888:. Active rewarming seeks to warm the injured tissue as quickly as possible without burning. The faster tissue is thawed, the less tissue damage occurs. According to Handford and colleagues, "The Wilderness Medical Society and State of Alaska Cold Injury Guidelines recommend a temperature of 37–39 °C, which decreases the pain experienced by the patient whilst only slightly slowing rewarming time." Warming takes 15 minutes to 1 hour. The faucet should be left running so the water can circulate. Rewarming can be very painful, so pain management is important.
972:
479:
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569:). Prolonged exposure to temperatures below −2 °C (28 °F) may cause ice crystals to form in the tissues, and prolonged exposure to temperatures below −4 °C (25 °F) may cause ice crystals to form in the blood. Ice crystals can damage small blood vessels at the site of injury. Typically, prolonged exposure to temperatures below −0.55 °C (31.01 °F) may cause frostbite.
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Individuals with frostbite or potential frostbite should go to a protected environment and get warm fluids. If there is no risk of re-freezing, the extremity can be exposed and warmed in the underarm of a companion or the groin. If the area is allowed to refreeze, there can be worse tissue damage. If
386:
Areas that are usually affected include cheeks, ears, nose and fingers and toes. Frostbite is often preceded by frostnip. The symptoms of frostbite progress with prolonged exposure to cold. Historically, frostbite has been classified by degrees according to skin and sensation changes, similar to burn
930:
A systematic review and metaanalysis revealed that iloprost alone or iloprost plus recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) may decrease amputation rate in case of severe frostbite in comparison to buflomedil alone with no major adverse events reported from iloprost or iloprost plus rtPA in
751:
recommends covering the skin and scalp, taking in adequate nutrition, avoiding constrictive footwear and clothing, and remaining active without causing exhaustion. Supplemental oxygen might also be of use at high elevations. Repeated exposure to cold water makes people more susceptible to frostbite.
535:
The major risk factor for frostbite is exposure to cold through geography, occupation and/or recreation. Inadequate clothing and shelter are major risk factors. Frostbite is more likely when the body's ability to produce or retain heat is impaired. Physical, behavioral, and environmental factors can
1037:
Frostbite has been described in military history for millennia. The Greeks encountered and discussed the problem of frostbite as early as 400 BC. Researchers have found evidence of frostbite in humans dating back 5,000 years, in an Andean mummy. Napoleon's Army was the first documented instance of
329:
without exhaustion. Treatment is by rewarming, by immersion in warm water (near body temperature) or by body contact, and should be done only when consistent temperature can be maintained so that refreezing is not a risk. Rapid heating or cooling should be avoided since it could potentially cause
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are potential consequences of frostbite. Permanent nerve damage including loss of feeling can occur. It can take several weeks to know what parts of the tissue will survive. Time of exposure to cold is more predictive of lasting injury than temperature the individual was exposed to. The
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The process of frostbite differs from the process of non-freezing cold injury (NFCI). In NFCI, temperature in the tissue decreases gradually. This slower temperature decrease allows the body to try to compensate through alternating cycles of closing and opening blood vessels
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Evidence of frostbite occurring in people dates back 5,000 years. Evidence was documented in a pre-Columbian mummy discovered in the Andes. The number of cases of frostbite is unknown. Rates may be as high as 40% a year among those who
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classifications. However, the degrees do not correspond to the amount of long term damage. A simplification of this system of classification is superficial (first or second degree) or deep injury (third or fourth degree).
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all contribute to the development of frostbite. Immobility and physical stress (such as malnutrition or dehydration) are also risk factors. Disorders and substances that impair circulation contribute, including
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1086:, who suffered severe frostbite on his feet as he and other survivors stood for over an hour on the back of a capsized lifeboat knee-deep in freezing water—Bride had to be carried off from the rescue vessel
1867:
McIntosh, SE; Opacic, M; Freer, L; Grissom, CK; Auerbach, PS; Rodway, GW; Cochran, A; Giesbrecht, GG; McDevitt, M; Imray, CH; Johnson, EL; Dow, J; Hackett, PH; Wilderness
Medical, Society. (December 2014).
358:. The most common age group affected is those 30 to 50 years old. Frostbite has also played an important role in a number of military conflicts. The first formal description of the condition was in 1813 by
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was 2.5 per 100,000 among civilians, compared with 3.2 per 100,000 in
Montreal. Research suggests that men aged 30–49 are at highest risk, possibly due to occupational or recreational exposures to cold.
732:
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McIntosh, Scott E.; Opacic, Matthew; Freer, Luanne; Grissom, Colin K.; Auerbach, Paul S.; Rodway, George W.; Cochran, Amalia; Giesbrecht, Gordon G.; McDevitt, Marion (1 December 2014).
634:
The pathological mechanism by which frostbite causes body tissue injury can be characterized by four stages: Prefreeze, freeze-thaw, vascular stasis, and the late ischemic stage.
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the area cannot be reliably kept warm, the person should be brought to a medical facility without rewarming the area. Rubbing the affected area can also increase tissue damage.
919:
may prevent blood vessel blockage. This treatment might be appropriate in grades 2–4 frostbite, when people get treatment within 48 hours. In addition to vasodilators,
1038:
mass cold injury in the early 1800s. According to Zafren, nearly 1 million combatants fell victim to frostbite in the First and Second World Wars, and the Korean War.
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Bruen, KJ; Ballard JR; Morris SE; Cochran A; Edelman LS; Saffle JR (2007). "Reduction of the incidence of amputation in frostbite injury with thrombolytic therapy".
1967:
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Third degree frostbite developing. Doppler arterial ultrasound showed adequate perfusion to the foot with no blood flow to the toes. Gangrene was still demarcating.
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Handford, Charles; Buxton, Pauline; Russell, Katie; Imray, Caitlin EA; McIntosh, Scott E; Freer, Luanne; Cochran, Amalia; Imray, Christopher HE (22 April 2014).
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Grade 4: if there is a lesion very near the body (such as the carpals of the hand), the limb can be lost. Sepsis and/or other systemic problems are expected.
