1358:
715:
594:, and other production methods) in an attempt to encode and portray the data on a map that will allow the map user to decode and interpret the map in the way that matches the intended purpose of the map maker. Next, the user of the map reads and analyzes the map by recognizing and interpreting the symbols and patterns that are found on the map. This leads the user to take action and draw conclusions based on the information that they find on the map. In this way, maps help shape how we view the world based on the spatial perspectives and viewpoints that they help create in our mind.
1206:
558:: This step involves making decisions about all of the aspects of map design, as listed below, and implementing them using computer software. In the manual drafting era, this was a very linear process of careful decision making, in which some aspects needed to be implemented before others (often, projection first). However, current GIS and graphics software enables interactive editing of all of these aspects interchangeably, leading to a non-linear, iterative process of experimentation, evaluation, and refinement.
1005:
917:
824:, a set of procedures for adjusting the amount of detail (geometry and attributes) in datasets to be appropriate for a given map. All maps portray a small, strategic sample of the infinite amount of potential information in the real world; the strategy for that sample is largely driven by the scale, purpose, and audience of the map. The cartographer is thus constantly making judgements about what to include, what to leave out and what to show in a
854:
578:
20:
740:
the map. This also generates hypothesis and stimulates ideas and perhaps further research. In order to convey the message of the map, the creator must design it in a manner which will aid the reader in the overall understanding of its purpose. The title of a map may provide the "needed link" necessary for communicating that message, but the overall design of the map fosters the manner in which the reader interprets it.
552:, it seems like vast amounts of data are available for every conceivable topic, but they must be found and obtained. Frequently, available datasets are not perfect matches for the needs of the project at hand, and must be augmented or edited. Also, it is still common for there to be no available data on the specific topic, requiring the cartographer to create them, or derive them from existing data using GIS tools.
809:, has greatly shortened the time and cost of creating most maps. However, this part of the design process is still not trivial. Existing GIS data, often created for management or research purposes, is not always in a form that is most suited to a particular map purpose, and data frequently need to be augmented, edited, or updated to be useful. Some sources, especially in Europe, refer to the former as a
276:
417:
1330:(Bertin) is the ease with which a reader can isolate all of the symbols of a particular appearance, while ignoring the rest of the map, allowing the reader to identify patterns in that type of feature (e.g., "where are all the blue dots?"). In Bertin's model, size, value, and hue were particularly selective, while others, such as shape, require significant contrast to be useful.
165:, during which most cartography training transitioned from an apprenticeship to a college degree (typically using Raisz's textbook in America). The new generation of cartography professionals and professors began to reflect on why some maps seemed to be better (in beauty and function) than others, and to think of ways to improve design. Perhaps chief among them was
643:, a positive emotional reaction to the overall appearance of the map. Maps may be appreciated as "beautiful," but other positive affects include "interesting," "engaging," "convincing," and "motivating." Aesthetic reactions can be negative as well, such as "ugly," "cluttered," "confusing," "complicated," "annoying," or "off-putting."
84:
586:
and detect patterns that can be used to classify and arrange the data for map creation (i.e., they think about the data and its patterns as well as how to best visualize them on a map). After this, the cartographer compiles the data and experiments with the many different methods of map design and production (including
1129:
and label placement. While many of these decisions are specific to the particular map, functional label placement tends to follow a number of rules that have been developed through cartographic research, which has led to automated algorithms to place them automatically, to a reasonable degree of quality.
1213:, with a high degree of contrast between the symbols, creating a strong visual hierarchy (transit lines are and look most important), figure-ground, and selectivity (the green national rail line can be isolated when necessary). Also note the harmonizing subdued tones of green and blue in the background.
613:, that no dataset or map is a perfect reproduction of reality, and that the subjective biases and motivations of the cartographer are virtually impossible to circumvent. That said, maps can still be crafted to be as accurate as possible, honest about their shortcomings, and leverage their subjectivity.
731:
refers to this notion of engaging the user by presenting a clear presentation, leaving no confusion concerning the purpose of the map. This will enhance the user's experience and keep their attention. If the user is unable to identify what is being demonstrated in a reasonable fashion, the map may be
726:
Robinson codified the mapmaker's understanding that a map must be designed foremost with consideration to the audience and its needs, stating that from the very beginning of mapmaking, maps "have been made for some particular purpose or set of purposes". The intent of the map should be illustrated in
681:
The aesthetic or artistic qualities of maps are sometimes thought to be simply matters of so-called good taste, of harmonious color schemes and sensory appeal. In my opinion, those are secondary concerns. The principal task of the artist, be he a painter or a map designer, consists of translating the
585:
Cartographic design is one part of a larger process in which maps play a central role. This cartographic process begins with a real or imagined environment or setting. As map makers gather data on the subject they are mapping (usually through technology and/or remote sensing), they begin to recognize
1128:
Most of the elements of labeling design are intended to achieve these two goals, including: the choice of typefaces, type style, size, color, and other visual variables; halos, masks, leader lines, and other additional symbols; decisions about what to label and what to not label; label text content;
828:
incorrect place. Most often, generalization starts with detailed data created for a larger scale, and strategically removes information deemed to be unnecessary for a smaller scale map. This issue assumes more importance as the scale of the map gets smaller (i.e. the map shows a larger area) because
739:
explains that a well designed map "is convincing because it implies authenticity". An interesting map will no doubt engage a reader. Information richness or a map that is multivariate shows relationships within the map. Showing several variables allows comparison, which adds to the meaningfulness of
665:
In fact, good design can produce synergistic results. Even aesthetics can have practical value: potential map users are more likely to pick up, and more likely to spend time with, a beautiful map than one that is difficult to look at. In turn, the practical value of maps has gained aesthetic appeal,
