021:Pacific cults of World War II 1536:Traditional African religions 1081:Coral Gardens and Their Magic 667:Journal of Legal Anthropology 335:The Art of Not Being Governed 3200:Anutu Conquers in New Guinea 3195:. Doubleday & Co., 1964. 2555:. New York: Schocken books. 1944:policies were implemented. 25:Cargo cult (disambiguation) 3461: 3397:The Happy Isles of Oceania 3080:Lindstrom, Lamont (1993). 2825:"How "Cargo-Cult" is Born" 2572:. ANU Press. p. 180. 847:, nativistic, vitalistic, 673:Journal of Law and Society 393:Colonialism and resistance 91:A ceremonial cross of the 18: 3050:Burridge, Kenelm (1969). 2858:, Heinemann, London, 1965 2711:10.1515/9780824840440-002 2668:10.1515/9780824840440-013 2384: – political theatre 2340: – television series 1614:Armenian Apostolic Church 347:Non-western state systems 323:African Political Systems 3305:The invention of culture 2740:Lawrence, Peter (1971). 2263:Discourse on cargo cults 2198:Theoretical explanations 1506:Native American religion 1161:Revitalization movements 1016:Sacred–profane dichotomy 868:Anthropology of religion 732:presence of charismatic 3445:New religious movements 3379:, Penguin Books, 1983. 3219:vol. xxvii no. 4, 1957. 3202:. Wartburg Press, 1957. 3095:Jarvis, Brooke (2019). 2984:Pacific Islands Monthly 2551:Worsley, Peter (1957). 2208:revitalization movement 2117:Hahalis Welfare Society 2060:In the late 1930s, the 2009:as well, including the 1420:The Journal of Religion 1041:Theories about religion 808:The Trumpet Shall Sound 764:Pacific Islands Monthly 372:and the State in Africa 3265:, vol. 14 no. 3, 1958. 3222:Jebens, Holger (ed.). 3130:10.2307/j.ctv9zcktq.12 2880:10.2307/j.ctv9zcktq.10 2521:10.3167/sa.2009.530106 2354:Cargo cult programming 2321:The Gods Must Be Crazy 2151:Prince Philip Movement 2030: 2003:Francis Edgar Williams 1466:Alaska Native religion 1461:Afro-American religion 1056:Veneration of the dead 817: 780: 614:Circumscription theory 401:Europe and the People 370:Technology, Tradition, 104: 23:. For other uses, see 16:New religious movement 3342:Richard Martin-Jordan 3191:Butcher, Benjamin T. 3009:10.2307/j.ctv9zcktq.7 2612:10.2307/j.ctv9zcktq.7 2337:Meet the Natives: USA 2204:Anthony F. C. Wallace 2028: 1867:cultural anthropology 1486:Chinese folk religion 1378:Anthony F. C. Wallace 1373:Daniel Martin Varisco 1298:E. E. Evans-Pritchard 1200:of the Religious Life 688:cultural anthropology 476:E. E. Evans-Pritchard 329:Papuan Big man system 90: 3198:Frerichs, Albert C. 2080:Postwar developments 2064:movement emerged on 2035:Melanesian islanders 1521:Shamanism in Siberia 1368:Edward Burnett Tylor 1198:The Elementary Forms 966:Magic (supernatural) 916:Comparative religion 481:Wolfgang Fikentscher 456:Henri J. M. Claessen 211:Pantribal sodalities 99:, New Hebrides (now 3323:Scientific American 3295:An Asmat Sketchbook 3250:Lindstrom, Lamont. 3097:"Who Is John Frum?" 2397:Prosperity theology 2190:on Papua New Guinea 1703:Hindu denominations 1644:Ethiopian Orthodoxy 1413:The Hibbert Journal 1323:Claude Lévi-Strauss 1308:Fustel de Coulanges 862:Part of a series on 624:Left–right paradigm 53:improve the article 3373:David Attenborough 2831:. 18 November 1946 2360:Cargo cult science 2031: 2007:western New Guinea 1757:Non-denominational 1669:Oriental Orthodoxy 1223:Poles in mythology 956:Laying on of hands 788:Territory of Papua 619:Legal anthropology 521:Thomas Blom Hansen 451:Robert L. Carneiro 240:Segmentary lineage 177:Leveling mechanism 127:legal anthropology 105: 3348:'s cult at Tanna. 3317:Worsley, Peter. " 3289:Trenkenschuh, F. 3272:. ANU Press, 2021 3168:978-2-9563981-2-7 3139:978-0-8248-7895-5 3107:on 18 April 2019. 3018:978-0-8248-1526-4 2889:978-0-8248-7895-5 2720:978-0-8248-4044-0 2677:978-0-8248-4044-0 2621:978-0-8248-1526-4 2127:and John Teosin. 2102:sympathetic magic 1977:First occurrences 1901: 1900: 1689:Russian Orthodoxy 1639:Eastern Orthodoxy 1288:Arnold van Gennep 1207:Purity and Danger 722: 721: 446:Jeremy Boissevain 431:Georges Balandier 426:E. Adamson Hoebel 85: 84: 77: 3452: 3365:The God Delusion 3310:Worsley, Peter. 3233:Kaplan, Martha. 3228:Culture Critique 3179: 3178: 3177: 3175: 3150: 3144: 3143: 3115: 3109: 3108: 3103:. 