Color photography - Knowledge (XXG)

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on which very fine lines of three colors had been ruled in a regular repeating pattern, completely covering its surface. The idea was that instead of taking three separate complete photographs through three colored filters, the filters could be in the form of a large number of very narrow strips (the colored lines) allowing the necessary color information to be recorded in a single compound image. After the negative was developed, a positive transparency was printed from it and a viewing screen with red, green and blue lines in the same pattern as the lines of the taking screen was applied and carefully aligned. The colors then appeared as if by magic. The transparency and screen were very like the layer of monochrome liquid crystal elements and overlay of hair-thin red, green and blue color filter stripes which create the color image in a typical LCD display. This was the invention of Irish scientist John Joly, although he, like so many other inventors, eventually discovered that his basic concept had been anticipated in Louis Ducos du Hauron's long-since-expired 1868 patent.

1868:, May 22, 1896 44:587–597 describes and illustrates (with spectrum photographs and curves) the characteristics of the Lumière Panchromatic and Cadett Spectrum plates as of 1896. Note that during this period "orthochromatic" was not intended to mean "red-blind", although most or all commercial products so labeled indeed were, which may explain the subsequent evolution in the meaning of the word. The wild roller-coaster curves necessitated laborious adjustment and testing of the color filters to obtain the three desired curves. In the cases of the red and green filters, that could mean quashing over ninety-nine percent of the overall sensitivity, requiring exposures measured in seconds under circumstances where one-fiftieth of a second would have sufficed for unfiltered monochrome use. Disproportionate blue sensitivity, requiring the use of a yellow filter for accurate monochrome rendition in daylight, was typical of commercial panchromatic emulsions far into the 20th Century. See also the previously referenced Ives, F: 527:, whose comprehensive 1868 French patent also included the basic concepts of most of the color photographic processes which were subsequently developed. For making the three color-filtered negatives required, he was able to develop materials and methods which were not as completely blind to red and green light as those used by Thomas Sutton in 1861, but they were still very insensitive to those colors. Exposure times were impractically long, the red or orange-filtered negative requiring hours of exposure in the camera. His earliest surviving color prints are "sun prints" of pressed flowers and leaves, each of the three negatives having been made without a camera by exposing the light-sensitive surface to direct sunlight passing first through a color filter and then through the vegetation. His first attempts were based on the red-yellow-blue colors then used for pigments, with no color reversal. Later he used the primary colors of light with color reversal. 619:. This was a straightforward additive system and its essential elements had been described by James Clerk Maxwell, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros much earlier, but Ives invested years of work and ingenuity in refining the methods and materials to optimize color quality, in overcoming problems inherent in the optical systems involved, and in simplifying the apparatus to bring down the cost of producing it commercially. The color images, dubbed "Kromograms", were in the form of sets of three black-and-white transparencies on glass, mounted onto special cloth-tape-hinged triple cardboard frames. To see a Kromogram in color it had to be inserted into a "Kromskop" (generic name "chromoscope" or "photochromoscope"), a viewing device which used an arrangement of colored glass filters to illuminate each slide with the correct color of light and transparent reflectors to visually combine them into a single full-color image. The most popular model was 652:

exacerbated by the fact that each screen was individually ruled on a machine which used three pens to apply the transparent colored inks, resulting in irregularities, high reject rates and high cost. The glass used for photographic plates at the time was not perfectly flat, and lack of uniform good contact between the screen and the image gave rise to areas of degraded color. Poor contact also caused false colors to appear if the sandwich was viewed at an angle. Although much simpler than the Kromskop system, the Joly system was not inexpensive. The starter kit of plate holder, compensating filter, one taking screen and one viewing screen cost US$ 30 (the equivalent of at least $ 750 in 2010 dollars) and additional viewing screens were $ 1 each (the equivalent of at least $ 25 in 2010 dollars). This system, too, soon died of neglect, although in fact it pointed the way to the future.

825:(nicknamed "Man" and "God"), two highly regarded classical musicians who had started tinkering with color photographic processes and ended up working with the Kodak Research Laboratories. Kodachrome had three layers of emulsion coated on a single base, each layer recording one of the three additive primaries, red, green, and blue. In keeping with Kodak's old "you press the button, we do the rest" slogan, the film was simply loaded into the camera, exposed in the ordinary way, then mailed to Kodak for processing. Aside from manufacturing the film, processing was the most complex step. This involved the controlled penetration of chemicals into the three layers of emulsion. A simplified description of the process is as follows: as each layer was developed into a black-and-white silver image, a " 958: 790:

emulsions could be in contact face-to-face, the third would have to be separated by the thickness of one transparent support layer. Because all silver halide emulsions are inherently sensitive to blue, the blue-recording layer ought to be on top and have a blue-blocking yellow filter layer behind it. This blue-recording layer, used to make the yellow print which could most afford to be "soft", would end up producing the sharpest image. The two layers behind it, one sensitized to red but not green and the other to green but not red, would suffer from scattering of the light as it passed through the topmost emulsion, and one or both would further suffer by being spaced away from it.

1185:, for instance—a relatively current photographer known best for documenting New Orleans civil rights—was not keen on color. He preferred to take pictures mainly using black-and-white film. When asked about his reasoning for this preference during an interview, he replied “The less is more thing. Sometimes the color distracts from the essential subject. Sometimes, just light, line and form is enough, and it allows you to explore the sculptural qualities of that third dimension, that illusional dimension of depth. And it’s fun”. This aversion to color was due mainly to a fear of losing simplicity in his pictures. He worried that color gave the eye too much to take in. 504:

black-and-white silver images into cyan, magenta and yellow images which were then assembled. In a few processes, the three images were created one on top of another by repeated coating or re-sensitizing, negative registration, exposure and development operations. A number of variations were devised and marketed during the first half of the 20th century, some of them short-lived, others, such as the Trichrome Carbro process, enduring for several decades. Because some of these processes allow very stable and light-fast coloring matter to be used, yielding images which can remain virtually unchanged for centuries, they are still not quite completely extinct.

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reversal-film transparency processes, negative-positive processes are, within limits, forgiving of incorrect exposure and poor color lighting, because printing allows considerable correction. Negative film is therefore more suitable for casual use by amateurs. Virtually all single-use cameras employ negative film. Photographic transparencies can be made from negatives by printing them on special "positive film", but this has always been unusual outside of the motion picture industry and commercial service to do it for still images may no longer be available. Negative films and paper prints are by far the most common form of color film photography today.

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photography, Maxwell commented on the inadequacy of the results and the need for a photographic material more sensitive to red and green light. A century later, historians were mystified by the reproduction of any red at all, because the photographic process used by Sutton was for all practical purposes totally insensitive to red light and only marginally sensitive to green. In 1961, researchers found that many red dyes also reflect ultraviolet light, coincidentally transmitted by Sutton's red filter, and surmised that the three images were probably due to ultra-violet, blue-green and blue wavelengths, rather than to red, green and blue.

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good sensitizer for red. Although it would be many more years before these sensitizers (and better ones developed later) found much use beyond scientific applications such as spectrography, they were quickly and eagerly adopted by Louis Ducos du Hauron, Charles Cros and other color photography pioneers. Exposure times for the "problem" colors could now be reduced from hours to minutes. As ever-more-sensitive gelatin emulsions replaced the old wet and dry collodion processes, the minutes became seconds. New sensitizing dyes introduced early in the 20th century eventually made so-called "instantaneous" color exposures possible.

752: 982: 930: 1192:, known best for his dramatic black-and-white landscapes, also felt that color could be distracting, and could therefore divert the artist's attention away from creating a photograph to his full potential, according to some experts. Adams actually claimed that he could get "a far greater sense of 'color' through a well-planned and executed black-and-white image than ever achieved with color photography". Another expert source mentioned that Adams was a "master of control". He wrote books about technique, developed the 1196:—which helped determine the optimal exposure and development time for a given photograph—and introduced the idea of "previsualization", which involved the photographer imagining what he wanted his final print to look like before he even took the shot. These concepts and methods allowed for nearly total control of all the potential variables that factor into a final print. Because of this love for control, Adams disliked color because it lacked this element that he had mastered with black-and-white. 848:, which was generally similar to Kodachrome but had one important advantage: Agfa had found a way to incorporate the dye couplers into the emulsion layers during manufacture, allowing all three layers to be developed at the same time and greatly simplifying the processing. Most modern color films, excepting the now-discontinued Kodachrome, use the incorporated dye coupler technique, but since the 1970s nearly all have used a modification developed by Kodak rather than the original Agfa version. 686:

image by removing the exposed silver metal, and re-exposing the remaining silver halide, so no printing or screen registration was required. The shortcomings of the Autochrome process were the expense (one plate cost about as much as a dozen black-and-white plates of the same size), the relatively long exposure times which made hand-held "snapshots" and photographs of moving subjects impractical, and the density of the finished image due to the presence of the light-absorbing color screen.