513:
Maps will be more useful if they cater to the intended audience. This audience could range from the cartographer herself (desiring to learn about a topic by mapping it), to focused individuals or groups, to the general public. Several characteristics of the audience can aid this process, if they can
492:
As map production and reproduction technology has advanced, the process of designing and producing maps has changed considerably. Most notably, GIS and graphics software not only makes it easier and faster to create a map, but it facilitates a non-linear editing process that is more flexible than in
1453:
Composing and arranging all of the elements on the page involves just as much design skill and knowledge of how readers will use the map as designing the map image itself. Page composition serves several purposes, including directing the reader's attention, establishing a particular aesthetic feel,
1223:
is sometimes used to refer to the composition of the symbols within the map itself, and sometimes to the composition of the map and other elements on the page. Some of the same principles apply to both processes, while others are unique to each. In the former sense of the symbols on the map, as all
506:
Maps serve a wide variety of purposes; they may be descriptive (showing the accurate location of geographic features to be used in a variety of ways, like a street map), exploratory (showing the distribution of phenomena and their properties, to look for underlying patterns and processes, like many
880:
according to the space to be mapped and the purpose of the map; this decision process becomes increasingly important as the scope of the map increases; while a variety of projections would be indistinguishable on a city street map, there are dozens of drastically different ways of projecting the
134:, the standard English textbook on the subject, reads as a set of instructions of how to construct maps in keeping with tradition, with very little reflection on why it is done that way. This was despite the fact that Raisz himself was a very creative designer, developing techniques as varied as
369:
purposefully distorts the size of areal features proportional to a chosen variable, such as total population, and thus may be thought of as a hybrid between choropleth and proportional symbol maps. Several automated and manual techniques have been developed to construct cartograms, each having
938:
encodes information on the map in ways intended to convey information to the map reader efficiently, taking into consideration the limited space on the map, models of human understanding through visual means, and the likely cultural background and education of the map reader. Symbology may be
1486:
At one time, the process of getting a map printed was a major part of the time and effort spent in cartography. While less of a concern with modern technology, it is not insignificant. Professional cartographers are asked to produce maps that will be distributed by a variety of media, and
895:
World maps are often designed by cutting the globe into smaller pieces, using a different projection for each piece, and then arranging all those small maps into a single map on one piece of paper, with discontinuities between the small maps. Perhaps the earliest types of such interrupted
452:) visualizes the density of an aggregate group as representative dots (each of which may represent a single individual or a constant number of individuals). The source data may be the actual point locations of the individuals, or choropleth-type aggregate district statistics.
271:
A wide variety of different types of maps have been developed, and are available to use for different purposes. In addition to the general principles of cartographic design, some types of visualizations have their its own design needs, constraints, and best practices.
695:
It will thus be more useful to cartographers and the development of cartography in general to undertake further research towards understanding the role of aesthetics in cartography than to pursue universal principles. Some possible topics for investigation include:
461:
focuses on lines of movement. A wide variety of flow maps exist, depending on whether flow volume is represented (usually using visual variables such as stroke weight or color value), and whether the route of flow is shown accurately (such as a navigation route on a
359:
of size. The underlying data may be of point features, or it may be the same aggregate data used in choropleth maps. In the latter case, the two map types are often complimentary, as variables that are inappropriate to represent in one type are well-suited for the
647:
These goals often seem to be in conflict, and it may be tempting to prioritize one over the others. However, quality design in cartography, as in any other design field, is about finding creative and innovative solutions to achieve multiple goals. According to
514:
be determined, such as: their level of knowledge about the subject matter and the region being covered; their skill in map reading and understanding of geographic principles (e.g., do they know what 1:100,000 means?); and their needs, motivations and biases.
682:
relevant aspects of the message into the expressive qualities of the medium in such a way that the information comes across as a direct impact of perceptual forces. This distinguishes the mere transmission of facts from the arousal of meaningful experience.
322:
districts (such as countries or counties) using area symbols based on the visual variables of color and/or pattern. Choropleth maps are by far the most popular kind of thematic maps due to the widespread availability of aggregated statistical data (such as
1069:
953:(1967), introduced a system of codifying graphical elements (including map symbols) that has been a part of the canon of Cartographic knowledge ever since. He analyzed graphical objects in terms of three aspects (here using current terminology):
68:
as an academic research discipline in the United States, stated that a map not properly designed "will be a cartographic failure." He also claimed, when considering all aspects of cartography, that "map design is perhaps the most complex."
1188:
is written variously in
English as Mocha, Al Mukha, al-Makhā, al-Makha, Mocca and Moka. Some transliteration systems produce such different place names as to cause confusion, such as the transition of Chinese–English transliteration from
871:
Because the Earth is (nearly) spherical, any planar representation (a map) requires it to be flattened in some way, known as a projection. Most map projections are implemented using mathematical formulas and computer algorithms based on
173:(1952) set the stage for the future of cartographic design, both for his early theorizing about map design, and for his honest acknowledgment of what was not yet known, soon spawning dozens of PhD dissertations. His subsequent textbook,
686:
More recently, cartographers have recognised the central role of aesthetics in cartographic design and called for greater focus on how this role functions over time and space. For example, in 2005, Dr Alex Kent (former
President of the
656:
What is to be sought in designs for the display of information is the clear portrayal of complexity. Not the complication of the simple; rather the task of the designer is to give visual access to the subtle and the difficult--that is,
309:, are much easier to produce in GIS than using manual tools. Some of these methods are designed for analytical use, such as measuring slope on contours, but most are intended to produce an intuitive visual representation of the terrain.