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classification system of grades, based on the tissue response to initial rewarming and other factors is designed to predict degree of longterm recovery.
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or chilblains are inflammation of the skin from exposure to wet, cold (non-freezing) conditions. They can appear as various types of ulcers and blisters.
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3251:
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Frostnip is similar to frostbite, but without ice crystal formation in the skin. Whitening of the skin and numbness reverse quickly after rewarming.
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Early on, the primary symptom is loss of feeling in the skin. In the affected areas, the skin is numb, and possibly swollen, with a reddened border.
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following thawing. Diagnosis is based on symptoms. Severity may be divided into superficial (1st and 2nd degree) or deep (3rd and 4th degree). A
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can be given in the field to prevent clotting and inflammation. Ibuprofen is often preferred to aspirin because aspirin may block a subset of
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2354:
1997:
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is damage to nerves and blood vessels that results from exposure to cold wet (non-freezing) conditions. This is reversible if treated early.
1534:
Millet, John D.; Brown, Richard K. J.; Levi, Benjamin; Kraft, Casey T.; Jacobson, Jon A.; Gross, Milton D.; Wong, Ka Kit (November 2016).
1121:, who in 1999 had all four limbs amputated due to sepsis from frostbite sustained after becoming trapped for four nights whilst climbing
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is a condition that causes itchy blisters over the body that can mimic frostbite. It does not require exposure to cold to develop.
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burning or heart stress. Rubbing or applying force to the affected areas should be avoided as it may cause further damage such as
3527:
1101:
1736:
Knapik JJ, Reynolds KL, Castellani JW (2020). "Frostbite: Pathophysiology, Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Treatment, and
Prevention".
909:
2942:
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People who are exposed to low temperatures for prolonged periods, such as winter sports enthusiasts, military personnel, and
438:
Third degree frostbite. No surgical interventions recommended as the gangrenous portion of the wound was still demarcating.
3976:
3554:
2726:
2665:
2599:
Gage AA, Ishikawa H, Winter PM (1970). "Experimental frostbite. The effect of hyperbaric oxygenation on tissue survival".
2531:
Finderle Z, Cankar K (April 2002). "Delayed treatment of frostbite injury with hyperbaric oxygen therapy: a case report".
857:: should be administered according to local guidelines. Uncomplicated frostbite wounds are not known to encourage tetanus.
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A number of long term sequelae can occur after frostbite. These include transient or permanent changes in sensation,
302:, certain medications, and prior injuries due to cold. The underlying mechanism involves injury from ice crystals and
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Grade 3: if there is a lesion on the intermediate or near body part, auto-amputation and loss of function can occur
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areas. Most often, frostbite occurs in the hands and feet. The initial symptoms are typically a feeling of cold and
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Prevention consists of wearing proper, fully-covering clothing, avoiding low temperatures and wind, maintaining
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Various types of surgery might be indicated in frostbite injury, depending on the type and extent of damage.
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1160:(tPa) either intravenously or intra-arterially may decrease the likelihood of eventual need for amputation.
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If the area is still partially or fully frozen, it should be rewarmed in the hospital with a warm bath with
100:
1870:"Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of frostbite: 2014 update"
1284:"Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of frostbite: 2014 update"
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Avoid cold, wear proper clothing, maintain hydration and nutrition, stay active without becoming exhausted
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Golant, A; Nord, RM; Paksima, N; Posner, MA (Dec 2008). "Cold exposure injuries to the extremities".
956:
519:
Palmar surface of frostbitten feet five days after a freeze. Patient was homeless with poor footwear.
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Fourth degree frostbite in a homeless patient five days after freezing conditions. Patient developed
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109:
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of frostbite. In the United States, frostbite is more common in northern states. In
Finland, annual
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People with potential for large amputations and who present within 24 hours of injury can be given
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1989:
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Grade 1: if there is no initial lesion on the area, no amputation or lasting effects are expected
712:
often have frostbite as well. Since hypothermia is life-threatening this should be treated first.
490:
Early symptoms include a colorless appearance of the skin, a hard texture, and painless rewarming.
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In fourth degree frostbite, structures below the skin are involved like muscles, tendon, and bone.
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Grade 2: if there is a lesion on the distal body part, tissue and fingernails can be destroyed
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704:. Skin lesions can look similar those of frostbite, but do not require cold exposure to occur.
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has also been attempted with limited success. Studies have suggested that administration of
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use. Homeless individuals and individuals with some mental illnesses may be at higher risk.
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as an adjunctive treatment can assist in tissue salvage. Cases have been reported, but no
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is recommended for pain relief or to reduce swelling or inflammation. For severe injuries,
271:. This may be followed by clumsiness with a white or bluish color to the skin. Swelling or
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and other life-threatening complications of cold exposure. Before treating frostbite, the
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201:
668:. Other conditions that can have a similar appearance or occur at the same time include:
396:
First degree frostbite is superficial, surface skin damage that is usually not permanent.
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2020:
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622:) and damage nerve fibers. Rewarming causes a series of inflammatory chemicals such as
498:
2826:
2822:
2679:
Ay H, Uzun G, Yildiz S, Solmazgul E, Dundar K, Qyrdedi T, Yildirim I, Gumus T (2005).
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3955:
3850:
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3002:
2681:"The treatment of deep frostbite of both feet in two patients with hyperbaric oxygen"
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2312:
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Wilderness
Medicine E-Book: Expert Consult Premium Edition - Enhanced Online Features
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In the weeks after injury, this hardened, blistered skin dries, blackens, and peels.
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Sachs, Christoph; Lehnhardt, Marcus; Daigeler, Adrien; Goertz, Ole (1 March 2017).
1699:
1118:
1076:
1021:
955:). This has led to the adage "Frozen in January, amputate in July". If symptoms of
760:
720:
scans are not required for diagnosis, but might be useful for prognostic purposes.
607:
582:
347:
307:
287:
209:
3243:
769:
Avoiding alcohol and drugs that impair circulation or natural protective responses
700:
that can appear similar to frostbite. It is caused by contamination of cocaine by
2837:
2243:
2242:
Lorentzen, Anne
Kathrine; Davis, Christopher; Penninga, Luit (20 December 2020).