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Lewellen 471:Pierre Clastres 421: 420:Major theorists 413: 412: 403:Without History 402: 371: 307: 299: 298: 221:Paramount chief 153:Achieved status 148:Ascribed status 140:Status and rank 136: 125: 81: 70: 64: 61: 50: 41: 37: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3458: 3456: 3448: 3447: 3442: 3440:Millenarianism 3437: 3427: 3426: 3423: 3422: 3417: 3410: 3409:External links 3407: 3406: 3405: 3388: 3369: 3354: 3351: 3350: 3349: 3331: 3328: 3327: 3326: 3315: 3308: 3298: 3287: 3280: 3275:Tabani, Marc. 3273: 3266: 3255: 3248: 3238: 3231: 3220: 3213: 3206:Harris, Marvin 3203: 3196: 3187: 3184: 3181: 3180: 3167: 3145: 3138: 3110: 3087: 3072: 3057: 3042: 3017: 2989: 2971: 2945: 2919: 2903: 2888: 2860: 2854:White, Osmar. 2842: 2811: 2791: 2785:978-0442220945 2784: 2759: 2752: 2732: 2719: 2689: 2676: 2646: 2620: 2592: 2578: 2558: 2526: 2476: 2413: 2412: 2410: 2407: 2406: 2405: 2400: 2394: 2388: 2379: 2373: 2367: 2357: 2349: 2346: 2345: 2344: 2333: 2325: 2317: 2304: 2301: 2288: 2285: 2264: 2261: 2226:Peter Lawrence 2199: 2196: 2192: 2191: 2184: 2181: 2174: 2164: 2157: 2147: 2144: 2132: 2131:Current status 2129: 2081: 2078: 2022: 2019: 1978: 1975: 1973: 1970: 1956:fabric. 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Ahmed 1255: 1249: 1245: 1244: 1243: 1240: 1239: 1236: 1235: 1233:Elite religion 1230: 1228:Lived religion 1225: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1203: 1193: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1184: 1183: 1180: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1163: 1162: 1158: 1157: 1152: 1147: 1142: 1137: 1132: 1127: 1122: 1117: 1112: 1107: 1101: 1100: 1096: 1095: 1090: 1083: 1077: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1067: 1066: 1063: 1062: 1059: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1043: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1013: 1008: 1003: 998: 993: 988: 983: 978: 973: 968: 963: 958: 953: 948: 943: 938: 933: 928: 923: 918: 913: 908: 903: 898: 892: 889:Basic concepts 888: 887: 886: 883: 882: 879: 871: 870: 864: 863: 856: 853: 821:Peter Lawrence 774: 758: 755: 742:millenarianism 720: 719: 717: 716: 709: 702: 694: 691: 690: 680: 679: 676: 675: 670: 663: 655: 652: 651: 648: 647: 644: 643: 636: 631: 626: 621: 616: 610: 607: 606: 603: 602: 599: 598: 593: 588: 583: 578: 576:Aidan Southall 573: 568: 566:James C. 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Ian Hogbin 793: 789: 785: 773: 768: 766: 765: 756: 754: 750: 747: 743: 739: 735: 730: 726: 715: 710: 708: 703: 701: 696: 695: 693: 692: 689: 685: 682: 681: 674: 671: 669: 668: 664: 662: 661: 657: 656: 650: 649: 642: 641: 637: 635: 632: 630: 627: 625: 622: 620: 617: 615: 612: 611: 605: 604: 597: 594: 592: 589: 587: 584: 582: 579: 577: 574: 572: 571:Elman Service 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 552: 549: 547: 544: 542: 539: 537: 534: 532: 529: 527: 524: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 506:David Graeber 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 466:John Comaroff 464: 462: 461:Jean Comaroff 459: 457: 454: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 441:Fredrik Barth 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 423: 417: 416: 409: 406: 404: 399: 398: 395: 392: 391: 388: 385: 384: 381: 379:Legal systems 378: 377: 374: 373: 367: 366: 363: 362: 359: 356: 354: 351: 350: 346: 344: 341: 340: 337: 336: 332: 330: 327: 325: 324: 320: 319: 315: 313: 310: 309: 303: 302: 295: 292: 290: 289:Legal culture 287: 285: 284:Customary law 282: 281: 278: 275: 274: 271: 270:Theatre state 268: 266: 263: 261: 260:House society 258: 256: 255:Petty kingdom 253: 251: 248: 246: 243: 241: 238: 236: 233: 232: 229: 226: 225: 222: 219: 217: 214: 212: 209: 207: 204: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 188: 185: 182: 181: 178: 175: 173: 169: 166: 164: 161: 159: 158:Social status 156: 154: 151: 149: 146: 145: 142: 139: 138: 132: 131: 128: 123: 119: 116: 114: 109: 108: 102: 98: 94: 89: 79: 76: 68: 58: 54: 48: 45:This article 43: 34: 33: 30: 26: 22: 3395: 3392:Paul Theroux 3376: 3363: 3335: 3322: 3311: 3304: 3294: 3290: 3283: 3276: 3269: 3262: 3258: 3257:Read, K. 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