1914:, October, 1896 6(2):127–138 includes details such as the actual reasons for the unusual colors employed in the taking screen and examples of the exposures required. The color illustrations have obviously had considerable hand-work done by the engravers and may have been entirely hand-colored using the original transparencies as a guide. As is evident from page 127, publication was delayed by more than a year. The 1895 date is confirmed by the publication of a lengthy abstract in 768: 708: 434:

that each type of cell by itself did not actually see color but was simply more or less stimulated, he drew an analogy to black-and-white photography: if three colorless photographs of the same scene were taken through red, green and blue filters, and transparencies ("slides") made from them were projected through the same filters and superimposed on a screen, the result would be an image reproducing not only red, green and blue, but all of the colors in the original scene.

730: 946: 910: 1025: 797:"Bipacks" using only two emulsions face-to-face were the subject of some development. Although the range of colors which could be reproduced by only two components was limited, skin tones and most hair and eye colors could be rendered with surprising fidelity, making bipack processes a viable option for color portraiture. In commercial practice, however, the use of bipacks was almost entirely confined to two-color motion picture systems. 5090: 4038: 627:

special metal or wooden frame for this purpose, through filters as Maxwell had done in 1861. Prepared Kromograms of still-life subjects, landscapes, famous buildings and works of art were sold and these were the Kromskop viewer's usual fodder, but a "multiple back" camera attachment and a set of three specially adjusted color filters could be bought by "Kromskopists" wishing to make their own Kromograms.

550: 4049: 1872:, price list (following page 80) pages 1–2, and the subsequently referenced Joly, J: "On a method...", page 135 for mentions of the use of the Lumière Panchromatic in those systems. The alternative alluded to in Ives may be the Cadett Spectrum but could also be the Edwards Isochromatic, only slightly sensitive to red, which Ives is on record as having employed at an earlier date. The Cadett 479: 146: 5100: 4464: 495:

but very dark in the other two images, so the result will be an area with just a trace of cyan, absorbing just a bit of red light, but a large amount of magenta and yellow, which together absorb most of the green and blue light, leaving mainly red light to be reflected back from the white paper in the case of a print, or transmitted through a clear support in the case of a transparency.

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normally cyan, a greenish-blue which absorbs red; magenta, a purplish-pink which absorbs green; and yellow, which absorbs blue. The red-filtered image is used to create a cyan dye image, the green-filtered image to create a magenta dye image, and the blue-filtered image to create a yellow dye image. When the three dye images are superimposed they form a complete color image.

1774:, December, 1873 10(117):233–237. The capital letters used in this and other sources cited refer to the Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum, in keeping with contemporary practice. For convenience of reference: C is 656 nm, a slightly deeper red than the output of an average red laser pointer; D is 589 nm, the orange-yellow light of a sodium vapor lamp; E is 527 nm, green. 1056: 261: 508: 574:

had not yet replaced glass plates as the support for the emulsion) or different areas of one plate. Later known as "one-shot" cameras, refined versions continued to be used as late as the 1950s for special purposes such as commercial photography for publication, in which a set of color separations was ultimately required in order to prepare printing plates.

358: 85: 1855:, pages 33–35. The Photochromoscope Syndicate Limited, London, 1898. Only a brief description of this automated camera is given but a line drawing of the mechanism and the patent reference are included. An Ives one-shot camera is described and illustrated on pages 30–33 and a horizontally oriented multiple back attachment is illustrated on page 37. 314:. This is usually done by analyzing the spectrum of colors into three channels of information, one dominated by red, another by green and the third by blue, in imitation of the way the normal human eye senses color. The recorded information is then used to reproduce the original colors by mixing various proportions of red, green and blue light ( 1052:

filters applied respond to red, blue and green, the latter being used twice as often based on an argument that the human eye is more sensitive to variation in green than any other color. Thus, the color image produced would preserve color in a way resembling human perception, and not appear unduly deteriorated in any particular color range.

1409:. They are transparent, which enables viewing the photograph without removing the enclosure. Plastic is also more resistant to tears, compared to paper. Disadvantages include being prone to static electricity and risk of ferrotyping (moisture becoming trapped between enclosure and item, causing the materials to stick to one another). 794:

snapshot cameras. The three emulsions were on unusually thin film bases. After exposure, the roll was sent to Agfa-Ansco for processing and the triple negatives were returned to the customer with a set of color prints. The images were not sharp and the color was not very good, but they were genuine "natural color" snapshots.

670:. The color fidelity is extremely high but the images can not be reproduced and viewing requires very specific lighting conditions. The development of the Autochrome process quickly rendered the Lippmann method redundant. The method is still utilized to make singular images that cannot be copied for security purposes. 647:

The simpler and somewhat more economical alternative was the Joly screen process. This required no special camera or viewer, just a special color-compensating filter for the camera lens and a special holder for the photographic plates. The holder contained the heart of the system: a clear glass plate

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Prior to the late 1890s color photography was strictly the domain of a very few experimenters willing to build their own equipment, do their own color-sensitizing of photographic emulsions, make and test their own color filters and otherwise devote a large amount of time and effort to their pursuits.

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should be non-acidic, lignin-free paper and may come in either buffered or non-buffered stock. Paper enclosures are generally less costly than plastic ones. Paper's opacity protects photographs from light. Its porosity may protect them from internal humidity and gaseous pollutants. However, images

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While Adams initially was far from thrilled with color, he did experiment with it, unknown to many. A few examples of his color work are available in the online archive of the Center for Creative Photography at the University of Arizona. The subjects which he shot in color ranged from portraits, to

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were replacing flashbulbs, and color had become the norm for snapshot-taking in most families. Black-and-white film continued to be used by some photographers who preferred it for aesthetic reasons or who wanted to take pictures by existing light in low-light conditions, which was still difficult to

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If the three layers of emulsion in a tripack did not have to be taken apart in order to produce the cyan, magenta and yellow dye images from them, they could be coated directly on top of each other, eliminating the most serious problems. In fact, some chemical magic was under development which would

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Millions of Autochrome plates were manufactured and used during the quarter century before the plates were replaced by film-based versions in the 1930s. The very last film version, named Alticolor, brought the Autochrome process into the 1950s but was discontinued in 1955. Many additive color screen

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Viewed under optimum conditions and by daylight as intended, a well-made and well-preserved Autochrome can look startlingly fresh and vivid. Unfortunately, modern film and digital copies are usually made with a highly diffused light source, which causes loss of color saturation and other ill effects

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which were too small to be individually visible. The light-sensitive emulsion was coated directly onto the screen plate, eliminating problems due to imperfect contact between the screen and image. Reversal processing was used to convert the negative image which was initially produced into a positive

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The results won near-universal praise for excellence and realism. At demonstrations, Ives sometimes placed a viewer displaying a still-life subject next to the actual objects photographed, inviting direct comparison. A Kromskop triple "lantern" could be used to project the three images, mounted in a

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The first type used a system of partially reflecting surfaces to divide the light coming through the lens into three parts, each part passing through a different color filter and forming a separate image, so that the three images could be photographed at the same time on three plates (flexible film

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Creating colors by mixing colored lights (usually red, green and blue) in various proportions is the additive method of color reproduction. LCD, LED, plasma and CRT (picture tube) color video displays all use this method. If one of these displays is examined with a sufficiently strong magnifier, it

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with which he could alter the proportions, that any visible hue or gray tone could be made by mixing only three pure colors of light – red, green and blue – in proportions that would stimulate the three types of cells to the same degrees under particular lighting conditions. To emphasize

390:, achieved better results but could find no way to prevent the colors from quickly fading when the images were exposed to light for viewing. Over the following several decades, renewed experiments along these lines periodically raised hopes and then dashed them, yielding nothing of practical value. 378:

directly onto the sensitive surface, seemed to promise eventual success, but the comparatively dim image formed in a camera required exposures lasting for hours or even days. The quality and range of the color was sometimes severely limited mainly to primary colors, as in the chemically complicated

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Other currently available films are designed to produce color negatives for use in creating enlarged positive prints on color photographic paper. Color negatives may also be digitally scanned and then printed by photographic or non-photographic means, or viewed as positives electronically. Unlike

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The expense of color film as compared to black-and-white and the difficulty of using it with indoor lighting combined to delay its widespread adoption by amateurs. In 1950, black-and-white snapshots were still the norm. By 1960, color was much more common but still tended to be reserved for travel

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At first it may seem that each image ought to be printed in the color of the filter used in making it, but by following any given color through the process the reason for printing in complementary colors should become apparent. A red object, for example, will be very pale in the red-filtered image