2135:
1100:, who in 1982 lost both legs below the knee to frostbite after being stranded on
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508:
355:
276:
169:
132:
105:
83:
75:
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Prefreeze phase: involves the cooling of tissues without ice crystal formation.
235:
that occurs when someone is exposed to extremely low temperatures, causing the
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3736:
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Heil, K; Thomas, R; Robertson, G; Porter, A; Milner, R; Wood, A (March 2016).
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Frostbite is diagnosed based on signs and symptoms as described above, and by
589:
is another possible mechanism of injury. Blisters and spasm of blood vessels (
303:
192:
3405:
Eosinophilic, polymorphic, and pruritic eruption associated with radiotherapy
2696:
2576:
2560:"Frostbite in a mountain climber treated with hyperbaric oxygen: case report"
2559:
2494:
2267:
2036:
1934:
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Freeze-thaw phase: ice-crystals form, resulting in cellular damage and death.
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1334:
Singleton, Joanne K.; DiGregorio, Robert V.; Green-Hernandez, Carol (2014).
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611:
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335:
311:
197:
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2636:"Controlled Frostbite Injury to Mice: Outcome of Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy"
2585:
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1942:
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904:. These medications should be withheld if there are any contraindications.
2903:
2620:
1683:
1551:
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497:. The amount of permanent damage can take one month or more to determine.
451:
Symptoms include blood blisters and "blue-grey discoloration of the skin".
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3474:
3150:
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2086:
2069:
948:
944:
916:
830:
652:
619:
618:(microthrombi) form and can cut off blood to the affected area (known as
615:
586:
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In frostbite, cooling of the body causes narrowing of the blood vessels (
363:
343:
264:
236:
205:
17:
2786:
2136:"How to treat frostbite and when you should seek emergency medical help"
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3454:
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1749:
1536:"Frostbite: Spectrum of Imaging Findings and Guidelines for Management"
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901:
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individuals, are at greatest risk. Other risk factors include drinking
272:
268:
137:
57:
2070:"Freezing and non-freezing cold weather injuries: a systematic review"
448:
In third degree frostbite, the layers of tissue below the skin freeze.
378:
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1055:
952:
865:
455:
240:
232:
165:
1670:
Zafren, Ken (2013). "Frostbite: Prevention and
Initial Management".
803:
The first priority in people with frostbite should be to assess for
350:
may be used. Surgery, including amputation, is sometimes necessary.
3168:
3159:
2959:
2193:
Sachs, C; Lehnhardt, M; Daigeler, A; Goertz, O (30 October 2015).
1045:
970:
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514:
502:
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At this stage, lasting cold sensitivity and numbness can develop.
3296:
3178:
2349:(7th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Mosby/Elsevier. p. 1866.
1058:
in 1999. His nose, fingers and toes were subsequently amputated.
454:
In the weeks after injury, pain persists and a blackened crust (
260:
248:
229:
3247:
2931:
818:
Other considerations for standard hospital management include:
30:
This article is about a medical condition. For other uses, see
1337:
Primary Care, Second
Edition: An Interprofessional Perspective
315:
252:
244:
2453:"Beck Weathers Says Fateful Everest Climb Saved His Marriage"
829:
can be drained by needle aspiration, unless they are bloody (
402:
In the weeks after injury, the skin's surface may slough off.
1222:
Handford, C; Thomas, O; Imray, CHE (May 2017). "Frostbite".
325:
and nutrition, and sufficient physical activity to maintain
923:
drugs can be used to counteract the detrimental peripheral
651:
Late ischemic phase: characterized by inflammatory events,
2347:
Rosen's emergency medicine: concepts and clinical practice
2021:"Preventing and Managing Hypothermia and Frostbite Injury"
65:
Frostbitten toes two to three days after mountain climbing
1715:"What are the characteristics of third-degree frostbite?"
1054:
in hospital after developing frostbite when benighted on
275:
may occur following treatment. Complications may include
2109:
Mistovich, Joseph; Haffen, Brent; Karren, Keith (2004).
1477:"Frostbite: a practical approach to hospital management"
1073:
explorer who in 1912 died of complications of frostbite
2646:(1): 35–44. Archived from the original on 10 July 2009
2393:"British History in depth: The Race to the South Pole"
2113:. Upsaddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. p. 506.
1020:
There is a lack of comprehensive statistics about the
2195:"The Triaging and Treatment of Cold-Induced Injuries"
1803:"The Triaging and Treatment of Cold-Induced Injuries"
1137:
Evidence is insufficient to determine whether or not
868:
are recommended during the painful rewarming process.
239:
of the skin or other tissues, commonly affecting the
2776:
1862:
1860:
1858:
1856:
1854:
1008:, increased sweating, cancers, and bone destruction/
756:
Avoiding temperatures below −23 °C (-9 °F)
420:
In second degree frostbite, the skin develops clear
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Effect of low temperature on skin and other tissues
2371:"Frostbite: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology"
1367:Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2018 E-Book: 5 Books in 1
752:Additional measures to prevent frostbite include:
585:, swelling (edema), and poor blood flow (stasis).
2707:. Archived from the original on 15 September 2008
2423:"Hugh Herr's Best Foot Forward | Boston Magazine"
837:gel can be applied before breathable, protective
778:Recognizing early signs of frostnip and frostbite
3967:Skin conditions resulting from physical factors
963:can be done to attempt to preserve blood flow.
318:may help in determining the extent of injury.
95:Numbness, feeling cold, clumsiness, pale color
3259:
2943:
1596:CT.gov - Connecticut's Official State Website
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8:
1782:. UK National Health Service. 24 August 2021
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1340:. Springer Publishing Company. p. 172.
1062:Several notable cases of frostbite include:
759:Avoiding moisture, including in the form of
743:infographic video about frostbite prevention
2340:
2338:
1224:Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America
811:should be raised above 35 °C. Oral or
648:or the leaking of blood out of the vessels.
