202:: shape is reconstructed thanks to the mutual induction between a magnetic field generator and a magnetic field sensor. The most common external EM tracking system is the commercially available NDI Aurora: small sensors can be placed on the robot and their position is tracked in an external generated magnetic field. The validity of this method has been extensively assessed, however its performance is hindered by the limited workspace, whose dimension depends on the magnetic field. Another alternative is to embed the sensors internally in the continuum robot, combining magnetic sensors with
179:: this technique assumes the backbone to be made of a series of mutually tangent sections that can be approximated as arcs with constant curvature. This approach is also known as piecewise constant-curvature. This assumption can be applied to the entire segment of the backbone or to its subsegments. This model has shown promising results, however it must be taken into account that the segment/subsegments of the backbone may not comply to the constant curvature assumption and therefore the model's behaviour may not entirely reflect the behaviour of the robot.
171:: this approach is an exact solution to the static of a continuum robot, as it is not subject to any assumption. It solves a set of equilibrium equations between position, orientation, internal force and torque of the robot. This method requires to be solved numerically and it is therefore computationally expensive, due to its high complexity.
261:), the inverse kinematic or the direct kinematic representation of the continuum robot from collected data, and they are also known as data-driven methods. Even though these controllers present the advantage of not having to establish an accurate model of the continuum robot, they perform worse than their model-based counterpart.
186:
number of variables, and thus complexity. Despite this limitation, rigid-link modelling allows the use of the standard control techniques that are well known for rigid-link robots. It has been proven that this model can be coupled with shape and force sensing to mitigate its inaccuracy and can lead to promising results.
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can be embedded into the backbone of the continuum robot to estimate its shape; these sensors can only reflect a small range of the input light spectrum depending on their strain; therefore, by measuring the strain on each sensor it is possible to obtain the shape of the robot. This type of sensor is
185:
this approach is based on the assumption that the continuum robot can be divided in small segments with rigid links. This is a strong assumption, since if the number of segments is too low, the model hardly behaves like the continuum robot, while increasing the number of segments means increasing the
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they need the formulation of the kinematic model and an associated dynamic formulation. As of 2021, they are in the early stage, as they require high computational power and high-dimensional sensory feedback. With improvements in computational power and sensing capabilities they could be crucial in
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The control strategies can be distinguished in static and dynamic; the first one is based on the steady-state assumption, while the latter also considers the dynamic behaviour of the continuum robot. We can also differentiate between model-based controllers, that depend on a model of the robot, and
27:
that is characterised by infinite degrees of freedom and number of joints. These characteristics allow continuum manipulators to adjust and modify their shape at any point along their length, granting them the possibility to work in confined spaces and complex environments where standard rigid-link
150:
The particular design of continuum robots also introduces many challenges. To properly and safely use continuum robots, it is crucial to have an accurate force and shape sensing system. Traditionally, this is done using cameras that are not suitable for some of the applications of continuum robots
155:
sensors have been proposed as a possible alternative and have shown promising results. It is also necessary to notice that while the mechanical properties of rigid-link robots are fully understood, the comprehension of the behaviour and properties of continuum robots is still subject of study and
137:
The particular design of continuum robots offers several advantages with respect to rigid-link robots. First of all, as already said, continuum robots can more easily operate in environments that require a high level of dexterity, adaptability and flexibility. Moreover, the simplicity of their
39:
The design of continuum robots is bioinspired, as the intent is to resemble biological trunks, snakes and tentacles. Several concepts of continuum robots have been commercialised and can be found in many different domains of application, ranging from the medical field to undersea exploration.
206:: the magnetic field is measured at the level of the Hall effect sensors in order to estimate the deflection of the robot. However, it has been noticed that the higher the bending of the manipulator, the higher is the estimation error, due to crosstalk between sensors and magnets.
302:
is a robotic-assisted endoluminal platform for minimally invasive peripheral lung biopsy, that allows to reach nodules located in peripheral areas of the lungs that cannot be reached by standard instrumentations; this allows to perform early-stage diagnoses of cancer.
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they are still a relatively unexplored approach. Some works that propose machine learning techniques to learn the dynamic behaviour of continuum robots have been presented, but their performance is limited by high training time and instability of the machine learning
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Continuum robots offer the possibility of completing tasks in hazardous and hostile environments. For example, a quadruped robot with continuum limbs has been developed: it can walk, crawl, trot and propel to whole arm grasping to negotiate difficult obstacles.
28:
robots cannot operate. In particular, we can define a continuum robot as an actuatable structure whose constitutive material forms curves with continuous tangent vectors. This is a fundamental definition that allows to distinguish between continuum robots and
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they rely on one of the modelling approaches presented above; once the model is defined, the kinematics must be inverted to obtain the desired actuator or configuration space variables. There are several ways to do this, like differential
142:. These continuum manipulators are made of highly compliant materials that are flexible and can adapt and deform according to the surrounding environment. The "softness" of their material grants higher safety in human-robot interactions.