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The same three images taken through red, green and blue filters which are used for additive color synthesis may also be used to produce color prints and transparencies by the subtractive method, in which colors are subtracted from white light by dyes or pigments. In photography, the dye colors are

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uses the fact that light penetrates silicon to a depth that depends on the wavelength of the light. Thus, reading light at a lower layer in a silicon stack would yield a different value than reading it at the top, and the difference can be used to compute the color of the light in addition to its

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in 1976. In this approach, a sensor that is sensitive to multiple wavelengths of light is placed behind a color filter. Traditionally, each pixel, or "sensel", is thereby assigned an additional light response curve beyond its inherent differential response to different wavelengths - typically the

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or magnifying viewer, although paper prints can also be made from them. Transparencies are preferred by some professional photographers who use film because they can be judged without having to print them first. Transparencies are also capable of a wider dynamic range and, therefore, of a greater

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could add sensitivity to colors which the dyes absorbed. He identified dyes which variously sensitized for all the previously ineffective colors except true red, to which only a marginal trace of sensitivity could be added. In the following year, Edmond Becquerel discovered that chlorophyll was a

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in 1861 for use in illustrating a lecture on color by Maxwell, where it was shown in color by the triple projection method. The test subject was a bow made of ribbon with stripes of various colors, apparently including red and green. During the lecture, which was about physics and physiology, not

698:, introduced as film for still photography in 1935, was as popular or successful as the Lumière Autochrome. The most recent use of the additive screen process for non-digital photography was in Polachrome, an "instant" 35mm slide film introduced in 1983 and discontinued about twenty years later. 630:

Kromskops and ready-made Kromograms were bought by educational institutions for their value in teaching about color and color vision, as well as by wealthy individuals. A few people made their own Kromograms. These were not enough to sustain Ives’ businesses, which had been set up to exploit the

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The second type, known variously as a multiple back, repeating back or drop back camera, still exposed the images one at a time but used a sliding holder for the filters and plates which allowed each filter and the corresponding unexposed area of emulsion to be quickly shifted into place. German

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we call "red", another is more sensitive to the middle or "green" region, and a third which is most strongly stimulated by "blue". The named colors are somewhat arbitrary divisions imposed on the continuous spectrum of visible light, and the theory is not an entirely accurate description of cone

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was available only as 16mm film for home movies, but in 1936 it was also introduced as 8mm home movie film and short lengths of 35mm film for still photography. In 1938, sheet film in various sizes for professional photographers was introduced, some changes were made to cure early problems with

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The Joly screen process had some problems. First and foremost, although the colored lines were reasonably fine (about 75 sets of three colored lines to the inch) they were still disturbingly visible at normal viewing distances and nearly intolerable when enlarged by projection. This problem was

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In 1898, however, it was possible to buy the required equipment and supplies ready-made. Two adequately red-sensitive photographic plates were already on the market, and two very different systems of color photography with which to use them, described in photographic magazines for several years

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Making color separations by reloading the camera and changing the filter between exposures was inconvenient, added delays to the already long exposure times and could result in the camera being accidentally shifted out of position. To improve the actual picture-taking, a number of experimenters

1142:, a classic photographer who lived during the rise of color film, was one of the photographers who immediately recognized the potential of color film. He saw it as a new way to frame the world; a way to experiment with the subjects he photographed and how he conveyed emotion in the photograph. 880:

in 1963. Like Polaroid's contemporary instant black-and-white film, their first color product was a negative-positive peel-apart process which produced a unique print on paper. The negative could not be reused and was discarded. The blight created by carelessly discarded caustic-chemical-laden

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Despite these limitations, some "tripacks" were commercially produced, such as the Hess-Ives "Hiblock" which sandwiched an emulsion on film between emulsions coated on glass plates. For a brief period in the early 1930s, the American Agfa-Ansco company produced Colorol, a roll-film tripack for

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before the 1917 revolution. One sophisticated variant, patented by Frederic Eugene Ives in 1897, was driven by clockwork and could be adjusted to automatically make each of the exposures for a different length of time according to the particular color sensitivities of the emulsion being used.

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dye coupler method. In the following year, Kodacolor film was introduced. Unlike Kodachrome, it was designed to be processed into a negative image which showed not only light and dark reversed but also complementary colors. The use of such a negative for making prints on paper simplified the

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Louis Ducos du Hauron had suggested using a sandwich of three differently color-recording emulsions on transparent supports which could be exposed together in an ordinary camera, then taken apart and used like any other set of three-color separations. The problem was that although two of the

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Before the technical innovations of the years 1935 to 1942, the only way to create a subtractive full-color print or transparency was by means of one of several labor-intensive and time-consuming procedures. Most commonly, three pigment images were first created separately by the so-called

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There were many opportunities for something to go wrong during the series of operations required and problem-free results were rare. Most photographers still regarded the whole idea of color photography as a pipe dream, something only madmen and swindlers would claim to have accomplished.

475:. The "K" is a black component normally added in ink-jet and other mechanical printing processes to compensate for the imperfections of the colored inks used, which ideally should absorb or transmit various parts of the spectrum but not reflect any color, and to improve image definition. 1152:, in which he explained the importance of understanding the "special and often subtle relationships between different colors". He also described the psychological and emotional power that color can have on the viewer, since certain colors, he argues, can make people feel a certain way. 503:

and then carefully combined in register. Sometimes, related processes were used to make three gelatin matrices which were dyed and assembled or used to transfer the three dye images into a single layer of gelatin coated on a final support. Chemical toning could be used to convert three

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sensitivity. But the simple description of these three colors coincides enough with the sensations experienced by the eye that when these three colors are used the three cones types are adequately and unequally stimulated to form the illusion of various intermediate wavelengths of

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As long as photographic materials were usefully sensitive only to blue-green, blue, violet and ultraviolet, three-color photography could never be practical. In 1873 German chemist Hermann Wilhelm Vogel discovered that the addition of small amounts of certain aniline dyes to a

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and 18902. Sometimes these containers must be custom-made for oddly sized materials. In general, flat storage in boxes is recommended because it provides more stable support, particularly for materials that are fragile. Boxes and folders should not be over-filled.

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due to light scatter within the structure of the screen and emulsion, and by fluorescent or other artificial light which alters the color balance. The capabilities of the process should not be judged by the dull, washed-out, odd-colored reproductions commonly seen.

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Surviving examples of the Joly process usually show extremely poor color now. The colors in the viewing screens have badly faded and shifted, making it impossible to judge their original appearance. In some specimens the viewing screen is also misaligned.

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In 1941, Kodak made it possible to order prints from Kodachrome slides. The print "paper" was actually a white plastic coated with a multilayer emulsion similar to that on the film. These were the first commercially available color prints created by the

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Color photography was attempted beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments were directed at finding a "chameleon substance" which would assume the color of the light falling on it. Some encouraging early results, typically obtained by projecting a solar

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do with color film. They usually did their own developing and printing. By 1980, black-and-white film in the formats used by typical snapshot cameras, as well as commercial developing and printing service for it, had nearly disappeared.

333:" by tinting selected areas by hand or mechanically or with the aid of a computer are "colored photographs", not "color photographs". Their colors are not dependent on the actual colors of the objects photographed and may be inaccurate. 1108:

Photographers differed in opinion about color photography when it was introduced. Some fully embraced it when it was available to the public in the late 1930s, while others remained skeptical of its relevance in the art of photography.

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in light tight enclosures and storage boxes is advised for individual items. When materials are exposed to light during handling, usage, or display, light sources should be UV-filtered and intensity kept at minimum. In storage areas,

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Otherwise simple cameras with multiple color-filtered lenses were sometimes tried, but unless everything in the scene was at a great distance, or all in a plane at the same distance, the difference in the viewpoints of the lenses

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degree of realism than the more convenient medium of prints on paper. The early popularity of color "slides" among amateurs went into decline after automated printing equipment began improving print quality and lowering prices.

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landscape, to architecture; a similar scope to that of his black and white work. In fact, toward the end of his life, Adams admitted his regret of not being able to master the technique of color, according to an expert source.

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will be seen that each pixel is actually composed of red, green and blue sub-pixels which blend at normal viewing distances, reproducing a wide range of colors as well as white and shades of gray. This is also known as the

1692:, Maxwell calls the short-wavelength primary "violet" in the relevant paragraphs of his 1855 paper, though he actually used blue in his own experiments, which the paper also describes, and in his 1861 demonstration) 829:" added during that stage of development caused a cyan, magenta or yellow dye image to be created along with it. The silver was chemically removed, leaving only the three layers of dye images in the finished film. 916: 631:

system; they soon failed, but the viewers, projectors, Kromograms and several varieties of Kromskop cameras and camera attachments continued to be available through the Scientific Shop in Chicago as late as 1907.