610:). If this process continues, inflammatory
3910:
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947:tissue is usually delayed unless there is
915:Blood vessel dilating medications such as
775:Using chemical or electric warming devices
741:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
56:
39:
2634:Weaver LK, Greenway L, Elliot CG (1988).
2575:
2558:Folio LR, Arkin K, Butler WP (May 2007).
2275:
2218:
2085:
2044:
1885:
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1567:
1510:
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1400:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 181.
1370:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 502.
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424:early on, and the skin's surface hardens.
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1255:
1253:
1114:who lost his nose and hands to frostbite
144:, certain medications, prior cold injury
2248:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1909:Jurkovich, Gregory J. (February 2007).
1874:Wilderness & Environmental Medicine
1288:Wilderness & Environmental Medicine
1169:
644:Vascular stasis phase: marked by blood
577:Rewarming causes tissue damage through
2718:
2657:
2244:"Interventions for frostbite injuries"
1738:Journal of Special Operations Medicine
847:: if there is trauma, skin infection (
3425:Radiation-induced erythema multiforme
2484:"I'll get there, even if it kills..."
2403:from the original on 13 February 2017
2158:
2156:
1954:
1952:
1915:The Surgical Clinics of North America
1622:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1612:
800:that are important in injury repair.
7:
3898:
2519:
1672:High Altitude Medicine & Biology
511:and was unable to properly dry feet.
3742:Pseudoverrucous papules and nodules
3430:Radiation-induced hypertrophic scar
2482:Heawood, Jonathan (27 March 2004).
1911:"Environmental cold-induced injury"
2433:from the original on 30 March 2017
2381:from the original on 2 March 2017.
2377:. Medscape, LLC. 2 February 2017.
2199:Deutsches Ärzteblatt International
1807:Deutsches Ärzteblatt International
1079:, the junior wireless operator of
493:Later, the skin becomes black and
25:
2501:from the original on 4 March 2017
2463:from the original on 4 March 2017
2174:from the original on 4 March 2017
2000:from the original on 4 March 2017
1970:from the original on 3 March 2017
1638:from the original on 2 March 2017
1628:"Frostbite Clinical Presentation"
1481:Extreme Physiology & Medicine
1422:"Frostbite - Symptoms and causes"
3933:
3921:
3909:
3897:
3886:
3885:
3528:Inner ear decompression sickness
2313:10.5435/00124635-200812000-00003
1102:Mount Washington (New Hampshire)
626:to increase localized clotting.
3922:
975:3 weeks after initial frostbite
593:) can develop after rewarming.
3982:Wilderness medical emergencies
2260:10.1002/14651858.cd012980.pub2
1145:has been performed on humans.
1069:, an English army captain and
927:that occurs during frostbite.
912:can be done to assess damage.
187:Rewarming, medication, surgery
1:
3762:environmental skin conditions
3555:High-altitude pulmonary edema
3752:Tropical anhidrotic asthenia
3561:High-altitude cerebral edema
2613:10.1016/0011-2240(70)90038-6
1158:tissue plasminogen activator
1096:Noted American rock climber
1093:after it arrived in New York
3774:frictional/traumatic/sports
3400:Chronic radiation keratosis
1592:"Frostbite and Hypothermia"
1112:1996 Mount Everest disaster
501:can occur after two months.
127:Temperatures below freezing
3998:
3866:Pseudoacanthosis nigricans
3090:Retroperitoneal hemorrhage
2754:10.1001/archsurg.142.6.546
2111:Prehospital Emergency Care
1713:Zonnoor B (29 July 2019).
1394:Auerbach, Paul S. (2011).
749:Wilderness Medical Society
32:Frostbite (disambiguation)
29:
3962:Mountaineering and health
3881:
3637:Space adaptation syndrome
3545:Chronic mountain sickness
3450:Radiation recall reaction
3440:Radiation-induced morphea
3343:Warm water immersion foot
2725:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
2664:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
2211:10.3238/arztebl.2015.0741
1927:10.1016/j.suc.2006.10.003
1887:10.1016/j.wem.2014.09.001
1819:10.3238/arztebl.2015.0741
1301:10.1016/j.wem.2014.09.001
1236:10.1016/j.emc.2016.12.006
1139:hyperbaric oxygen therapy
64:
55:
3819:Weathering nodule of ear
3435:Radiation-induced keloid
3420:Radiation-induced cancer
3350:Non-freezing cold injury
3328:Immersion foot syndromes
2577:10.7205/milmed.172.5.560
2074:British Medical Bulletin
2037:10.1177/1941738116630542
1143:randomized control trial
815:fluids should be given.
597:Non-freezing cold injury
3747:Sclerosing lymphangitis
3338:Tropical immersion foot
2533:Aviat Space Environ Med
1994:us.bestpractice.bmj.com
1364:Ferri, Fred F. (2017).
951:or systemic infection (
841:or bandages are put on.
614:act in the area. Small
482:Frostbite 12 days later
3834:Painful fat herniation
3814:Vibration white finger
3523:Decompression sickness
3380:Erythrocyanosis crurum
1960:"VisualDx - Frostbite"
1632:emedicine.medscape.com
1067:Captain Lawrence Oates
1059:
1012:in the area affected.
976:
931:the included studies.
744:
520:
512:
483:
461:There can be longterm
439:
411:
383:
300:mental health problems
160:Differential diagnosis
142:mental health problems
3789:Fissure of the nipple
3757:UV-sensitive syndrome
3682:Adverse drug reaction
3511:Middle ear barotrauma
3501:Arterial gas embolism
3197:Occupational injuries
2459:. 16 September 2015.
2301:J Am Acad Orthop Surg
1684:10.1089/ham.2012.1114
1552:10.1148/rg.2016160045
1494:10.1186/2046-7648-3-7
1117:Scottish mountaineer
1049:
974:
738:
518:
506:
481:
437:
409:
381:
360:Dominique Jean Larrey
3977:Causes of amputation
3784:Equestrian perniosis
3202:Traumatic amputation
2685:Undersea Hyperb. Med
2429:. 18 February 2009.