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NASA has developed a continuum manipulator, named
Tendril, that can extend into crevasses and under thermal blankets to access areas that would be otherwise inaccessible with conventional means.
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The AMADEUS project developed a dextrous underwater robot for grasping and manipulation tasks, while the FLAPS project created propulsion systems that replicate the mechanisms of fish swimming.
151:(e.g. minimally invasive surgery), or using electromagnetic sensors that are however disturbed by the presence of magnetic objects in the environment. To solve this issue, in the last years
551:
Chen, Gang; Pham, Minh Tu; Redarce, Tanneguy (2008), Lee, Sukhan; Suh, Il Hong; Kim, Mun Sang (eds.), "A Guidance
Control Strategy for Semi-autonomous Colonoscopy Using a Continuum Robot",
195:
To develop accurate control algorithms, it is necessary to complement the presented modelling techniques with real time shape sensing. The following options are currently available:
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Creating an accurate model that can predict the shape of a continuum robot allows to properly control the robot's shape. There are three main approaches to model continuum robots:
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the structure of these continuum robots has two or more elastic elements (either rods or tubes) parallel to each other and constrained with one another in some way.
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the backbone is made of concentric tubes that are free to rotate and translate between each other, depending on the actuation happening at the base of the robot.
366:
da Veiga, Tomas; Chandler, James H; Lloyd, Peter; Pittiglio, Giovanni; Wilkinson, Nathan J; Hoshiar, Ali K; Harris, Russell A; Valdastri, Pietro (2020-08-03).
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the actuation happens outside the main structure of the robot and the forces are transmitted via mechanical transmission; among these techniques, there are
553:
Recent
Progress in Robotics: Viable Robotic Service to Human: An Edition of the Selected Papers from the 13th International Conference on Advanced Robotics
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however expensive and is more prone to breaking in case of excessive strain, and this can happen in robots that can perform high deflections.
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structure makes continuum robots more prone to miniaturisation. The rise of continuum robots has also paved the way for the development of
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Shi, Chaoyang; Luo, Xiongbiao; Qi, Peng; Li, Tianliang; Song, Shuang; Najdovski, Zoran; Fukuda, Toshio; Ren, Hongliang (August 2017).
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the actuation mechanism operates within the structure of the robot; these strategies include pneumatic or hydraulic chambers and the
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Continuum robots have been widely applied in the medical field, in particular for minimally invasive surgery. For example, Ion by
1103:
Dore, Alessio; Smoljkic, Gabrijel; Poorten, Emmanuel Vander; Sette, Mauro; Sloten, Jos Vander; Yang, Guang-Zhong (October 2012).
750:"On using an array of fiber Bragg grating sensors for closed-loop control of flexible minimally invasive surgical instruments"
36:: the presence of rigid links and joints allows them to only approximately perform curves with continuous tangent vectors.
60:
The main characteristic of the design of continuum robots is the presence of a continuously curving core structure, named
78:
these continuum manipulators have one central elastic backbone through which actuation/transmission elements can run.
555:, Lecture Notes in Control and Information Sciences, vol. 370, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 63–78,
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debate. This poses new challenges in developing accurate models and control algorithms for this kind of robots.
1105:"Catheter navigation based on probabilistic fusion of electromagnetic tracking and physically-based simulation"
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Hybrid approaches, that combine model-free and model-based controllers, can also present a valid alternative.
1240:
Ozel, Selim; Skorina, Erik H.; Luo, Ming; Tao, Weijia; Chen, Fuchen; Yixiao Pan; Onal, Cagdas D. (May 2016).
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1003:"Steering of Multisegment Continuum Manipulators Using Rigid-Link Modeling and FBG-Based Shape Sensing"
893:"Modeling and experimental analysis of a multi-rod parallel continuum robot using the Cosserat theory"
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industrial applications of continuum robots, where time and cost are also relevant along with accurac
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According to the design principles chosen for the continuum manipulator, we can distinguish between:
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Guo, Hao; Ju, Feng; Cao, Yanfei; Qi, Fei; Bai, Dongming; Wang, Yaoyao; Chen, Bai (2019-01-01).
1150:"Position control of concentric-tube continuum robots using a modified Jacobian-based approach"
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Proceedings 2006 IEEE International
Conference on Robotics and Automation, 2006. ICRA 2006
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Continuum robots can be categorised according to two main criteria: structure and
944:"How to Model Tendon-Driven Continuum Robots and Benchmark Modelling Performance"
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Godage, Isuru S.; Nanayakkara, Thrishantha; Caldwell, Darwin G. (October 2012).