1110:
aspects of the map, including its "look and feel" and its attractiveness. While the cartographer has a great deal of freedom in choosing the style and size of type to accomplish these purposes, two basic goals are seen as crucial:
900:, one disk centered on some point selected by the cartographer and the other disk centered on its antipode. More recently, cartographers have experimented with a wide variety of interrupted arrangements of projections, including
1268:
is the degree of visual difference between graphic elements (e.g., map symbols). Robinson saw contrast as the fundamental principle of composition, supporting everything else. As suggested by
Robinson, and further developed by
1143:
One challenge for map labeling is dealing with varying preferences of place names. Although maps are often made in one specific language, place names often differ between languages. So a map made in
English may use the name
301:. Several methods have been developed for visualizing elevation and the shape of the Earth's surface. Some techniques date back hundreds or thousands of years and are difficult to replicate digitally, such hill profiles and
1118:, the ease with which map users can read a particular piece of text. Map labels introduce unique challenges to legibility, due to their tendency to be small, unfamiliar, irregularly spaced, and placed on top of map symbols.
232:
starting in the 1990s. However, as much or more of the recent innovation in cartographic design has been at the hands of professional cartographers and their sharing of resources and ideas through organisations such as the
1124:, the ease with which map users can recognize which feature a particular piece of text is labeling. This can be especially challenging on general purpose maps containing a large number of varied features and their labels.
629:, the degree to which the map makes its purpose obvious and its information easy to access. Clarity can be achieved through removing all but the most important information, but this comes at the expense of other goals.
1423:
may serve several purposes, such as showing the context of the main map in a larger area, showing more detail for a subset of the main map, showing a separated but related area, or showing related themes for the same
177:(1953), was a marked departure from the past, with a major focus on design, claiming to "present cartography as an intellectual art and science rather than as a sterile system of drafting and drawing procedures."
110:, learning the skills of the master, with little room for innovation other than adapting to changing production technology. That said, there were notable exceptions, such as the occasional introduction of a novel
609:, the degree to which the information on the map corresponds to the nature of the real world. Traditionally, this was the primary determinant of quality cartography. It is now accepted, due largely to studies in
399:). The lines themselves and/or the intervening regions may be symbolized. Some choropleth maps may be thought of as rough approximations of isarithmic maps, and dasymetric maps as slightly better approximations.
876:(latitude, longitude). All projections generate distortions such that shapes and areas cannot both be conserved simultaneously, and distances can never all be preserved. The mapmaker must choose a suitable
344:
is a hybrid type that uses additional data sources to refine the boundaries of a choropleth map (especially through excluding uninhabited areas), thereby mitigating some of the sources of misinterpretation.
1305:
is the apparent order of items, from those that look most important (i.e., attract the most attention) to those that look least important. Typically, the intent is for the visual hierarchy to match the
787:, Cartography is constrained by the fact that geographic phenomena are where and what they are. However, within that framework the cartographer has a great deal of control over many aspects of the map.
500:: The iterative nature of modern cartography makes this step somewhat less involved than before, but it is still crucial to have some form of plan. Typically, this involves answering several questions:
924:, Florida, using a variety of point symbols, along with line and area symbols. Note the use of coordinated fill and stroke symbols for the national park area to solve the challenge of a water boundary.
1002:
Thus, a map symbol consists of a number of visual variables, graphically representing the location and spatial form of a geographic phenomenon, as well as zero or more of its properties. For example,
564:: The last step is to produce the map in the chosen medium, and distribute it to the audience. This could be as simple as a desktop printer, or sending it to a press, or developing an interactive
540:
Different mapping media, such as posters, brochures, folded maps, page maps, screen displays, and web maps have advantages and disadvantages for different purposes, audiences, and usage contexts.
670:
An ugly map, with crude colors, careless line work, and disagreeable, poorly arranged lettering may be intrinsically as accurate as a beautiful map, but it is less likely to inspire confidence.
216:, which drew attention to the influence of social and political forces on map design. A second major research track has been the investigation of the design opportunities offered by changing
1259:, many of which are similar, having come from similar sources. They all share the same goal: to combine all of the individual symbols into a single whole that achieves the goals above.
635:, the volume and diversity of information the reader can glean from the map. Even maps with a narrowly-defined purpose often require the reader to see patterns in large amounts of data.
1357:
474:
Although these are called separate "maps," they should be thought of as single map layers, which may be combined with other thematic or feature layers in a single map composition. A
188:
school of thought, seeking to improve design standards through increased scientific understanding of how maps are perceived and used, typically based on cognate disciplines such as
1454:
clearly stating the purpose of the map, and making the map easier to understand and use. Therefore, Page layout follows many of the same principles of
Composition above, including
1251:, to evaluate what made some maps difficult to read as a whole, even when individual symbols were designed well, and creating a model that included most of the list below. Later,
755:. Therefore, there are now a huge variety of different styles and types of map – for example, one area which has evolved a specific and recognisable variation are those used by
1336:
is how well all of the individual elements (map symbols) "look good" together. This generally follows from the above principles, as well as the careful selection of harmonious
841:
positions of major roads were sometimes moved hundreds of meters from their true location on digital maps at scales of 1:250,000 and 1:625,000 (the generalization technique of
962:: The basic type of geometric shape used to represent a geographic phenomenon, commonly points (marker symbols), lines (stroke symbols), or areas (fill symbols), as well as
1184:
for Росси́я, but in other cases a system of transliteration or transcription is required. Sometimes multiple transliteration systems exist; for example, the Yemeni city of
833:. For example, a 2mm thick highway symbol on a map at a scale of 1:1,000,000 occupies a space 2 km wide, leaving no room for roadside features. In the late 1980s, the
2059:
370:
advantages and disadvantages. Frequently, the resultant shapes are filled as a choropleth map representing a variable thought to relate in some way to the area variable.