1921:(1): 247–267, viii.
1110:, a survivor of the
957:compartment syndrome
587:Platelet aggregation
542:Raynaud's phenomenon
366:'s army, during its
281:compartment syndrome
110:compartment syndrome
3871:Narcotic dermopathy
3779:Black heel and palm
3732:Dermatosis neglecta
3606:Psychological abuse
3445:Radiation poisoning
2742:Archives of Surgery
2345:Marx, John (2010).
1880:(4 Suppl): S43-54.
1294:(4 Suppl): S43–54.
1133:Research directions
1042:Society and culture
694:Levamisole toxicity
3972:Weather and health
3841:Uranium dermatosis
3794:Pulling boat hands
3703:Lightning injuries
3165:Penetrating trauma
3085:Grey Turner's sign
3075:Subungual hematoma
2859:External resources
2087:10.1093/bmb/ldw001
1750:10.55460/PDX9-BG8G
1152:using intravenous
1060:
977:
851:) or severe injury
745:
688:Bullous pemphigoid
579:reperfusion injury
521:
513:
484:
440:
412:
384:
374:Signs and symptoms
368:invasion of Russia
80:emergency medicine
3949:
3948:
3698:Electrical injury
3540:Altitude sickness
3388:
3387:
3241:
3240:
2913:
2912:
2640:J. Hyperbaric Med
2356:978-0-323-05472-0
2134:Laderer, Ashley.
1127:Mont Blanc massif
943:or amputation of
772:Layering clothing
736:
655:and tissue death.
581:, which involves
362:, a physician in
223:
222:
154:Based on symptoms
150:Diagnostic method
119:Superficial, deep
37:Medical condition
16:(Redirected from
3989:
3937:
3925:
3924:
3913:
3912:
3901:
3900:
3889:
3888:
3725:physical factors
3721:skin conditions
3653:Hypersensitivity
3370:Cold intolerance
3287:
3274:Consequences of
3268:
3261:
3254:
3245:
3233:Abdominal trauma
3141:Ballistic trauma
3028:Friction blister
3023:Fracture blister
2952:
2945:
2938:
2929:
2778:
2766:
2765:
2737:
2731:
2730:
2724:
2716:
2714:
2712:
2676:
2670:
2669:
2663:
2655:
2653:
2651:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2596:
2590:
2589:
2579:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2528:
2522:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2506:
2479:
2473:
2472:
2470:
2468:
2449:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2438:
2419:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2408:
2389:
2383:
2382:
2367:
2361:
2360:
2342:
2333:
2332:
2296:
2290:
2289:
2279:
2254:(12): CD012980.
2239:
2233:
2232:
2222:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2168:www.uptodate.com
2160:
2151:
2150:
2148:
2146:
2131:
2125:
2124:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2089:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2048:
2019:Fudge J (2016).
2016:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2005:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1956:
1947:
1946:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1889:
1864:
1849:
1848:
1838:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1789:
1787:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1710:
1704:
1703:
1667:
1648:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1624:
1607:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1571:
1546:(7): 2154–2169.
1531:
1525:
1524:
1514:
1496:
1472:
1437:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1391:
1382:
1381:
1361:
1352:
1351:
1331:
1322:
1321:
1303:
1279:
1248:
1247:
1219:
979:Tissue loss and
925:vasoconstriction
813:intravenous (IV)
809:core temperature
737:
708:People who have
604:vasoconstriction
567:vasoconstriction
327:core temperature
60:
40:
21:
3997:
3996:
3992:
3991:
3990:
3988:
3987:
3986:
3952:
3951:
3950:
3945:
3877:
3767:Electrical burn
3724:
3723:resulting from
3722:
3720:
3714:
3686:
3673:Arthus reaction
3641:
3622:Motion sickness
3610:
3584:
3568:
3484:
3480:Oxygen toxicity
3459:
3384:
3311:
3278:
3276:external causes
3272:
3242:
3237:
3206:
3129:
3096:
3037:
3033:Sucking blister
3013:Delayed blister
2989:
2966:
2956:
2914:
2909:
2908:
2854:
2853:
2789:
2775:
2770:
2769:
2739:
2738:
2734:
2717:
2710:
2708:
2678:
2677:
2673:
2656:
2649:
2647:
2633:
2632:
2628:
2598:
2597:
2593:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2530:
2529:
2525:
2518:
2514:
2504:
2502:
2481:
2480:
2476:
2466:
2464:
2451:
2450:
2446:
2436:
2434:
2427:Boston Magazine
2421:
2420:
2416:
2406:
2404:
2391:
2390:
2386:
2369:
2368:
2364:
2357:
2344:
2343:
2336:
2298:
2297:
2293:
2241:
2240:
2236:
2192:
2191:
2187:
2177:
2175:
2162:
2161:
2154:
2144:
2142:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2121:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2067:
2066:
2062:
2018:
2017:
2013:
2003:
2001:
1988:
1987:
1983:
1973:
1971:
1958:
1957:
1950:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1866:
1865:
1852:
1813:(44): 741–747.