490:, 1869 or 1870. A presentation copy of this bears an early (February?) 1870 date on the mat in DdH's handwriting. This may refer to the print date only, with the original photography possibly occurring in 1869. 1842:

translation, page 509: "...vigorous band between the rays C and D" (referring to Fraunhofer lines) should be "C and B" per the original French text and in agreement with subsequent mentions in the translation.

318:, used by video displays, digital projectors and some historical photographic processes), or by using dyes or pigments to remove various proportions of the red, green and blue which are present in white 1289:

occurs regardless of the procedures taken to preserve a photograph and is unavoidable. It is caused by temperature and humidity. Cyan dyes typically fade more quickly, making the image appear too red.

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for a Maxwell lecture in 1861. Color photography has been the dominant form of photography since the 1970s, with monochrome photography mostly relegated to niche markets such as art photography.

1231:, which fade at different rates. Even in dark storage and archival material enclosures, deterioration is unavoidable. However, proper care can delay fading, color shifting, and discoloration. 1610: 1994: 707: 1964: 662:

is a way of making a color photograph that relies on Bragg reflection planes in the emulsion to make the colors. It is similar to using the colors of soap bubbles to make an image.

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designed a high-quality camera of this type which was commercially introduced by Bermpohl in 1903. It was probably this Miethe-Bermpohl camera which was used by Miethe's pupil

1770:, date and page not cited but apparently December 12, 1873 (the latter not known to be available online as of August 6, 2010), in turn translated from Vogel's own publication 1345:

The use of protective enclosures is the easiest method to preserve photographic materials from damage by handling and light exposure. All protective materials should pass the

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below freezing is one of the most effective ways to halt damage to color images. Cold storage is more costly and requires special training to remove and return items.

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photos and special occasions. Color film and color prints cost several times as much as black-and-white, and taking color snapshots in deep shade or indoors required

1838:(1874) 79:185–190 (the latter downloaded from the Bibliotheque Nationale Francaise on January 28, 2006 but not directly linkable). Note one significant error in the 1036:

that can shoot both in monochrome as well as color. Some photographers continue to prefer film for its distinctive "look" for artistic purposes or out of fondness.

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The three-color method, which is the foundation of virtually all practical color processes whether chemical or electronic, was first suggested in an 1855 paper on

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Though a wide range of film preference still exists among photographers today, color has, with time, gained a much larger following in the field of photography.

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above freezing, which is more common and less costly, requires temperatures between 10–15 °C (50–59 °F) with 30–40% relative humidity and above the

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The Bayer pattern itself has had various modifications proposed. One class of these uses the same pattern, but changes the colors of the glass, for instance

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won the Nobel Prize in physics in 1908 for the creation of the first color photographic process using a single emulsion. The method is based on the

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Becquerel, E: "The action of rays of different refrangibility upon the iodide and bromide of silver: the influence of colouring matters",

1172:

Though color photography had its followers, black-and-white still remained the more popular and respected film when color first came out.

1676: 1148:, another photographer who lived during this time period, was another example of those who preferred color. He published a book entitled 881:

Polaroid negatives, which tended to accumulate most heavily at the prettiest, most snapshot-worthy locations, horrified Polaroid founder

623:. By looking through its pair of lenses, an image in full natural color and 3-D was seen, a startling novelty in the late Victorian age. 4933: 3943: 3495: 945: 163: 109: 57: 3704: 2413: 2370: 2355: 2340: 2325: 2296: 2252: 2230: 2207: 2192: 2171: 247: 229: 127: 71: 336:

The foundation of all practical color processes, the three-color method was first suggested in an 1855 paper by Scottish physicist

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prominent for his early use and experiments in color photography. He began writing a monthly column on color photography for the

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The Permanence and Care of Color Photographs: Traditional and digital color prints, color negatives, slides, and motion pictures

817:, a name recycled from an earlier and completely different two-color process. Its development was led by the improbable team of 210: 5103: 5057: 3963: 3457: 1553: 1032:

After a transition period centered around 1994–2006, color film was relegated to a niche market by inexpensive multi-megapixel

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A circa 1850 "Hillotype" photograph of a colored engraving. Long believed to be a complete fraud, recent testing found that

365:'s process did reproduce some color photographically, but also that many specimens had been "sweetened" by the addition of 4938: 3545: 3477: 3230: 2752: 1417:

provide another protective barrier, such as folders and boxes made from archival paperboard as addressed in ISO Standards

1374:

It is recommended that each item have its own archival enclosure of appropriate size. Archival enclosures may be made of

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Spectrum plate, with an improved spectral response curve and greatly increased overall speed, was available by mid-1900.

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Uses unencyclopedic language often; is written like a history book instead of an encyclopedia: e.g., "improbable team".

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around 1930. Outerbridge became known for the high quality of his color illustrations, made by an extremely complex

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test that determines what kind of storage enclosures will preserve, prolong, and/or prevent further deterioration.

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The most extensive and expensive of the two was the "Kromskop" (pronounced "chrome-scope") system developed by

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In color photography, electronic sensors or light-sensitive chemicals record color information at the time of

178: 4970: 4923: 3842: 3646: 3550: 3414: 3265: 3097: 3002: 2645: 2563: 2529: 1097: 865:—an inconvenience and an additional expense. By 1970, prices were dropping, film sensitivity had improved, 1071:

Another option is the use of a prism to separate the colors onto three separate capturing devices, as in a

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Science progress in the twentieth century: a quarterly journal of scientific work & thought, Volume 2

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Photography – Processed Photographic Materials – Photographic Activity Test for Enclosure Materials

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that the normal human eye sees color because its inner surface is covered with millions of intermingled

4326: 3510: 674: 1611:"From Charles Mackintosh's waterproof to Dolly the sheep: 43 innovations Scotland has given the world" 1158:

is widely credited with increasing recognition for color photography as a legitimate artistic medium.

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Vogel, H: "On the sensitiveness of bromide of silver to the so-called chemically inactive colours",

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The most commonly used method of obtaining color information in digital photography is the use of a

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and prompted him to develop the later SX-70 system, which produced no separate negative to discard.

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of older color photographic papers is yellowing of the border and highlight areas of a photograph.

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Some currently available color films are designed to produce positive transparencies for use in a

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products were available between the 1890s and the 1950s, but none, with the possible exception of

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in particular has proposed some of the more unusual variations of the Bayer pattern, such as the

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designed one or more special cameras for color photography. They were usually of two main types.

599:) made it impossible to completely register all parts of the resulting images at the same time. 437:

The first color photograph made according to Maxwell's prescription, a set of three monochrome "

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Unsuitable environmental conditions will deteriorate or destroy photographs. Examples include:

515:, the foremost early French pioneer of color photography. The overlapping yellow, cyan and red 203: 5065: 5018: 4615: 4430: 4321: 4254: 4249: 4227: 4156: 3862: 3798: 3716: 3380: 3305: 3295: 3285: 3270: 3134: 3102: 2962: 2797: 2568: 2419: 2409: 2374: 2366: 2351: 2336: 2321: 2300: 2292: 2263: 2248: 2234: 2226: 2211: 2203: 2188: 2167: 1818: 1670: 1521: 1487: 1296: 1244: 1155: 1059:

Wavelength-dependent absorption in silicon and the Foveon X3 sensor. See text for explanation.

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A color photograph made by Lippmann in the 1890s. It contains no pigments or dyes of any kind.

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In general, the colder the storage, the longer the lifetime of color photographs. Frost-free

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occurs with exposure to light, e.g. while on display. The intensity of the light source and

1117: 1072: 1064: 663: 472: 438: 323: 5043: 5033: 5028: 4993: 4895: 4731: 4678: 4568: 4501: 4316: 4232: 4210: 3922: 3830: 3447: 3195: 3077: 2772: 2719: 2714: 2682: 2667: 2625: 1472: 1164:, a postmodernist noted for her work during the 1970s used color extensively in her work. 987:

Photo taken in 2024 from Photo album book, showing A child takes a picture at his home in

889: 456: 387: 292: 1299:(UV) rays affect the rate of change and fade. Magenta dyes typically fade the quickest. 1024: 5149: 5093: 5038: 5023: 5003: 4998: 4781: 4595: 4590: 4418: 4396: 4331: 4203: 4168: 4141: 3699: 3525: 3467: 3235: 2916: 2822: 2807: 2802: 2697: 2504: 2494: 2484: 1959: 1804:, July 3, 1874:320–321, a direct communication (apparently in the original English) to 1511: 1457: 1442: 1390:

must be removed from the enclosure to be viewed. This risks mishandling and vandalism.