714:
666:
favoring those that exude a feeling of being "professional," "authoritative," "well-crafted," "clear," or "informative." In 1942, cartographer John K. Wright said,
238:
619:, the usefulness of the map to achieve its purpose. During much of the latter 20th century, this was the primary goal of academic cartography, especially the
507:
thematic maps), explanatory (educating the audience about a specific topic), or even rhetorical (trying to convince the audience to believe or do something).
161:, gave cartographers a larger palette of design options, and made it easier to creatively innovate. This was synchronized with the widespread expansion of
534:
The typical map will require data to serve several roles, including information about the primary purpose, as well as supporting background information.
410:
grid. Some have considered this to be a special type of unclassified isarithmic map, while others consider it to be something fundamentally different.
1102:
features, in some cases on its own without a geometric map symbol (esp. natural features); it plays a role in the gestalt of the map, especially the
602:
While maps serve a variety of purposes, and come in a variety of styles, most designs share common goals. Some of the most commonly stated include:
234:
2042:
1994:
1964:
1939:
1911:
1598:
2212:
Borden D. Dent, "Visual
Organization and Thematic Map Communication," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 62, no. 1 (1972)
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A typical map, whether on paper or on a web page, consists of not only the map image, but also other elements that support the map:
1487:
understanding the various reproduction and distribution technologies help to cater a design to work best for the intended medium.
2031:
Mackaness, William A. (2007). "Understanding
Geographic Space". In Mackaness, William A.; Ruas, Anne; Sarjakoski, Tiina (eds.).
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Advances in cartographic production technology in the 20th century, especially the advent and widespread availability of color
46:
and practical function. It shares this dual goal with almost all forms of design; it also shares with other design, especially
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225:
55:
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of the symbols and thematic layers on the map are brought together, their interactions have major effects on map reading.
995:
332:
143:
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688:
242:
50:, the three skill sets of artistic talent, scientific reasoning, and technology. As a discipline, it integrates design,
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1986:
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uses one or more of the methods above to represent two variables simultaneously; three or more variables produce a
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implicit, using universal elements of design, or may be more specific to cartography or even to the map. National
406:
represents a continuous field as smoothly transitioning color (hue, value, and/or saturation), usually based on a
94:(1844) has been long recognized as a masterwork of cartographic design at a time when such was difficult and rare.
1471:
1373:
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a manner in which the percipient (the map reader) acknowledges its purpose in a timely fashion. The principle of
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is required. Some well-known places have well-established names in other languages and writing systems, such as
1227:
A number of composition principles have been studied in cartography. While some of these ideas were posited by
1077:
91:
2100:
Kent, Alexander; Vujakovic, Peter (2009). "Stylistic
Diversity in European State 1: 50 000 Topographic Maps".
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620:
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declares the sources, date, authorship, projection, or other information about the construction of the map.
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A chorochromatic map of world land cover, using hue, value, and saturation to differentiate nominal values
78:
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the days of manual cartography. There is still a general procedure that cartographers generally follow:
123:
87:
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tells the reader what the map is about, including the purpose or theme, and perhaps the region covered.
1004:
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In the 21st century it is possible to find a map of virtually anything from the inner workings of the
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property). This symbol would be intuitively understood by many users without any explanation. On a
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3. A critical examination of the factors influencing aesthetic decisions in contemporary mapmaking.
327:, but the nature of aggregate data can result in significant misinterpretation issues, such as the
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symbol with no intrinsic meaning, requiring a legend for users to discover the intended meaning.
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school of thought: to determine how to make the most efficient maps as conduits of information.
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1990:
1960:
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CIA map of Iraq, following typical labeling guidelines to maximize legibility and association
2195:
2109:
1865:
1834:
1675:
1566:
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1301:
1293:). The rules for establishing figure-ground are largely drawn from the gestalt principle of
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162:
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may frames the entire map image, although many maps use negative space to set the map apart
1314:, especially size and value, naturally contributed to visual hierarchy (which he termed as
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series, for example, adopt a standardised symbology, which varies from country to country.
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Mark P. Kumler & Richard E. Groop (1990) Continuous-Tone
Mapping of Smooth Surfaces,
1190:
677:, an art theorist, said this about the relationship between maps and aesthetics in 1976:
2147:, English Edition, Translation by William J. Berg, University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.)
1900:
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entire world, with extreme variations in the type, degree, and location of distortion.
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861:(2018), an increasingly popular equal-area pseudocylindrical projection for world maps
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974:: the basic type of property being visualized, generally using the classification of
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or other indication of scale translates between map measurements and real distances.
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of what is intended to be more or less important. Bertin suggested that some of the
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1368:, including a main map image, title, metadata, inset maps, scale bars, and legends.
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was likely the first to approach it in a systematic way in 1972, firmly within the
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375:
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115:
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Generalisation of
Geographic Information: Cartographic Modelling and Applications
767:, many of which are loosely based on 45 degree angles as originally perfected by
212:. This focus began to be challenged towards the end of the 1980s by the study of
2164:(3rd Quarter 2017 Edition), John P. Wilson (ed.). DOI: 10.22224/gistbok/2017.3.2
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2. An exploration of geographical variations in cartographic aesthetics; and
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Muehrcke, Phillip, An Integrated Approach to Map Design and Production,
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Slocum, Terry A., Robert B. McMaster, Fritz C. Kessler, Hugh H. Howard,
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may be included to help explain the map subject or add aesthetic appeal.
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school of thought. Dent's model drew heavily on psychology, especially
1161:
355:
visualizes statistical data of point symbols, often circles, using the
139:
1680:
1663:
1570:
1474:. In fact, this aspect of cartographic design has more in common with
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by interpolating lines wherein the field variable has equal value (an
2162:
The Geographic Information Science & Technology Body of Knowledge
1776:"3.1 The Cartographic Process | GEOG 160: Mapping our Changing World"
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Elements of Cartography: Tracing Fifty Years of Academic Cartography
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and knowledge of how maps are used to create a map that has both
986:: the graphical components of a symbol, including shape, size,
978:(nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio), or some extension thereof.