1800:
1799:
1795:
1785:
1783:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1720:
1718:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1669:
1668:
1651:
1641:
1639:
1626:
1625:
1610:
1600:
1598:
1590:
1589:
1585:
1533:
1532:
1528:
1474:
1473:
1440:
1430:
1428:
1420:
1419:
1415:
1408:
1393:
1392:
1385:
1378:
1363:
1362:
1355:
1348:
1333:
1332:
1325:
1281:
1280:
1251:
1221:
1220:
1171:
1166:
1135:
1044:
1035:
1018:
990:
969:
937:
894:
879:povidone iodine
875:
785:
728:
726:
666:patient history
662:
632:
630:Pathophysiology
599:
575:
563:
558:
533:
528:
476:
445:
417:
393:
376:
202:tetanus vaccine
38:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3995:
3993:
3985:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3954:
3953:
3947:
3946:
3944:
3943:
3931:
3919:
3907:
3895:
3882:
3879:
3878:
3876:
3875:
3874:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3843:
3838:
3837:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3824:Wrestler's ear
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3804:Surfer's knots
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3771:
3770:
3769:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3728:
3726:
3716:
3715:
3713:
3712:
3707:
3706:
3705:
3694:
3692:
3688:
3687:
3685:
3684:
3678:
3677:
3676:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3649:
3647:
3646:Adverse effect
3643:
3642:
3640:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3618:
3616:
3612:
3611:
3609:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3596:Physical abuse
3592:
3590:
3586:
3585:
3583:
3582:
3576:
3574:
3570:
3569:
3567:
3566:
3565:
3564:
3558:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3532:
3531:
3530:
3520:
3519:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3492:
3490:
3486:
3485:
3483:
3482:
3477:
3467:
3465:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3415:Radiation burn
3412:
3410:Radiation acne
3407:
3402:
3396:
3394:
3390:
3389:
3386:
3385:
3383:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3346:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3325:
3319:
3317:
3313:
3312:
3310:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3293:
3291:
3284:
3280:
3279:
3273:
3271:
3270:
3263:
3256:
3248:
3239:
3238:
3236:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3214:
3212:
3208:
3207:
3205:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3176:
3171:
3162:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3137:
3135:
3131:
3130:
3128:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3106:
3104:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3094:
3093:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3047:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
2999:
2997:
2991:
2990:
2988:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2974:
2972:
2968:
2967:
2957:
2955:
2954:
2947:
2940:
2932:
2926:
2925:
2920:
2911:
2910:
2907:
2906:
2895:
2875:
2863:
2862:
2860:
2856:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2840:
2829:
2810:
2790:
2785:
2784:
2782:
2781:Classification
2774:
2773:External links
2771:
2768:
2767:
2732:
2671:
2626:
2591:
2550:
2523:
2512:
2474:
2444:
2414:
2384:
2362:
2355:
2334:
2307:(12): 704–15.
2291:
2234:
2185:
2152:
2126:
2119:
2101:
2060:
2011:
1981:
1948:
1901:
1850:
1793:
1771:
1744:(4): 123–135.
1728:
1705:
1649:
1608:
1583:
1526:
1438:
1413:
1407:978-1455733569
1406:
1383:
1376:
1353:
1346:
1323:
1249:
1230:(2): 281–299.
1168:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1129:
1115:
1105:
1094:
1074:
1043:
1040:
1034:
1031:
1017:
1014:
989:
986:
981:autoamputation
968:
965:
936:
933:
910:CT angiography
893:
890:
874:
871:
870:
869:
860:pain control:
858:
855:tetanus toxoid
852:
842:
798:prostaglandins
784:
781:
780:
779:
776:
773:
770:
767:
757:
725:
722:
706:
705:
691:
685:
679:
673:
661:
658:
657:
656:
649:
642:
639:
631:
628:
624:prostaglandins
598:
595:
574:
571:
562:
559:
557:
554:
532:
529:
527:
524:
523:
522:
499:Autoamputation
491:
488:
475:
472:
471:
470:
465:and damage to
459:
452:
449:
444:
441:
432:
431:
428:
425:
416:
413:
404:
403:
400:
397:
392:
389:
375:
372:
340:tetanus toxoid
221:
220:
217:
213:
212:
195:
189:
188:
185:
181:
180:
177:
173:
172:
162:
156:
155:
152:
146:
145:
135:
129:
128:
125:
121:
120:
117:
113:
112:
103:
97:
96:
93:
87:
86:
73:
67:
66:
62:
61:
53:
52:
49:
45:
44:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3994:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3959:
3957:
3942:
3941:
3936:
3932:
3930:
3929:
3920:
3918:
3917:
3908:
3906:
3905:
3896:
3894:
3893:
3884:
3883:
3880:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3851:Skin pop scar
3849:
3848:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3799:Runner's rump
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3776:
3775:
3772:
3768:
3765:
3764:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3729:
3727:
3717:
3711:
3708:
3704:
3701:
3700:
3699:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3689:
3683:
3680:
3679:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3655:
3654:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3644:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3613:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3587:
3581:
3578:
3577:
3575:
3571:
3562:
3559:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3537:
3536:
3535:High altitude
3533:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3524:
3521:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3506:Aerosinusitis
3504:
3502:
3499:
3498:
3497:
3494:
3493:
3491:
3487:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3472:
3469:
3468:
3466:
3462:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3397:
3395:
3391:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3330:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3320:
3318:
3314:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3288:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3269:
3264:
3262:
3257:
3255:
3250:
3249:
3246:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3209:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3187:Chemical burn
3184:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:/superficial/
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3132:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3103:
3099:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3080:Cullen's sign
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3060:Battle's sign
3058:
3057:
3056:
3052:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3044:
3040:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3018:Edema blister
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3003:Blood blister
3001:
3000:
2998:
2996:
2992:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2976:
2975:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2953:
2948:
2946:
2941:
2939:
2934:
2933:
2930:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2905:
2901:
2900:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2888:
2885:
2881:
2880:
2876:
2874:
2870:
2869:
2865:
2864:
2861:
2857:
2850:
2846:
2845:
2841:
2839:
2835:
2834:
2830:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2791:
2788:
2783:
2779:
2772:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2748:(6): 546–51.
2747:
2743:
2736:
2733:
2728:
2722:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2672:
2667:
2661:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2630:
2627:
2622:
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2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
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2578:
2573:
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2527:
2524:
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2513:
2500:
2496:
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2488:
2485:
2478:
2475:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2448:
2445:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2418:
2415:
2402:
2398:
2397:BBC - History
2394:
2388:
2385:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2366:
2363:
2358:
2352:
2348:
2341:
2339:
2335:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2295:
2292:
2287:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2235:
2230:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2205:(44): 741–7.