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From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967.

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Looking at Photographs: 100 Pictures from the Collection of the Museum of Modern Art

4813: 4776: 4769: 4575: 4558: 4550: 4491: 4483: 4346: 4190: 4018: 3912: 3907: 3902: 3857: 3743: 3738: 3392: 3112: 3082: 2864: 2859: 2842: 2687: 2509: 2499: 2489: 1452: 1406: 1179:, said to him at a party, “William, color is bullshit”, and then not another word. 1139: 1129: 1121: 1093: 1040: 873: 620: 579: 549: 500: 399: 1642:"Experiments on colour, as perceived by the eye, with remarks on colour-blindness" 5123: 2403: 4950: 4808: 4585: 4580: 4444: 4413: 4379: 4284: 4180: 4146: 4023: 3887: 3882: 3815: 3728: 3565: 3540: 3370: 3365: 3350: 3205: 3087: 3067: 2936: 2837: 2729: 2692: 2662: 2615: 2583: 2578: 2539: 2460: 1532: 1492: 1482: 1467: 1437: 1212: 1193: 1189: 1161: 1083: 1079: 1044: 853: 826: 739: 736: 478: 284: 145: 4960: 4803: 4640: 4631: 4535: 4523: 4463: 4279: 4242: 4237: 4220: 4013: 3535: 3515: 3429: 3419: 3280: 3245: 3220: 3149: 2889: 2874: 2854: 2736: 2672: 2588: 2534: 2423: 882: 833: 814: 695: 837:

unstable colors, and a somewhat simplified processing method was instituted.

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The Bayer arrangement of color filters on the pixel array of an image sensor

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The production of photographic three-color prints on paper was pioneered by

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The Life of a Photograph: Archival processing, matting, framing, storage

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Color photographic materials are impermanent and, by nature, unstable.

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introduced the first modern "integral tripack" color film and called it

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of three types: in theory, one type is most sensitive to the end of the

4847: 4129: 3560: 2709: 2655: 2180:. Kodak publication, no. F-30. (1979). Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Co. 1220: 742: 357: 264:

The first color photograph made by the three-color method suggested by

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The Chemistry of Photography: From Classical to Digital Technologies

2335:. Nashville, TN: American Association for State and Local History. 1082:

for increased sensitivity to the intensity of light (luminance) or

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R.M. Evans (1961a). “Some Notes on Maxwell’s Colour Photograph.”

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A Guide to the Preventive Conservation of Photograph Collections

1224: 936: 841: 4068: 4064: 2433: 1955:"When Color Was Vulgar: Paul Outerbridge's Avant-Gardist's Eye" 1550:, on which Paget color photography was used (among other types) 4764: 4658: 4423: 2429: 1334: 1228: 1136:, using high quality illustrations to explain his techniques. 557:, documenting Russian peasant girls in a rural area along the 139: 78: 37: 1011:

A sample shot of Polaroid Type 600, ISO 640, color film, 2009

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Twentieth-Century Color Photographs: Identification and Care

2032:"Patrik Sandberg » WILLIAM EGGLESTON BY DREW BARRYMORE" 1821:. "Popular Science", October 1874, Pg.717–720 ISSN 0161-7370 2247:. (1991). Mountain View, CA: The Research Libraries Group. 429:

In his studies of color vision, Maxwell showed, by using a

272:. The subject is a colored ribbon, usually described as a 1910:

Joly, J: "On a method of photography in natural colors",

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to make his now-celebrated color photographic surveys of

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Standards in the Museum Care of Photographic Collections

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After photographic materials are individually enclosed,

326:, used for prints on paper and transparencies on film). 1987:"Ferenc Berko, 84, Pioneer In Use of Color Photography" 1688:(Note: in apparent deference to the primaries named by 1084:

replacing one green cell with an "emerald" or cyan one

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Caring for Photographs: Display, storage, restoration

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Colour Photography: the first hundred years 1840–1940

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The first commercially successful color process, the

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that uses media capable of capturing and reproducing

303:(brightness) and uses media capable only of showing 5056: 4969: 4894: 4887: 4838: 4757: 4707: 4639: 4630: 4549: 4482: 4471: 4360: 4307: 4189: 4112: 4103: 3989: 3936: 3841: 3784: 3690: 3574: 3486: 3438: 3178: 2945: 2745: 2467: 2333:

Collection, Use, and Care of Historical Photographs

1912:

Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society

1746:R.M. Evans (1961b). “Maxwell's Color Photography”. 170:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2281:. Albany, NY: University of the State of New York. 2221:Lavédrine, B.; Gandolfo, J.-P.; Monod, S. (2003). 2187:. London, UK: Museums & Galleries Commission. 4717:Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate 2225:. Los Angeles, CA: Getty Conservation Institute. 2245:Photograph Preservation and the Research Library 1800:Vogel, H: "Rendering actinic non-actinic rays", 1215:color photographs, for example, are composed of 2365:. Chicago, IL: Society of American Archivists. 2291:. Chicago, IL: Society of American Archivists. 1132:process. In 1940 he published his seminal book 857:processing of the prints, reducing their cost. 844:followed with their own integral tripack film, 2279:Storage Guide for Color Photographic Materials 1646:Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1576: 1574: 1357:International Organization for Standardization 1063:However, alternative approaches do exist. The 340:, with the first color photograph produced by 5128:. Munn & Company. 1887-07-09. p. 17. 4080: 2445: 2164:The Illustrated History of Colour Photography 2059: 2057: 1529:(easily mistaken for early color photography) 612:prior, were finally available to the public. 511:An 1877 color photographic print on paper by 8: 1834:, October 23, 1874:508–509, translated from 1783:Vogel, H: "Photo-spectroscopic researches", 963:Kodachrome photo by Chalmers Butterfield of 3997:Conservation and restoration of photographs 1582:"1861: James Clerk Maxwell's greatest year" 935:An Agfacolor slide dated 1937 from café in 72:Learn how and when to remove these messages 5099: 4891: 4636: 4479: 4109: 4087: 4073: 4065: 3734:Comparison of digital and film photography 2452: 2438: 2430: 1787:, March 20, 1874:136–137, translated from 1766:, December 26, 1873:318–319, copying from 1382:. Each has advantages and disadvantages. 1282:Three signs of aging of color images are: 1188:This worry was not uncommon. Photographer 951:An Agfacolor slide dated 1938 from Sweden. 386:around 1850. Other experimenters, such as 3954:Photographs considered the most important 2398:entitled "Photography in Natural Colors". 2289:Photographs: Archival care and management 1605: 1603: 1584:. King's College London. 3 January 2017. 1175:According to Eggleston, his former idol, 379:"Hillotype" process invented by American 248:Learn how and when to remove this message 230:Learn how and when to remove this message 128:Learn how and when to remove this message 4868:International Commission on Illumination 1887:"Colourful stories no. 2 – the Kromskop" 1864:Abney, W: "Orthochromatic photography", 1054: 1023: 5115: 2262:. Los Angeles, CA: Getty Publications. 1570: 1355:(ANSI) in standard IT9.2–1988, and the 905: 703: 603:Color photography leaves the laboratory 4858:Color Association of the United States 2350:. Grinnell, IA: Preservation Pub. Co. 2105:Woodward, Richard B. (November 2009). 2064:Tuley, Laura Camille (December 2007). 1353:American National Standards Institute 1080:using cyan, yellow, green and magenta 7: 2198:Keefe, L.E.; & Inch, D. (1990). 584:Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii 168:adding citations to reliable sources 3949:Museums devoted to one photographer 2331:Weinstein, R.A.; Booth, L. (1977). 1918:, November 28, 1895 53(1361):91–93. 1713:from the original on 4 January 2017 1703:"The first colour photograph, 1861" 1621:from the original on 2 October 2017 1588:from the original on 4 January 2017 329:Monochrome images which have been " 4722:Blue–green distinction in language 3496:Timeline of photography technology 2346:Wilhelm, H.G.; Brower, C. (1993). 2086:from the original on July 17, 2018 1997:from the original on March 4, 2016 1937:Szarkowski, John (July 28, 1999). 1819:"Recent Researches In Photography" 1675:. John Murray. 1908. p. 359. 27:Photography that reproduces colors 25: 2066:"An Interview with Harold Baquet" 1985:Honan, William (March 26, 2000). 1791:, February, 1874 10(119):279–283. 299:records only a single channel of 53:This article has multiple issues. 5098: 5089: 5088: 4879:International Colour Association 4462: 4047: 4037: 4036: 2363:Museum Archives: An introduction 1004: 980: 956: 944: 928: 908: 766: 750: 728: 706: 144: 83: 42: 4048: 2140:Center for Creative Photography 2117:from the original on 2018-07-17 1967:from the original on 2018-09-21 1893:from the original on 2018-04-24 1739:Journal of Photographic Science 1679:from the original on 2019-12-15 1652:from the original on 2014-07-14 1554:Timeline of historic inventions 1351:(PAT) as described both by the 1278:Improper storage and enclosures 1272:Base and emulsion deterioration 713:A 1914 color photograph of the 155:needs additional citations for 61:or discuss these issues on the 4874:International Color Consortium 4863:International Colour Authority 2408:, Royal Society of Chemistry, 2402:Rogers, David (October 2007), 2310:Sipley, Louis Walton. (1951). 1866:Journal of the Society of Arts 1735:, 6th edition. Wiley. pp 9–10. 1: 4939:List of Crayola crayon colors 3546:Painted photography backdrops 3478:Golden triangle (composition) 2753:35 mm equivalent focal length 2394:in 1887 article appearing in 1789:Photographische Mittheilungen 1772:Photographische Mittheilungen 1640:Maxwell, James Clerk (1855). 1415:housing or storage containers 1269:Residual processing chemicals 717:published in a 1921 issue of 2287:; Vogt-O'Connor, D. (2006). 2018:The Art of Color Photography 1150:The Art of Color Photography 915:Agfacolor photo dated 1937, 4742:Traditional colors of Japan 4519:Achromatic colors (Neutral) 4402:Multi-primary color display 4176:Spectral power distribution 3256:Intentional camera movement 2202:. Boston, MA: Focal Press. 2178:Preservation of Photographs 1448:Jules Gervais-Courtellemont 1326:to eliminate condensation. 1259:Biological threats such as 1103: 773:Autochrome dated 1934, the 553:A 1909 color photograph by 103:. The specific problem is: 5171: 3944:Most expensive photographs 3301:Multi-exposure HDR capture 2314:, New York, NY: Macmillan. 1870:Kromskop Color Photography 1853:Kromskop Color Photography 1733:The Reproduction of Colour 1348:Photographic Activity Test 1243:High temperature and high 805:Color film since the 1930s 471:This is also known as the 268:in 1855, taken in 1861 by 99:to meet Knowledge (XXG)'s 32:List of color film systems 29: 5084: 4602:Color realism (art style) 4460: 4260:Evolution of color vision 4032: 2258:Penichon, Sylvie (2013). 1548:The Shackleton Expedition 1507:Color motion picture film 677:, invented by the French 578:photochemistry professor 4919:List of colors (compact) 4737:Color in Chinese culture 4387:Digital image processing 4120:Electromagnetic spectrum 3878:Digital image processing 2142:. University of Arizona. 4924:List of colors by shade 3551:Photography and the law 2312:A Half Century of Color 2166:. Fountain Press Ltd., 2016:Hedgecoe, John (1998). 668:interference phenomenon 4929:List of color palettes 3898:Gelatin silver process 2922:Science of photography 2907:Photographic processes 2885:Perspective distortion 2107:"Ansel Adams in Color" 2036:www.patriksandberg.com 2020:. Reed Consumer Books. 1748:Scientific Photography 1543:Potassium ferricyanide 1538:Photographic processes 1134:Photographing in Color 1060: 1029: 867:electronic flash units 664:Gabriel Jonas Lippmann 644: 566: 555:Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky 520: 519:elements are apparent. 491: 411:Young–Helmholtz theory 402:by Scottish physicist 370: 297:monochrome photography 277: 4853:Color Marketing Group 4608:On Vision and Colours 4541:Tinctures in heraldry 4152:Structural coloration 3356:Schlieren photography 2895:Photographic printing 2818:Exposure compensation 2136:"Ansel Adams: Browse" 1832:The Photographic News 1806:The Photographic News 1802:The Photographic News 1785:The Photographic News 1768:The Photographic News 1397:are made of uncoated 1177:Henri Cartier-Bresson 1104:Artists' perspectives 1058: 1027: 642: 552: 538:photographic emulsion 525:Louis Ducos du Hauron 513:Louis Ducos du Hauron 510: 484:Louis Ducos du Hauron 481: 394:Three-color processes 360: 263: 4934:List of color spaces 4826:Tint, shade and tone 4709:Cultural differences 4524:Polychromatic colors 4509:Complementary colors 4497:Monochromatic colors 3140:Straight photography 2778:Chromatic aberration 2162:Coote, Jack (1993). 1731:R.W.G. Hunt (2004). 1617:. 30 December 2016. 1126:U.S. Camera Magazine 840:In 1936, the German 823:Leopold Godowsky Jr. 801:make that possible. 745:fighter, circa 1917. 660:Lippmann photography 617:Frederic Eugene Ives 482:Color print made by 164:improve this article 110:improve this article 5155:Scottish inventions 5125:Scientific American 4914:List of colors: N–Z 4909:List of colors: G–M 4904:List of colors: A–F 4007:photographic plates 3692:Digital photography 2870:Hyperfocal distance 2783:Circle of confusion 2396:Scientific American 2155:Coe, Brian (1978). 2042:on 9 September 2012 1889:. 