1664:"Form Follows Feedback: Rethinking Cartographic Communication"
1553:
Hogräfer, Marius; Heitzler, Magnus; Schulz, Hans-Jörg (2020).
1318:), while others had differences that were more easily ignored.
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is the ease with which each individual symbol or feature (the
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1. A history of the development of aesthetics in cartography;
254:
35:
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Sémiologie Graphique. Les diagrammes, les réseaux, les cartes
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Text serves a variety of purposes on maps. Most directly, it
1957:
Some Truth with Maps: A Primer on Symbolization & Design
1016:
being used to represent that the facility type is "mine" (a
896:
arrangements are various maps composed of 2 disks showing 2
845:), because of the overriding need to annotate the features.
813:, and spatial data that are fine-tuned for map design as a
318:
visualizes statistical data that has been aggregated into
2186:
Yoeli, P (1972). "The Logic of Automated Map Lettering".
1289:) can be mentally isolated from the rest of the map (the
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being used to represent that the income is US$ 50,000 (a
1714:
Dent, Borden D., Jeffrey S. Torguson, Thomas W. Hodler,
1959:. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University.
1086:
features on the map by name; in addition, it helps to
1902:
Early Thematic Mapping: In the History of Cartography
1156:. A non-native term for a place is referred to as an
829:
the information shown on the map takes up more space
335:, which can be somewhat mitigated by careful design.
2143:. With Marc Barbut . Paris : Gauthier-Villars.
2037:. International Cartographic Association, Elsevier.
1765:, V.9 #2 pp.109-122, doi:10.1559/152304082783948529
528:, text, or other tool may better serve the purpose.
237:and through national mapping societies such as the
1899:
1854:"Aesthetics: A Lost Cause in Cartographic Theory?"
1825:Arnheim, Rudolf (1976). "The Perception of Maps".
1731:, 3rd Edition, Pearson-Prentice Hall, 2009, p.212
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
1698:, 17:4, 279-289, DOI: 10.1559/152304090783805681
1555:"The State of the Art in Map-Like Visualization"
520:There are times when a map could be made, but a
2175:"Using Text on Maps: Typography in Cartography"
1757:
1755:
1668:Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture
1277:of map symbols, such as size, shape, and color.
1148:for that country, while a German map would use
693:
679:
668:
654:
239:North American Cartographic Information Society
118:in the 19th century highlighted by the work of
34:is the process of crafting the appearance of a
1800:The Visual Display of Quantitative Information
1696:Cartography and Geographic Information Systems
1644:
1642:
1640:
1582:
1580:
1397:explains the meaning of the symbols on the map
735:Making a meaningful map is the ultimate goal.
2019:Cartography: Visualization of Geospatial Data
820:A significant part of this transformation is
153:, then a multitude of advances spurred on by
106:. Most map makers served several years as an
8:
1906:. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
1741:
1739:
1737:
1160:. Sometimes a name may be disputed, such as
1164:vs. Burma. Further difficulties arise when
1802:, 2nd Edition, Graphics Press, 2001, p.191
1710:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1273:, contrast is created by manipulating the
2135:
2133:
2131:
2088:"Matching the Map Projection to the Need"
1679:
801:The widespread availability of data from
439:as a set of regions of homogeneous value.
291:(a form of isarithm) to visualize terrain
710:Map purpose and selection of information
180:Since the 1950s, a significant focus of
98:From ancient times to the 20th century,
2021:, 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall, 2003, p.3
1811:Wright, John K., Map Makers are Human,
1718:, 6th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2009, p.205
1545:
184:as an academic discipline has been the
1729:Thematic Cartography and Visualization
235:International Cartographic Association
146:that few have been able to replicate.
7:
1056:property). This is an example of an
791:Cartographic data and generalization
718:3D cartography of Washington State,
305:; others, such as shaded relief and
2017:Kraak, Menno-Jan, Ferjan Ormeling,
1593:. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
783:Unlike cognate disciplines such as
1478:than any other part of the craft.
14:
1470:, such as balance and the use of
837:'s first digital maps, where the
2114:10.1179/000870409X12488753453453
1934:. New York: The Guilford Press.
1716:Cartography: Thematic Map Design
1617:, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1948
1003:
435:) visualizes a discrete/nominal
1652:, University of Wisconsin, 1952
1443:may discuss the subject further
1253:artistic composition principles
1209:A well-composed transit map of
805:, especially free data such as
504:What is the purpose of the map?
228:starting in the 1970s, and the
169:, whose short but seminal work
1534:Geographic information systems
885:Interruptions and arrangements
803:Geographic information systems
550:Geographic information systems
466:) or schematically (such as a
226:geographic information systems
202:psychophysical experimentation
56:geographic information science
1:
1482:Reproduction and distribution
1012:location of a facility, with
659:the revelation of the complex
333:Modifiable areal unit problem
38:, applying the principles of
2084:"Interrupting the World Map"
1749:, Guilford Press, 2010, p.23
1106:; and it contributes to the
1098:information; it can help to
689:British Cartographic Society
261:Cartography § Map types
243:British Cartographic Society
126:in France. As late as 1948,
1987:University of Chicago Press
1852:Kent, Alexander J. (2005).
1662:Kent, Alexander J. (2018).
1044:location of a county, with
797:Cartographic generalization
720:Mount Rainier National Park
562:Production and Distribution
538:What medium should be used?
518:Is a map the best solution?
64:, considered the father of
2250:
1839:10.1559/152304076784080276
1371:
1241:Cartographic Communication
1136:
1075:
927:
888:
864:
815:Digital Cartographic Model
794:
621:Cartographic Communication
264:
258:
252:
186:cartographic communication
76:
1955:MacEachren, A.M. (1994).