2204:
2200:
2196:
2189:
2186:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2159:
2157:
2153:
2141:
2137:
2130:
2127:
2122:
2120:0-13-049288-4
2116:
2112:
2105:
2102:
2097:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2064:
2061:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2025:Sports Health
2022:
2015:
2012:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1982:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1902:
1897:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1794:
1781:
1775:
1772:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1732:
1729:
1716:
1709:
1706:
1701:
1697:
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1689:
1685:
1681:
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1673:
1666:
1664:
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1660:
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1654:
1650:
1637:
1633:
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1619:
1617:
1615:
1613:
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1593:
1587:
1584:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1540:Radiographics
1537:
1530:
1527:
1522:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1455:
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1449:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1439:
1427:
1423:
1417:
1414:
1409:
1403:
1399:
1398:
1390:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1377:9780323529570
1373:
1369:
1368:
1360:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1347:9780826171474
1343:
1339:
1338:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1278:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1170:
1163:
1161:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1150:sympathectomy
1146:
1144:
1140:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1113:
1109:
1108:Beck Weathers
1106:
1104:in a blizzard
1103:
1099:
1095:
1092:
1091:
1085:
1084:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1068:
1065:
1064:
1063:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1041:
1039:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1023:
1015:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1002:
999:
996:
993:
987:
985:
982:
973:
966:
964:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
934:
932:
928:
926:
922:
921:sympatholytic
918:
913:
911:
907:
903:
899:
891:
889:
887:
884:
883:chlorhexidine
880:
872:
867:
863:
859:
856:
853:
850:
846:
843:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
821:
820:
819:
816:
814:
810:
806:
801:
799:
795:
791:
782:
777:
774:
771:
768:
766:
762:
758:
755:
754:
753:
750:
742:
723:
721:
719:
715:
714:Technetium-99
711:
703:
699:
695:
692:
689:
686:
683:
680:
677:
674:
671:
670:
669:
667:
659:
654:
650:
647:
643:
640:
637:
636:
635:
629:
627:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
596:
594:
592:
588:
584:
580:
572:
570:
568:
560:
555:
553:
551:
547:
543:
539:
530:
525:
517:
510:
505:
500:
496:
492:
489:
486:
485:
480:
474:Fourth degree
473:
468:
467:growth plates
464:
460:
457:
453:
450:
447:
446:
442:
436:
429:
426:
423:
419:
418:
415:Second degree
414:
408:
401:
398:
395:
394:
390:
388:
380:
373:
371:
369:
365:
361:
357:
351:
349:
348:thrombolytics
345:
341:
337:
334:. The use of
333:
328:
324:
319:
317:
313:
309:
308:blood vessels
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
284:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
231:
227:
218:
214:
211:
210:thrombolytics
207:
203:
199:
196:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
171:
167:
163:
161:
157:
153:
151:
147:
143:
139:
136:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
111:
107:
104:
102:
101:Complications
98:
94:
92:
88:
85:
81:
77:
74:
72:
68:
63:
59:
54:
50:
46:
41:
33:
19:
3938:
3926:
3914:
3902:
3890:
3845:
3773:
3761:
3601:Sexual abuse
3589:Maltreatment
3516:Pneumothorax
3375:Acrocyanosis
3365:Aerosol burn
3359:
3307:Heat syncope
3302:Hyperthermia
3228:Chest trauma
3191:
3174:Aerosol burn
3156:Blunt trauma
3065:Raccoon eyes
3008:Coma blister
2897:
2877:
2866:
2842:
2831:
2812:
2793:
2745:
2741:
2735:
2721:cite journal
2709:. Retrieved
2688:
2684:
2674:
2660:cite journal
2648:. Retrieved
2643:
2639:
2629:
2604:
2600:
2594:
2570:(5): 560–3.
2567:
2563:
2553:
2539:(4): 392–4.
2536:
2532:
2526:
2515:
2503:. Retrieved
2487:The Guardian
2486:
2477:
2465:. Retrieved
2456:
2447:
2435:. Retrieved
2426:
2417:
2405:. Retrieved
2396:
2387:
2374:
2365:
2346:
2304:
2300:
2294:
2251:
2247:
2237:
2202:
2198:
2188:
2176:. Retrieved
2167:
2145:30 September
2143:. Retrieved
2139:
2129:
2110:
2104:
2080:(1): 79–93.
2077:
2073:
2063:
2031:(2): 133–9.
2028:
2024:
2014:
2002:. Retrieved
1993:
1984:
1972:. Retrieved
1963:
1918:
1914:
1904:
1877:
1873:
1810:
1806:
1796:
1784:. Retrieved
1774:
1741:
1737:
1731:
1719:. Retrieved
1708:
1675:
1671:
1640:. Retrieved
1631:
1599:. Retrieved
1595:
1586:
1543:
1539:
1529:
1484:
1480:
1429:. Retrieved
1425:
1416:
1396:
1366:
1336:
1291:
1287:
1227:
1223:
1147:
1136:
1119:Jamie Andrew
1089:
1082:
1077:Harold Bride
1061:
1050:Mountaineer
1036:
1022:epidemiology
1019:
1016:Epidemiology
1003:
1000:
997:
994:
991:
978:
938:
929:
914:
895:
876:
817:
802:
786:
763:and/or skin
746:
707:
663:
633:
608:vasodilation
600:
583:vasodilation
576:
564:
534:
531:Risk factors
443:Third degree
391:First degree
385:
352:
320:
285:
225:
224:
133:Risk factors
3658:Anaphylaxis
3632:Airsickness
3627:Seasickness
3333:Trench foot
3323:Hypothermia
3283:Temperature
3223:Head injury
3218:Hand injury
2918:Mayo Clinic
2868:MedlinePlus
2691:(1 Suppl).
2601:Cryobiology
2164:"Frostbite"
1990:"Frostbite"
1780:"Frostbite"
1678:(1): 9–12.
1431:19 February
1426:Mayo Clinic
1123:Les Droites
1052:Nigel Vardy
1006:paresthesia
941:Debridement
892:Medications
845:antibiotics
831:hemorrhagic
805:hypothermia
710:hypothermia
676:Trench foot
646:coagulation
509:trench foot
458:) develops.