12 January 2008. 1020:Digital photography 775:Royal Swedish Opera 761:, Autochrome, 1930. 735:An Autochrome of a 720:National Geographic 531:Color sensitization 409:It is based on the 404:James Clerk Maxwell 367:hand-applied colors 338:James Clerk Maxwell 266:James Clerk Maxwell 179:"Color photography" 4961:List of web colors 4956:List of RAL colors 4362:Color reproduction 4327:Lüscher color test 4164:Color of chemicals 3511:Autochrome Lumière 3506:Analog photography 3331:Pigeon photography 3120:Social documentary 2599:discontinued films 2361:Wythe, D. (2004). 2285:Ritzenthaler, M.L. 2183:Paine, C. (1996). 2159:. Ash & Grant. 2150:General references 2073:New Orleans Review 1991:The New York Times 1709:. 3 January 2017. 1395:plastic enclosures 1359:(ISO) in standard 1303:Highlight staining 1275:Handling and usage 1061: 1030: 973:West End of London 965:Shaftesbury Avenue 876:was introduced by 874:Instant color film 809:In 1935, American 675:Lumière Autochrome 645: 567: 521: 492: 486:from three direct 371: 278: 5145:Color photography 5112: 5111: 5052: 5051: 4834: 4833: 4626: 4625: 4616:Theory of Colours 4458: 4457: 4370:Color photography 4322:Color preferences 4265:Impossible colors 4255:Color vision test 4250:Color temperature 4228:Color calibration 4157:Animal coloration 4062: 4061: 3863:Collodion process 3799:Chromogenic print 3786:Color photography 3296:Multiple exposure 3271:Lo-fi photography 2798:Color temperature 2379:978-1-931666-06-0 2305:978-1-931666-17-6 2268:978-1-60606-156-5 2239:978-0-89236-701-6 2216:978-0-240-80024-0 1963:. 5 August 2016. 1840:Photographic News 1522:Film colorization 1488:William Vandivert 1393:Archival quality 1367:. The PAT is an 1245:relative humidity 1156:William Eggleston 969:Piccadilly Circus 517:subtractive color 463:Subtractive color 439:color separations 353:Early experiments 281:Color photography 258: 257: 250: 240: 239: 232: 214: 138: 137: 130: 101:quality standards 92:This article may 76: 16:(Redirected from 5162: 5130: 5129: 5120: 5102: 5101: 5092: 5091: 4892: 4758:Color dimensions 4747:Human skin color 4637: 4514:Analogous colors 4480: 4466: 4392:Color management 4309:Color psychology 4275:Opponent process 4191:Color perception 4110: 4089: 4082: 4075: 4066: 4051: 4050: 4040: 4039: 3918:Print permanence 3868:Cross processing 3826:CMYK color model 3811:Color management 3764:Foveon X3 sensor 3759:Three-CCD camera 3403:Miniature faking 3361:Sabattier effect 2973:Astrophotography 2828:Zebra patterning 2454: 2447: 2440: 2431: 2426: 2392:Mathew Carey Lea 2144: 2143: 2132: 2126: 2125: 2123: 2122: 2102: 2096: 2095: 2093: 2091: 2085: 2070: 2061: 2052: 2051: 2049: 2047: 2038:. Archived from 2028: 2022: 2021: 2013: 2007: 2006: 2004: 2002: 1982: 1976: 1975: 1973: 1972: 1951: 1945: 1944: 1934: 1928: 1925: 1919: 1908: 1902: 1901: 1899: 1898: 1883: 1877: 1862: 1856: 1849: 1843: 1828: 1822: 1815: 1809: 1798: 1792: 1781: 1775: 1760: 1754: 1729: 1723: 1722: 1720: 1718: 1699: 1693: 1687: 1685: 1684: 1667: 1661: 1660: 1658: 1657: 1637: 1631: 1630: 1628: 1626: 1607: 1598: 1597: 1595: 1593: 1578: 1517:Color television 1463:Gabriel Lippmann 1387:Paper enclosures 1369:archival science 1337:is recommended. 1130:tri-color carbro 1120:was an American 1118:Paul Outerbridge 1073:three-CCD camera 1008: 984: 960: 948: 932: 917:World exposition 912: 770: 754: 732: 710: 679:Lumière brothers 635:Screen-plate era 473:CMYK color model 441:", was taken by 388:Edmond Becquerel 253: 246: 235: 228: 224: 221: 215: 213: 172: 148: 140: 133: 126: 122: 119: 113: 87: 86: 79: 68: 46: 45: 38: 21: 5170: 5169: 5165: 5164: 5163: 5161: 5160: 5159: 5135: 5134: 5133: 5122: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5108: 5080: 5048: 4965: 4883: 4840: 4830: 4753: 4732:Blue in culture 4703: 4622: 4569:Secondary color 4545: 4502:black-and-white 4474: 4467: 4454: 4356: 4342:National colors 4337:Political color 4317:Color symbolism 4303: 4233:Color constancy 4211:Color blindness 4185: 4142:Spectral colors 4099: 4093: 4063: 4058: 4028: 3985: 3932: 3923:Push processing 3844: 3837: 3831:RGB color model 3780: 3686: 3570: 3482: 3448:Diagonal method 3434: 3174: 3078:Photojournalism 2941: 2773:Black-and-white 2741: 2720:Slide projector 2715:Movie projector 2594:available films 2463: 2458: 2416: 2401: 2388: 2386:Further reading 2152: 2147: 2134: 2133: 2129: 2120: 2118: 2104: 2103: 2099: 2089: 2087: 2083: 2068: 2063: 2062: 2055: 2045: 2043: 2030: 2029: 2025: 2015: 2014: 2010: 2000: 1998: 1984: 1983: 1979: 1970: 1968: 1953: 1952: 1948: 1936: 1935: 1931: 1926: 1922: 1909: 1905: 1896: 1894: 1885: 1884: 1880: 1863: 1859: 1850: 1846: 1829: 1825: 1816: 1812: 1799: 1795: 1782: 1778: 1761: 1757: 1745: 1736: 1730: 1726: 1716: 1714: 1701: 1700: 1696: 1682: 1680: 1669: 1668: 1664: 1655: 1653: 1648:. XXI part II. 1639: 1638: 1634: 1624: 1622: 1615:The independent 1609: 1608: 1601: 1591: 1589: 1580: 1579: 1572: 1568: 1563: 1558: 1497: 1473:Otto Pfenninger 1428: 1343: 1312: 1237: 1209: 1170: 1115: 1106: 1034:digital cameras 1022: 1017: 1016: 1015: 1012: 1009: 1000: 985: 976: 961: 952: 949: 940: 933: 924: 913: 900: 890:slide projector 807: 787: 782: 781: 780: 777: 771: 762: 755: 746: 733: 724: 711: 637: 605: 547: 533: 465: 457:RGB color model 452: 396: 381:daguerreotypist 355: 350: 293:black-and-white 291:. By contrast, 254: 243: 242: 241: 236: 225: 219: 216: 173: 171: 161: 149: 134: 123: 117: 114: 107: 88: 84: 47: 43: 34: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5168: 5166: 5158: 5157: 5152: 5147: 5137: 5136: 5132: 5131: 5114: 5110: 5109: 5107: 5106: 5096: 5085: 5082: 5081: 5079: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5062: 5060: 5054: 5053: 5050: 5049: 5047: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4975: 4973: 4967: 4966: 4964: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4947: 4946: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4911: 4906: 4900: 4898: 4889: 4885: 4884: 4882: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4844: 4842: 4836: 4835: 4832: 4831: 4829: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4817: 4816: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4786: 4785: 4784: 4774: 4773: 4772: 4761: 4759: 4755: 4754: 4752: 4751: 4750: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4728:Color history 4726: 4725: 4724: 4713: 4711: 4705: 4704: 4702: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4645: 4643: 4634: 4628: 4627: 4624: 4623: 4621: 4620: 4612: 4611:(Schopenhauer) 4604: 4599: 4596:Color analysis 4593: 4591:Color triangle 4588: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4572: 4571: 4566: 4555: 4553: 4547: 4546: 4544: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4527: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4505: 4504: 4488: 4486: 4477: 4469: 4468: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4455: 4453: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4441: 4440: 4439: 4438: 4428: 4427: 4426: 4411: 4410: 4409: 4404: 4397:Color printing 4394: 4389: 4384: 4383: 4382: 4377: 4366: 4364: 4358: 4357: 4355: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4332:Kruithof curve 4329: 4324: 4319: 4313: 4311: 4305: 4304: 4302: 4301: 4294: 4289: 4288: 4287: 4282: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4246: 4245: 4235: 4230: 4225: 4224: 4223: 4218: 4208: 4207: 4206: 4204:Sonochromatism 4195: 4193: 4187: 4186: 4184: 4183: 4178: 4173: 4172: 4171: 4161: 4160: 4159: 4154: 4144: 4139: 4138: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4116: 4114: 4107: 4101: 4100: 4094: 4092: 4091: 4084: 4077: 4069: 4060: 4059: 4057: 4056: 4045: 4033: 4030: 4029: 4027: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4010: 4009: 4004: 3993: 3991: 3987: 3986: 3984: 3983: 3982: 3981: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3956: 3951: 3946: 3940: 3938: 3934: 3933: 3931: 3930: 3925: 3920: 3915: 3910: 3905: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3849: 3847: 3839: 3838: 3836: 3835: 3834: 3833: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3808: 3803: 3802: 3801: 3790: 3788: 3782: 3781: 3779: 3778: 3773: 3768: 3767: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3741: 3736: 3731: 3726: 3725: 3724: 3719: 3714: 3713: 3712: 3700:Digital camera 3696: 3694: 3688: 3687: 3685: 3684: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3639: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3614: 3609: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3578: 3576: 3572: 3571: 3569: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3528: 3526:Camera obscura 3523: 3518: 3513: 3508: 3503: 3498: 3492: 3490: 3484: 3483: 3481: 3480: 3475: 3470: 3468:Rule of thirds 3465: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3444: 3442: 3436: 3435: 3433: 3432: 3427: 3422: 3417: 3412: 3407: 3406: 3405: 3395: 3390: 3389: 3388: 3378: 3373: 3368: 3363: 3358: 3353: 3348: 3343: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3323: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3303: 3298: 3293: 3288: 3283: 3278: 3273: 3268: 3263: 3258: 3253: 3248: 3243: 3238: 3236:Harris shutter 3233: 3231:Hand-colouring 3228: 3223: 3218: 3213: 3208: 