1827:The American Cartographer
1763:The American Cartographer
1632:Cartographic Perspectives
1472:White space (visual arts)
1374:Page layout (cartography)
765:urban rail and metro maps
556:Design and Implementation
532:What datasets are needed?
298:Terrain/Relief/Topography
16:Process of designing maps
2102:The Cartographic Journal
1981:Monmonier, Mark (1993).
1858:The Cartographic Journal
1747:Principles of Map Design
1078:Typography (cartography)
581:The cartographic process
287:using shaded relief and
92:Russian campaign of 1812
2200:10.1179/caj.1972.9.2.99
2060:"Choosing a projection"
1898:Robinson, A.H. (1982).
1870:10.1179/000870405X61487
1780:www.e-education.psu.edu
1590:Elements of Cartography
1587:Robinson, A.H. (1953).
1559:Computer Graphics Forum
1193:(Peking, Kwangchow) to
1090:features (as in "Jones
1064:Labeling and typography
811:Digital Landscape Model
759:organisations to guide
352:Proportional symbol map
224:starting in the 1960s,
175:Elements of Cartography
1634:, #51 (Spring 2005), 4
1369:
1308:intellectual hierarchy
1214:
1197:(Beijing, Guangzhou).
1073:
925:
922:Biscayne National Park
891:interrupted projection
874:geographic coordinates
862:
859:Equal Earth projection
723:
722:, Pinnacle Peak trail.
707:
684:
672:
663:
582:
421:
292:
95:
79:History of cartography
24:
2145:Semiology of Graphics
2082:Richard E. Dahlberg.
1360:
1208:
1071:
976:Stanley Smith Stevens
919:
856:
732:regarded as useless.
717:
580:
470:or airline route map)
419:
278:
265:Further information:
124:Charles Joseph Minard
90:'s map of Napoleon's
88:Charles Joseph Minard
86:
22:
2188:Cartographic Journal
2173:Jill Saligoe-Simmel,
2156:Guidero, E. (2017).
1464:aesthetic principles
1417:provides orientation
1008:might represent the
971:Level of measurement
951:Sémiologie Graphique
898:hemispheres of Earth
611:Critical cartography
511:Who is the audience?
445:Dot distribution map
214:critical cartography
114:, and the advent of
1813:Geographical Review
1615:General Cartography
1040:might represent an
404:Continuous tone map
132:General Cartography
28:Cartographic design
2058:Albrecht, Jochen.
1745:Tyner, Judith A.,
1648:Robinson, Arthur,
1370:
1255:were adopted from
1245:Gestalt psychology
1229:Arthur H. Robinson
1215:
1074:
1024:of median income,
926:
863:
724:
583:
428:Chorochromatic map
422:
329:Ecological fallacy
293:
198:Gestalt psychology
167:Arthur H. Robinson
144:physiographic maps
96:
62:Arthur H. Robinson
25:
2044:978-0-08-045374-3
1996:978-0-226-53417-6
1966:978-0-89291-214-8
1941:978-1-57230-040-8
1913:978-0-226-72285-6
1681:10.16997/wpcc.296
1600:978-0-471-72805-4
1571:10.1111/cgf.14031
1152:and a French map
1032:A dark green fill
779:Aspects of design
437:Field (geography)
289:hypsometric tints
222:computer graphics
2241:
2213:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2183:
2177:
2171:
2165:
2154:
2148:
2137:
2126:
2125:
2097:
2091:
2080:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2070:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2028:
2022:
2015:
2002:
2000:
1978:
1972:
1970:
1952:
1946:
1945:
1928:MacEachren, A.M.
1924:
1918:
1917:
1905:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1822:
1816:
1809:
1803:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1787:
1786:
1772:
1766:
1759:
1750:
1743:
1732:
1725:
1719:
1712:
1699:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1659:
1653:
1650:The Look of Maps
1646:
1635:
1624:
1618:
1611:
1605:
1604:
1584:
1575:
1574:
1550:
1512:Animated mapping
1460:Visual hierarchy
1441:Explanatory text
1312:visual variables
1302:Visual hierarchy
1275:visual variables
1233:The Look of Maps
1104:visual hierarchy
1039:
1038:
1035:
1031:
1028:
1007:
757:public transport
640:Aesthetic appeal
548:: In the era of
482:multivariate map
393:continuous field
255:Map § Types
171:The Look of Maps
163:higher education
159:Photolithography
116:thematic mapping
44:aesthetic appeal
2249:
2248:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2239:
2238:
2219:
2218:
2217:
2216:
2211:
2207:
2185:
2184:
2180:
2172:
2168:
2155:
2151:
2139:Jacque Bertin,
2138:
2129:
2099:
2098:
2094:
2086:. Chapter 2 of
2081:
2077:
2068:
2066:
2057:
2056:
2052:
2045:
2030:
2029:
2025:
2016:
2005:
1997:
1980:
1979:
1975:
1967:
1954:
1953:
1949:
1942:
1926:
1925:
1921:
1914:
1897:
1896:
1892:
1882:
1880:
1851:
1850:
1846:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1810:
1806:
1798:Tufte, Edward,
1797:
1793:
1784:
1782:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1760:
1753:
1744:
1735:
1726:
1722:
1713:
1702:
1693:
1689:
1661:
1660:
1656:
1647:
1638:
1626:Tyner, Judith,
1625:
1621:
1612:
1608:
1601:
1586:
1585:
1578:
1552:
1551:
1547:
1542:
1525:
1502:Offset printing
1492:Inkjet printing
1484:
1376:
1355:
1220:map composition
1203:
1174:writing systems
1166:transliteration
1141:
1135:
1080:
1066:
1036:
1033:
1029:
1026:
1025:
990:, orientation,
983:Visual variable
941:topographic map
932:
914:
906:polyhedral maps
893:
887:
869:
851:
835:Ordnance Survey
799:
793:
781:
737:Alan MacEachren
712:
691:) recommended:
600:
575:
546:Data Collection
490:
391:) represents a
357:visual variable
269:
263:
257:
251:
151:Offset printing
138:and a style of
81:
75:
23:Illustrated map
17:
12:
11:
5:
2247:
2245:
2237:
2236:
2234:Graphic design
2231:
2221:
2220:
2215:
2214:
2205:
2178:
2166:
2149:
2127:
2108:(3): 179–213.