356:mountaineer
304:blood clots
277:hypothermia
170:trench foot
140:, smoking,
106:Hypothermia
84:orthopedics
76:Dermatology
48:Other names
3956:Categories
3856:Skin track
3809:Tennis toe
3737:Pinch mark
3719:Ungrouped
3663:Angioedema
3580:Starvation
3550:Death zone
3496:Barotrauma
3355:Chilblains
3146:Stab wound
3055:Ecchymosis
2923:Definition
2899:Patient UK
2844:DiseasesDB
2607:(1): 1–8.
1717:. Medscape
1164:References
961:fasciotomy
906:Bone scans
886:antiseptic
849:cellulitis
823:wound care
765:emollients
724:Prevention
702:levamisole
698:vasculitis
612:mast cells
463:ulceration
273:blistering
193:Medication
176:Prevention
164:Frostnip,
3861:Slap mark
3829:Coral cut
3393:Radiation
3360:Frostbite
3211:By region
3192:Frostbite
3183:Corrosion
3070:Black eye
2971:Abrasions
2904:Frostbite
2884:emerg/209
2879:eMedicine
2697:1066-2936
2520:Marx 2010
2495:0261-3077
2268:1465-1858
1935:0039-6109
1827:1866-0452
1766:229171926
1560:0271-5333
1503:2046-7648
1310:1545-1534
1154:reserpine
1098:Hugh Herr
1090:Carpathia
1088:RMS
1081:RMS
1071:Antarctic
1026:incidence
1010:arthritis
967:Prognosis
959:develop,
873:Rewarming
839:dressings
835:Aloe vera
794:ibuprofen
783:Treatment
660:Diagnosis
591:vasospasm
573:Rewarming
556:Mechanism
495:mummified
382:Frostbite
336:ibuprofen
332:abrasions
323:hydration
312:bone scan
306:in small
226:Frostbite
216:Frequency
198:Ibuprofen
184:Treatment
71:Specialty
43:Frostbite
18:Cold burn
3916:Glossary
3892:Category
3710:Drowning
3489:Pressure
3475:Asphyxia
3290:Elevated
3151:Splinter
3051:Hematoma
2995:Blisters
2983:Avulsion
2978:Abrasion
2964:injuries
2958:General
2890:derm/833
2887:med/2815
2762:17576891
2705:26915585
2586:17521112
2545:11952063
2499:Archived
2461:Archived
2431:Archived
2401:Archived
2379:Archived
2375:Medscape
2329:19274894
2321:19056919
2286:33341943
2229:26575137
2172:Archived
2096:26872856
2055:26857732
1998:Archived
1968:Archived
1964:VisualDx
1943:17127131
1896:25498262
1845:26575137
1758:33320326
1692:23537254
1636:Archived
1578:27494386
1521:24764516
1318:25498262
1244:28411928
1148:Medical
949:gangrene
945:necrotic
917:iloprost
827:blisters
653:ischemia
620:ischemia
561:Freezing
538:diabetes
422:blisters
364:Napoleon
344:iloprost
288:homeless
265:tingling
237:freezing
206:iloprost
91:Symptoms
51:Frostnip
3928:Outline
3904:Commons
3668:Allergy
3471:Hypoxia
3455:Sunburn
3316:Reduced
3043:Bruises
2893:ped/803
2838:D005627
2711:30 June
2650:20 June
2621:5475096
2564:Mil Med
2505:4 March
2467:4 March
2437:4 March
2407:4 March
2277:8092677
2220:4650908
2178:3 March
2140:Insider
2046:4789935
2004:4 March
1974:3 March
1836:4650908
1786:16 July
1700:3036889
1642:2 March
1569:5131839
1512:3994495
1125:in the
1083:Titanic
1033:History
935:Surgery
902:heparin
866:opioids
790:Aspirin
550:alcohol
546:tobacco
296:smoking
292:alcohol
269:numbing
241:fingers
219:Unknown
138:Alcohol
3940:Portal
3846:iv use
3615:Travel
3563:(HACE)
3557:(HAPE)
3464:Oxygen
3160:closed
3134:Other:
3120:Spider
3115:Insect
3110:Animal
3102:Biting
2960:wounds
2873:000057
2760:
2703:
2695:
2619:
2584:
2543:
2493:
2457:PEOPLE
2353:
2327:
2319:
2284:
2274:
2266:
2227:
2217:
2117:
2094:
2053:
2043:
1941:
1933:
1894:
1843:
1833:
1825:
1764:
1756:
1721:10 May
1698:
1690:
1601:2 July
1576:
1566:
1558:
1519:
1509:
1501:
1404:
1374:
1344:
1316:
1308:
1242:
1056:Denali
988:Grades
953:sepsis
862:NSAIDs
682:Pernio
526:Causes
456:eschar
257:cheeks
233:injury
166:pernio
124:Causes
3691:Other
3125:Snake
2849:31167
2827:991.3
2823:991.0
2325:S2CID
1762:S2CID
1696:S2CID
1487:: 7.
900:with
761:sweat
696:is a
616:clots
228:is a
116:Types
3573:Food
3297:Burn
3179:Burn
3169:open
2962:and
2833:MeSH
2818:9-CM
2758:PMID
2727:link
2713:2008
2701:OCLC
2693:ISSN
2666:link
2652:2008
2617:PMID
2582:PMID
2541:PMID
2507:2017
2491:ISSN
2469:2017
2439:2017
2409:2017
2351:ISBN
2317:PMID
2282:PMID
2264:ISSN
2252:2020
2225:PMID
2180:2017
2147:2021
2115:ISBN
2092:PMID
2051:PMID
2006:2017
1976:2017
1939:PMID
1931:ISSN
1892:PMID
1841:PMID
1823:ISSN
1788:2023
1754:PMID
1723:2020
1688:PMID
1644:2017
1603:2021
1574:PMID
1556:ISSN
1517:PMID
1499:ISSN
1433:2021
1402:ISBN
1372:ISBN
1342:ISBN
1314:PMID
1306:ISSN
1240:PMID
792:and
747:The
606:and
548:and
338:and
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