163:("body"), and juridical personhood is often assumed in medieval writings; by the Renaissance period, European jurists routinely held that churches and universities chartered by the government could gain property, enter into contracts, sue, and be sued, independent of its members. The government (or the Pope) granted religious organizations "the power of perpetual succession": church property would not revert to the local lord, nor be taxed, upon the death of church members. Some town charters explicitly granted medieval towns the right of self-governance. Commercial endeavors were not among the entities incorporated in the medieval era, and even risky trading companies were originally run as common-law partnerships rather than corporations; the incorporation of the
189:". In court cases regarding corporate, the shareholders are not responsible for the company's debts but the company itself being a "legal person" is liable to repay those debts or be sued for the non-repayment of debts. The non-human entities given the "legal person" status by the law "have rights and co-relative duties; they can sue and be sued, can possess and transfer property". Since these non-human entities are "voiceless" they are legally represented "through guardians and representatives" to claim their legal rights and to fulfill their legal duties and responsibilities. Specific non-human entities given the status of "legal person" include "corporate personality,
608:(203 U.S. 243 (1906)), the Court accepted that corporations are for legal purposes "persons", but still ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment was not a bar to many state laws which effectively limited a corporation's right to contract business as it pleased. However, this was not because corporations were not protected under the Fourteenth Amendment—rather, the Court's ruling was that the Fourteenth Amendment did not prohibit the type of regulation at issue, whether of a corporation or of sole proprietorship or partnership.
689:, Rehnquist's objections are based on his "views of the limited application of the First Amendment to the States" and not on whether corporations qualify as "persons" under the Fourteenth Amendment. Nonetheless, these justices' rulings have continued to affirm the assumption of corporate personhood, as the Waite court did, and Justice Rehnquist himself eventually endorsed the right of corporations to spend in elections (the majority view in
599:– 125 U.S. 181 (1888), the Court clearly affirmed the doctrine, holding, "Under the designation of 'person' there is no doubt that a private corporation is included . Such corporations are merely associations of individuals united for a special purpose and permitted to do business under a particular name and have a succession of members without dissolution." This doctrine has been reaffirmed by the Court many times since.
36:
396:
469:. Although the Federal government has from time to time chartered corporations, the general chartering of corporations has been left to the states. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, corporations began to be chartered in greater numbers by the states, under general laws allowing for incorporation at the initiative of citizens, rather than through specific acts of the legislature.
544:, the obligation of which cannot be impaired without violating the Constitution of the United States. This opinion appears to us to be equally supported by reason, and by the former decisions of this Court." Beginning with this opinion, the U.S. Supreme Court has continuously recognized corporations as having the same rights as natural persons to contract and to enforce contracts.
325:, asserted that such perspectives are often overgeneralizations, and that the decision to grant corporate rights in a given sphere should be governed by the consequences of doing so. The 1980s saw an explosion of economic analyses, with a corporation often viewed as a nexus of contracts and as an economic agent appointed to act on behalf of its shareholders.
559:, writing for the court, explicitly extended the same protections to corporate-owned property as it would have to property owned by natural persons. Seven years later, Chief Justice Marshall stated: "The great object of an incorporation is to bestow the character and properties of individuality on a collective and changing body of men."
2051:(Knopf, 2007). The 'conspiracy theory' here has not to do with the Waite-Davis correspondence regarding the reporter headnotes, but with a disingenuous attempt to claim congressional intent in the original framing of the 14th Amendment that it include establishing corporate personality as constitutionally protected.
102:, separately from its associated human beings (like owners, managers, or employees), has at least some of the legal rights and responsibilities enjoyed by natural persons. In most countries, a corporation has the same rights as a natural person to hold property, enter into contracts, and to sue or be sued.
276:
as it applies to corporations, without the Court having actually made a decision or issued a written opinion on that point. This was the first time that the
Supreme Court was reported to hold that the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause granted constitutional protections to corporations as
730:
1974 Amendments to
Federal Election Campaign Act provided for first comprehensive system of regulation, including limitations on the size of contributions and expenditures and prohibitions on certain entities from contributing or spending, disclosure, creation of the Federal Election Commission as a
308:
U.S. courts have extended certain constitutional protections to corporations under various rationales. An early perspective, variously known as 'contractual', 'associate', or 'aggregate' theory, holds that owners of property have certain constitutional protections, even when the property is held via
499:
generated new inventions and business processes. The favored form for large businesses became the corporation because the corporation provided a mechanism to raise the large amounts of investment capital large business required, especially for capital intensive yet risky projects such as railroads.