2092:
2075:
2064:Hunter College
2050:
2043:
2023:
2003:
1995:
1983:Mapping It Out
1973:
1965:
1947:
1940:
1919:
1912:
1890:
1864:(2): 182–188.
1844:
1817:
1815:, V. 32, p.542
1804:
1791:
1767:
1751:
1733:
1720:
1700:
1687:
1654:
1636:
1619:
1613:Raisz, Erwin,
1606:
1599:
1576:
1565:(3): 647–674.
1544:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1537:
1536:
1531:
1524:
1521:
1520:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1499:
1497:Laser printing
1494:
1483:
1480:
1476:graphic design
1468:Graphic design
1451:
1450:
1444:
1438:
1432:
1425:
1418:
1405:
1398:
1387:
1372:Main article:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1349:
1331:
1319:
1298:
1278:
1271:Jacques Bertin
1257:graphic design
1202:
1199:
1137:Main article:
1134:
1131:
1126:
1125:
1119:
1076:Main article:
1065:
1062:
1022:Choropleth map
1000:
999:
979:
967:
947:Jacques Bertin
928:Main article:
913:
910:
889:Main article:
886:
883:
878:map projection
867:Map projection
865:Main article:
850:
847:
822:generalization
795:Main article:
792:
789:
785:Graphic design
780:
777:
749:virtual worlds
711:
708:
675:Rudolf Arnheim
645:
644:
636:
630:
624:
614:
599:
596:
588:generalization
574:
571:
570:
569:
559:
553:
543:
542:
541:
535:
529:
515:
508:
489:
488:Design process
486:
472:
471:
453:
440:
414:
413:
412:
411:
376:Isarithmic map
371:
361:
347:
346:
345:
341:Dasymetric map
315:Choropleth map
310:
253:Main article:
250:
247:
112:Map projection
104:craft or trade
77:Main article:
74:
71:
48:graphic design
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2246:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2224:
2209:
2206:
2201:
2197:
2194:(2): 99–108.
2193:
2189:
2182:
2179:
2176:
2170:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2153:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2136:
2134:
2132:
2128:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2096:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2079:
2076:
2065:
2061:
2054:
2051:
2046:
2040:
2036:
2035:
2027:
2024:
2020:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2004:
1998:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1977:
1974:
1968:
1962:
1958:
1951:
1948:
1943:
1937:
1933:
1932:How Maps Work
1929:
1923:
1920:
1915:
1909:
1904:
1903:
1894:
1891:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1848:
1845:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1808:
1805:
1801:
1795:
1792:
1781:
1777:
1771:
1768:
1764:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1724:
1721:
1717:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1691:
1688:
1682:
1677:
1674:(2): 96–112.
1673:
1669:
1665:
1658:
1655:
1651:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1623:
1620:
1616:
1610:
1607:
1602:
1596:
1592:
1591:
1583:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1549:
1546:
1539:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1489:
1488:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1466:adopted from
1465:
1462:, as well as
1461:
1457:
1456:figure-ground
1448:
1445:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1435:Illustrations
1433:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1412:
1411:
1406:
1403:
1399:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1385:
1381:
1380:
1379:
1375:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1352:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1325:
1324:
1320:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1304:
1303:
1299:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1283:
1282:Figure-ground
1279:
1276:
1272:
1267:
1266:
1262:
1261:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1225:
1222:
1221:
1212:
1207:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1192:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1170:transcription
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1140:
1132:
1130:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1113:
1112:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1079:
1070:
1063:
1061:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1006:
997:
993:
989:
985:
984:
980:
977:
973:
972:
968:
965:
961:
960:
956:
955:
954:
952:
948:
944:
942:
937:
934:Cartographic
931:
923:
918:
911:
909:
907:
903:
899:
892:
884:
882:
879:
875:
868:
860:
855:
848:
846:
844:
840:
836:
832:
831:on the ground
827:
823:
818:
816:
812:
808:
807:OpenStreetMap
804:
798:
790:
788:
786:
778:
776:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
741:
738:
733:
730:
729:figure-ground
721:
716:
709:
706:
703:
700:
697:
692:
690:
683:
678:
676:
671:
667:
662:
660:
653:
651:
642:
641:
637:
634:
631:
628:
625:
622:
618:
617:Functionality
615:
612:
608:
605:
604:
603:
597:
595:
593:
592:symbolization
589:
579:
572:
567:
563:
560:
557:
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551:
547:
544:
539:
536:
533:
530:
527:
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519:
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512:
509:
505:
502:
501:
499:
496:
495:
494:
487:
485:
483:
479:
478:
477:bivariate map
469:
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326:
321:
317:
316:
311:
308:
307:contour lines
304:
300:
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295:
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286:
282:
277:
273:
268:
262:
256:
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246:
244:
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223:
220:, especially
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172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
147:
145:
142:depiction on
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
120:Charles Dupin
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
93:
89:
85:
80:
72:
70:
67:
63:
59:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
21:
2208:
2191:
2187:
2181:
2169:
2161:
2152:
2144:
2140:
2105:
2101:
2095:
2078:
2067:. Retrieved
2063:
2053:
2033:
2026:
2018:
1982:
1976:
1956:
1950:
1931:
1922:
1901:
1893:
1881:. Retrieved
1861:
1857:
1847:
1830:
1826:
1820:
1812:
1807:
1799:
1794:
1783:. Retrieved
1779:
1770:
1762:
1746:
1728:
1723:
1715:
1695:
1690:
1671:
1667:
1657:
1649:
1631:
1622:
1614:
1609:
1589:
1562:
1558:
1548:
1529:Map coloring
1504:, including
1485:
1452:
1446:
1440:
1434:
1420:
1414:
1410:compass rose
1408:
1401:
1394:
1390:
1383:
1377:
1362:Geologic map
1333:
1327:
1321:
1316:dissociative
1315:
1307:
1300:
1290:
1286:
1280:
1263:
1232:
1226:
1218:
1216:
1181:
1177:
1153:
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1127:
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1115:
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1095:
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1087:
1083:
1081:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1001:
998:, and so on.