3203: 3198: 3193: 3188: 3182: 3180: 3176: 3175: 3173: 3172: 3167: 3162: 3157: 3152: 3147: 3142: 3137: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3117: 3116: 3115: 3105: 3100: 3095: 3090: 3085: 3080: 3075: 3070: 3065: 3060: 3055: 3050: 3045: 3040: 3035: 3030: 3025: 3020: 3015: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2995: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2975: 2970: 2965: 2960: 2955: 2949: 2947: 2943: 2942: 2940: 2939: 2934: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2917:Red-eye effect 2914: 2909: 2904: 2903: 2902: 2892: 2887: 2882: 2877: 2872: 2867: 2862: 2857: 2852: 2851: 2850: 2845: 2835: 2830: 2825: 2823:Exposure value 2820: 2815: 2810: 2808:Depth of focus 2805: 2803:Depth of field 2800: 2795: 2790: 2785: 2780: 2775: 2770: 2765: 2760: 2755: 2749: 2747: 2743: 2742: 2740: 2739: 2734: 2733: 2732: 2722: 2717: 2712: 2707: 2702: 2701: 2700: 2695: 2690: 2685: 2680: 2675: 2670: 2660: 2659: 2658: 2653: 2648: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2628: 2623: 2618: 2608: 2603: 2602: 2601: 2596: 2591: 2586: 2581: 2576: 2566: 2561: 2560: 2559: 2554: 2544: 2543: 2542: 2537: 2532: 2527: 2522: 2517: 2512: 2507: 2502: 2497: 2492: 2487: 2482: 2471: 2469: 2465: 2464: 2459: 2457: 2456: 2449: 2442: 2434: 2428: 2427: 2414: 2399: 2387: 2384: 2383: 2382: 2359: 2344: 2329: 2315: 2308: 2282: 2273:Reilly, J.M.; 2271: 2256: 2242: 2219: 2196: 2181: 2175: 2160: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2145: 2127: 2097: 2079:(2): 108–116. 2053: 2023: 2008: 1977: 1960:The New Yorker 1946: 1929: 1920: 1903: 1878: 1857: 1844: 1836:Comptes Rendus 1823: 1810: 1793: 1776: 1755: 1724: 1694: 1662: 1632: 1599: 1569: 1567: 1564: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1556: 1551: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1524: 1519: 1514: 1512:Color printing 1509: 1503: 1502: 1501: 1496: 1495: 1490: 1485: 1480: 1475: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1455: 1450: 1445: 1443:George Eastman 1440: 1434: 1433: 1432: 1427: 1424: 1411: 1410: 1391: 1342: 1339: 1311: 1308: 1307: 1306: 1300: 1290: 1280: 1279: 1276: 1273: 1270: 1267: 1257: 1256:Light exposure 1254: 1248: 1236: 1233: 1208: 1205: 1169: 1166: 1114: 1111: 1105: 1102: 1043:, invented by 1021: 1018: 1014: 1013: 1010: 1003: 1001: 999:camera in 2002 986: 979: 977: 962: 955: 953: 950: 943: 941: 934: 927: 925: 914: 907: 904: 903: 902: 819:Leopold Mannes 806: 803: 786: 783: 779: 778: 772: 765: 763: 756: 749: 747: 734: 727: 725: 712: 705: 702: 701: 700: 636: 633: 604: 601: 546: 543: 532: 529: 501:carbon process 464: 461: 451: 450:Additive color 448: 395: 392: 354: 351: 349: 346: 305:shades of gray 256: 255: 238: 237: 152: 150: 143: 136: 135: 91: 89: 82: 77: 51: 50: 48: 41: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5167: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5142: 5140: 5127: 5126: 5119: 5116: 5105: 5097: 5095: 5087: 5086: 5083: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5063: 5061: 5059: 5055: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4976: 4974: 4972: 4968: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4945: 4942: 4941: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4901: 4899: 4897: 4893: 4890: 4886: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4845: 4843: 4841:organizations 4837: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4791: 4790: 4787: 4783: 4782:Pastel colors 4780: 4779: 4778: 4775: 4771: 4768: 4767: 4766: 4763: 4762: 4760: 4756: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4729: 4727: 4723: 4720: 4719: 4718: 4715: 4714: 4712: 4710: 4706: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4646: 4644: 4642: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4629: 4618: 4617: 4613: 4610: 4609: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4564:Primary color 4562: 4561: 4560: 4557: 4556: 4554: 4552: 4548: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4531:Light-on-dark 4529: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4503: 4500: 4499: 4498: 4495: 4494: 4493: 4490: 4489: 4487: 4485: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4470: 4465: 4451: 4450:Color mapping 4448: 4446: 4443: 4437: 4434: 4433: 4432: 4429: 4425: 4422: 4421: 4420: 4417: 4416: 4415: 4412: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4399: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4375:Color balance 4373: 4372: 4371: 4368: 4367: 4365: 4363: 4359: 4353: 4352:Chromotherapy 4350: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4315: 4314: 4312: 4310: 4306: 4300: 4299: 4295: 4293: 4292:Tetrachromacy 4290: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4277: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4244: 4241: 4240: 4239: 4236: 4234: 4231: 4229: 4226: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4216:Achromatopsia 4214: 4213: 4212: 4209: 4205: 4202: 4201: 4200: 4199:Chromesthesia 4197: 4196: 4194: 4192: 4188: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4174: 4170: 4167: 4166: 4165: 4162: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4149: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4122: 4121: 4118: 4117: 4115: 4113:Color physics 4111: 4108: 4106: 4105:Color science 4102: 4097: 4090: 4085: 4083: 4078: 4076: 4071: 4070: 4067: 4055: 4046: 4044: 4035: 4034: 4031: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3999: 3998: 3995: 3994: 3992: 3988: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3965: 3962: 3961: 3960: 3959:Photographers 3957: 3955: 3952: 3950: 3947: 3945: 3942: 3941: 3939: 3935: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3853:Bleach bypass 3851: 3850: 3848: 3846: 3840: 3832: 3829: 3827: 3824: 3822: 3821:primary color 3819: 3817: 3814: 3813: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3806:Reversal film 3804: 3800: 3797: 3796: 3795: 3792: 3791: 3789: 3787: 3783: 3777: 3774: 3772: 3771:Image sharing 3769: 3765: 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 3746: 3745: 3742: 3740: 3737: 3735: 3732: 3730: 3727: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3711: 3708: 3707: 3706: 3703: 3702: 3701: 3698: 3697: 3695: 3693: 3689: 3683: 3680: 3678: 3675: 3673: 3672:United States 3670: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3613: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3603: 3600: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3583: 3580: 3579: 3577: 3573: 3567: 3564: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3547: 3544: 3542: 3539: 3537: 3534: 3532: 3531:Daguerreotype 3529: 3527: 3524: 3522: 3519: 3517: 3514: 3512: 3509: 3507: 3504: 3502: 3499: 3497: 3494: 3493: 3491: 3489: 3485: 3479: 3476: 3474: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3459: 3456: 3454: 3451: 3449: 3446: 3445: 3443: 3441: 3437: 3431: 3428: 3426: 3423: 3421: 3418: 3416: 3413: 3411: 3408: 3404: 3401: 3400: 3399: 3396: 3394: 3391: 3387: 3384: 3383: 3382: 3379: 3377: 3376:Stopping down 3374: 3372: 3369: 3367: 3364: 3362: 3359: 3357: 3354: 3352: 3349: 3347: 3344: 3342: 3341:Rephotography 3339: 3337: 3334: 3332: 3329: 3327: 3324: 3322: 3319: 3317: 3314: 3312: 3309: 3307: 3304: 3302: 3299: 3297: 3294: 3292: 3289: 3287: 3284: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3276:Long-exposure 3274: 3272: 3269: 3267: 3264: 3262: 3259: 3257: 3254: 3252: 3249: 3247: 3244: 3242: 3239: 3237: 3234: 3232: 3229: 3227: 3224: 3222: 3219: 3217: 3214: 3212: 3209: 3207: 3204: 3202: 3199: 3197: 3194: 3192: 3189: 3187: 3184: 3183: 3181: 3177: 3171: 3168: 3166: 3163: 3161: 3158: 3156: 3153: 3151: 3148: 3146: 3143: 3141: 3138: 3136: 3133: 3131: 3128: 3126: 3123: 3121: 3118: 3114: 3111: 3110: 3109: 3106: 3104: 3101: 3099: 3096: 3094: 3091: 3089: 3086: 3084: 3081: 3079: 3076: 3074: 3071: 3069: 3066: 3064: 3061: 3059: 3056: 3054: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3044: 3041: 3039: 3036: 3034: 3031: 3029: 3026: 3024: 3021: 3019: 3016: 3014: 3011: 3009: 3006: 3004: 3001: 2999: 2996: 2994: 2991: 2989: 2986: 2984: 2981: 2979: 2976: 2974: 2971: 2969: 2968:Architectural 2966: 2964: 2961: 2959: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2950: 2948: 2944: 2938: 2935: 2933: 2930: 2928: 2927:Shutter speed 2925: 2923: 2920: 2918: 2915: 2913: 2910: 2908: 2905: 2901: 2898: 2897: 2896: 2893: 2891: 2888: 2886: 2883: 2881: 2880:Metering mode 2878: 2876: 2873: 2871: 2868: 2866: 2863: 2861: 2858: 2856: 2853: 2849: 2846: 2844: 2841: 2840: 2839: 2836: 2834: 2831: 2829: 2826: 2824: 2821: 2819: 2816: 2814: 2811: 2809: 2806: 2804: 2801: 2799: 2796: 2794: 2793:Color balance 2791: 2789: 2786: 2784: 2781: 2779: 2776: 2774: 2771: 2769: 2766: 2764: 2761: 2759: 2758:Angle of view 2756: 2754: 2751: 2750: 2748: 2744: 2738: 2735: 2731: 2728: 2727: 2726: 2723: 2721: 2718: 2716: 2713: 2711: 2708: 2706: 2705:Manufacturers 2703: 2699: 2696: 2694: 2691: 2689: 2686: 2684: 2681: 2679: 2676: 2674: 2671: 2669: 2666: 2665: 2664: 2661: 2657: 2654: 2652: 2649: 2647: 2644: 2642: 2639: 2637: 2634: 2632: 2629: 2627: 2624: 2622: 2619: 2617: 2614: 2613: 2612: 2609: 2607: 2604: 2600: 2597: 2595: 2592: 2590: 2587: 2585: 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