344:
as having legal rights allows corporations to sue and to be sued, provides a single entity for easier taxation and regulation, simplifies complex transactions that would otherwise involve, in the case of large corporations, thousands of people, and protects the individual rights of the shareholders
332:
argued both from an 'association' perspective ("if the antidistortion rationale were to be accepted... it would permit
Government to ban political speech simply because the speaker is an association that has taken on the corporate form") and from a 'natural entity' perspective ("the worth of speech
634:
This federal statute has many consequences. For example, a corporation may enter contracts, sue and be sued, and be held liable under both civil and criminal law. Because the corporation is legally considered the "person", individual shareholders are not legally responsible for the corporation's
507:
below), corporations could exercise the rights of their shareholders and these shareholders were entitled to some of the legal protections against arbitrary state action. Their cause was strengthened by the adoption of general incorporation statutes in the states in the late 19th century, most
317:
Similarly, proponents might argue a juridical person can be a device for exercising shareholders' rights to free speech. Under this perspective, such constitutional rights might also extend to other associations of people, even where the association does not take on the formal legal form of a
154:
in order to facilitate collective perpetual ownership of assets beyond the founders' lifespans, and to avoid their fragmentation and disintegration resulting from personal property inheritance laws. Later on, incorporation was advocated as an efficient and secure mode of economic development:
313:
argued in the 1880s that "Statutes violating their prohibitions in dealing with corporations must necessarily infringe upon the rights of natural persons. In applying and enforcing these constitutional guaranties, corporations cannot be separated from the natural persons who compose them."
508:
notably in New Jersey and
Delaware, which allowed anyone to form corporations without any particular government grant or authorization, and thus without the government-granted monopolies that had been common in charters granted by the Crown or by acts of the legislature (see
167:
monopoly in 1600 broke new ground, and by the end of the century, commercial ventures frequently sought incorporation in Europe and the
Americas. By the 19th century, the direction of British and American corporate law had diverged; British law of this period (such as the
360:, "ppellants the use of the word 'taxpayer' several times in the regulations requires the fifth-amendment self-incrimination warning be given to a corporation." The Court did not agree. Likewise, corporations and organizations do not have privacy rights under the
622:
Federal statutes that refer to "persons" generally include both natural and juridical ones, unless a different definition is given. This general rule of interpretation is specified in Title 1, section 1 of the U.S. Code, known as the
Dictionary Act, which states:
456:
During the colonial era, British corporations were chartered by the crown to do business in North
America. This practice continued in the early United States. They were often granted monopolies as part of the chartering process. For example, the controversial
870:
ruled that corporate political spending is protected, holding that corporations have a First
Amendment right to free speech because they are "associations of citizens" and hold the collected rights of the individual citizens who constitute them.
589:, which forbids a State to deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws, applies to these corporations. We are all of the opinion that it does." While the headnote is not part of the Court's opinion and thus not
378:
majority opinion makes no reference to corporate personhood or the
Fourteenth Amendment, but rather argues that political speech rights do not depend on the identity of the speaker, which could be a person or an association of people.
635:
debts and damages. Similarly, individual employees, managers, and directors are liable for their own malfeasance or lawbreaking while acting on behalf of the corporation, but are not generally liable for the corporation's actions.
764:(1990) upheld the right of the state of Michigan to prohibit corporations from using money from their corporate treasuries to support or oppose candidates in elections, noting: "orporate wealth can unfairly influence elections."
572:
equal protection clause guarantees constitutional protections to corporations in addition to natural persons, and the oral argument should focus on other issues in the case. In the Santa Clara case the court reporter,
373:
in 2010, upholding the rights of corporations to make unlimited political expenditures under the First
Amendment, there have been several calls for a Constitutional amendment to abolish corporate personhood. The
825:
245:
In a U.S. historical context, the phrase "corporate personhood" refers to the ongoing legal debate over the extent to which rights traditionally associated with natural persons should also be afforded to
809:(2010): the Supreme Court of the United States held that corporate funding of independent broadcasts of films about political subjects when there is an upcoming election cannot be limited under the
382:
Individual shareholders cannot generally sue over the deprivation of a corporation's rights; only the board of directors has the standing to assert a corporation's constitutional rights in court.