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1242:"A composite soft bending actuation module with integrated curvature sensing"
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2012 IEEE/RSJ International
Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems
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Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems
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2009 IEEE/RSJ International
Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems
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2013 IEEE/RSJ International
Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems
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630:"Robot-assisted Active Catheter Insertion: Algorithms and Experiments"
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Proceedings of 1998 International
Symposium on Underwater Technology
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2016 IEEE International
Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA)
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Xu, Ran; Asadian, Ali; Naidu, Anish S.; Patel, Rajni V. (May 2013).
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Jones, Bryan A.; Gray, Ricky L.; Turlapati, Krishna (October 2009).
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2014 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA)
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Roesthuis, Roy J.; Janssen, Sander; Misra, Sarthak (November 2013).
24:
506:"Hybrid motion/force control of multi-backbone continuum robots"
68:, meaning that the backbone yields smoothly to external loads.
368:"Challenges of continuum robots in clinical context: a review"
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2013 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation
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Continuum robots have been applied in many different fields.
1291:"Control Strategies for Soft Robotic Manipulators: A Survey"
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George Thuruthel, Thomas; Ansari, Yasmin; Falotico, Egidio;
1395:"Snake-Arm Robots – A New Tool for the Aerospace Industry"
1111:. Vilamoura-Algarve, Portugal: IEEE. pp. 3806–3811.
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model-free, that learn the robot's behaviour from data.
64:, whose shape can be actuated. The backbone must also be
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Ikuta, K.; Ichikawa, H.; Suzuki, K.; Yajima, D. (2006).
1356:. Vilamoura-Algarve, Portugal: IEEE. pp. 293–298.
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Ghafoori, Morteza; Keymasi Khalaji, Ali (2020-12-01).
423:"Continuum Robots for Medical Applications: A Survey"
107:
actuation, depending on where the actuation happens:
800:"FBG-based shape sensing tubes for continuum robots"
628:
Jayender, J.; Patel, R.V.; Nikumb, S. (2009-09-01).
473:"Continuous Backbone "Continuum" Robot Manipulators"
421:; Rucker, D. Caleb; Choset, Howie (December 2015).
848:"Three dimensional statics for continuum robotics"
1156:. Karlsruhe, Germany: IEEE. pp. 5813–5818.
1001:Roesthuis, Roy J.; Misra, Sarthak (April 2016).
854:. St. Louis, MO, USA: IEEE. pp. 2659–2664.
677:"Design, fabrication and control of soft robots"
1248:. Stockholm, Sweden: IEEE. pp. 4963–4968.
798:Ryu, Seok Chang; Dupont, Pierre E. (May 2014).
212:fiber Bragg grating sensors incorporated in an
1393:Buckingham, Rob; Graham, Andrew (2003-09-08).
806:. Hong Kong, China: IEEE. pp. 3531–3537.
634:The International Journal of Robotics Research
591:. Orlando, FL, USA: IEEE. pp. 4161–4166.
510:The International Journal of Robotics Research
938:Rao, Priyanka; Peyron, Quentin; Lilge, Sven;
675:Rus, Daniela; Tolley, Michael T. (May 2015).
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1054:IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
504:Bajo, Andrea; Simaan, Nabil (April 2016).
1426:"Subsea applications of continuum robots"
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1432:. Tokyo, Japan: IEEE. pp. 363–369.
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1472:Continuum robots - a state of the art
1405:. Warrendale, PA: SAE International.
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761:. Tokyo: IEEE. pp. 2545–2551.
372:Progress in Biomedical Engineering
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1350:"Locomotion with continuum limbs"
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897:Robotics and Autonomous Systems
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247:Model-free static controllers:
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471:Walker, Ian D. (2013-07-16).
427:IEEE Transactions on Robotics
948:Frontiers in Robotics and AI
200:Electromagnetic (EM) sensing
34:hyper-redundant manipulators
909:10.1016/j.robot.2020.103650
561:10.1007/978-3-540-76729-9_6
251:machine learning techniques
140:soft continuum manipulators
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1211:10.1016/j.sna.2018.11.030
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1066:10.1109/TBME.2016.2622361
961:10.3389/frobt.2020.630245
860:10.1109/IROS.2009.5354199
812:10.1109/ICRA.2014.6907368
767:10.1109/IROS.2013.6696715
1019:10.1109/TRO.2016.2527047
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522:10.1177/0278364915584806
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385:10.1088/2516-1091/ab9f41
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940:Burgner-Kahrs, Jessica
419:Burgner-Kahrs, Jessica
239:, direct inversion or
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204:Hall effect sensors
169:Cosserat rod theory
153:fiber-Bragg-grating
126:shape memory effect
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255:regression methods
237:inverse kinematics
222:Control strategies
176:Constant curvature
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1371:978-1-4673-1736-8
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