996:transparency
981:
969:
957:
950:
945:
933:
894:
877:
870:
843:displacement
842:
838:
830:
825:
821:
819:
814:
810:
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782:
742:
734:
725:
704:
701:
698:
694:
685:
680:
673:
669:
664:
658:
655:
650:Edward Tufte
646:
638:
632:
626:
616:
606:
601:
584:
561:
555:
545:
537:
531:
517:
510:
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481:
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432:
426:
403:
396:
388:
384:
380:
374:
364:
350:
339:
319:
313:
296:
270:
267:Thematic map
206:Human vision
192:(especially
179:
174:
170:
155:World War II
148:
131:
97:
60:
31:
27:
26:
2229:Cartography
1985:. Chicago:
1971:(p. 9)
1883:28 November
1833:(1): 5–10.
1517:Web mapping
1508:preparation
1415:north arrow
1328:Selectivity
1237:Borden Dent
1201:Composition
1150:Deutschland
1122:Association
1094:"); it can
849:Projections
566:Web mapping
468:Transit map
450:dot density
325:census data
182:cartography
128:Erwin Raisz
100:cartography
66:cartography
2223:Categories
2158:Typography
2069:2013-08-13
2001:p. 93
1785:2019-12-14
1540:References
1421:Inset maps
1326:(Dent) or
1249:Perception
1191:Wade–Giles
1133:Placenames
1116:Legibility
1084:identifies
930:Map symbol
902:homolosine
773:George Dow
769:Harry Beck
761:passengers
753:cyberspace
745:human body
526:photograph
433:area-class
259:See also:
218:technology
194:perception
190:psychology
157:, such as
136:cartograms
108:apprentice
32:map design
2122:129681695
1878:129910488
1429:bar scale
1366:Australia
1346:typefaces
1217:The term
1154:Allemagne
1108:aesthetic
959:Dimension
936:symbology
912:Symbology
763:, namely
381:isometric
366:Cartogram
279:A map of
249:Map types
210:geography
52:geography
1930:(1995).
1523:See also
1506:Prepress
1447:Metadata
1402:neatline
1342:textures
1323:Grouping
1295:Prägnanz
1265:Contrast
1235:(1952),
1211:Istanbul
1172:between
1139:Toponymy
1088:classify
839:absolute
826:slightly
633:Richness
607:Accuracy
498:Planning
464:Road map
458:Flow map
385:isopleth
331:and the
320:a priori
303:hachures
241:and the
230:Internet
2090:. 1997.
1424:region.
1334:Harmony
1182:Rußland
1162:Myanmar
1146:Germany
1096:explain
1018:nominal
992:pattern
920:Map of
747:to the
627:Clarity
397:isoline
389:contour
140:Terrain
73:History
2120:
2041:
1993:
1963:
1938:
1910:
1876:
1597:
1391:legend
1353:Layout
1344:, and
1338:colors
1291:ground
1287:figure
1195:Pinyin
1178:Russia
1158:exonym
1100:locate
1058:ad hoc
1037:
1034:
1030:
1027:
964:fields
408:raster
360:other.
281:Sikkim
208:, and
200:, and
102:was a
54:, and
40:design
2118:S2CID
1874:S2CID
1384:title
1186:المخا
1054:ratio
1050:value
1014:shape
1010:point
988:color
949:, in
598:Goals
568:site.
522:chart
285:India
2039:ISBN
1991:ISBN
1961:ISBN
1936:ISBN
1908:ISBN
1885:2020
1595:ISBN
1458:and
1247:and
1092:Park
1048:and
1042:area
904:and
857:The
771:and
448:(or
431:(or
379:(or
122:and
2196:doi
2110:doi
1866:doi
1835:doi
1676:doi
1567:doi
1413:or
1395:key
1393:or
1364:of
1231:in
1180:or
1168:or
1046:hue
751:of
573:Map
387:or
383:or
373:An
204:),
130:'s
36:map
30:or
2225::
2190:.
2160:.
2130:^
2116:.
2106:46
2104:.
2062:.
2006:^
1989:.
1872:.
1862:42
1860:.
1856:.
1829:.
1778:.
1754:^
1736:^
1703:^
1672:13
1670:.
1666:.
1639:^
1630:,
1579:^
1563:39
1561:.
1557:.
1427:A
1407:A
1400:A
1389:A
1382:A
1340:,
994:,
908:.
817:.
775:.
652:,
590:,
524:,
484:.
455:A
442:A
425:A
402:A
363:A
349:A
338:A
312:A
283:,
245:.
196:,
58:.
2202:.
2198::
2192:9
2124:.
2112::
2072:.
2047:.
1999:.
1969:.
1944:.
1916:.
1887:.
1868::
1841:.
1837::
1831:3
1788:.
1684:.
1678::
1603:.
1573:.
1569::
1348:.
1297:.
966:.
661:.
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