786:
551:(1823), in which an English corporation dedicated to missionary work, with land in the U.S., sought to protect its rights to the land under colonial-era grants against an effort by the state of
352:
Generally, corporations are not able to claim constitutional protections that would not otherwise be available to persons acting as a group. For example, the Supreme Court has not recognized a
657:, such as entering into a contract or owning property. Therefore, corporations have always had a "juridical personality" for the purposes of conducting business while shielding individual
172:) appeared to focus more on corporations that more closely resembled traditional joint ventures, while American law was driven by the need to manage a more diverse corporate landscape.
582:
569:
273:
492:). The Supreme Court of Virginia ruled that the original Crown charter provided the authority for the corporation's Board of Visitors to make changes including the reorganization.
2232:
799:
602:
The 14th Amendment does not insulate corporations from all government regulation, any more than it relieves individuals from all regulatory obligations. Thus, for example, in
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1245:'Corporations Are People' Is Built on an Incredible 19th-Century Lie; How a farcical series of events in the 1880s produced an enduring and controversial legal precedent
860:
810:
745:
353:
1010:
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514:
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the words "person" and "whoever" include corporations, companies, associations, firms, partnerships, societies, and joint stock companies, as well as individuals;
851:
794:
369:
46:
638:
Among the most frequently discussed and controversial consequences of corporate personhood in the United States is the extension of a limited subset of the same
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A central point of debate in recent years has been what role corporate money plays and should play in democratic politics. This is part of the larger debate on
1888:
McCurdy, C. W. (1975). "Justice Field and the Jurisprudence of Government-Business Relations: Some Parameters of Laissez-Faire Constitutionalism, 1863–1897".
708:
1514:
1381:
364:, since the statute refers to any "individual," which it defines as "a citizen of the United States or an alien lawfully admitted for permanent residence."
318:
corporation. A second perspective, known as the 'real entity' or 'natural entity' view, shifts the presumption of corporate regulation against the states.
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Ancient Indian society used legal personhood for political, social, and economic purposes. As early as 800 BC, legal personhood was granted to guild-like
302:
139:. The diverse collegia had different rights and responsibilities that were independent of the individual members. Some collegia resembled later medieval
1141:
2237:
752:
681:
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518:(1886), the Supreme Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment applied to corporations. Since then the Court has repeatedly reaffirmed this protection.
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advantages over existing partnership structures included the corporation's continuing existence if a member died; the ability to act without
2078:
Torres-Spelliscy, Ciara (2013). "Taking Opt-In Rights Seriously: What Knox v. SEIU Could Mean for Post-Citizens United Shareholder Rights".
595:
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repeatedly criticized the Court's invention of corporate constitutional "rights", most famously in his dissenting opinion in the 1978 case
1566:
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The degree of permissible government interference in corporate affairs was controversial from the earliest days of the nation. In 1790,
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The bottom line or public health: tactics corporations use to influence health and health policy and what we can do to counter them
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1055:
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744:(1976) upheld limits on campaign contributions, but held that spending money to influence elections is protected speech by the
564:
484:, in litigation that required him to defend the corporation's right to reorganize itself and in the process remove professors,
466:
305:
because those aspects placed a substantial burden on the company's owners' free exercise of sincerely held religious beliefs.
185:
Under Indian law the corporate, managing bodies, etc. and several other non-human entitles have been given the status of the "
143:
and were allowed to advance the needs of a trade as a whole, but collegia were otherwise barred from enriching their members.
756:(1978) upheld the rights of corporations to spend money in non-candidate elections (i.e. ballot initiatives and referendums).
421:
169:
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granted legal personhood to municipalities, public works companies that managed public services, and voluntary associations (
2222:
1840:(Oxford, 1992), especially Chapter 3, usefully places the notion within the context of competing strains of jurisprudence.
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724:
283:
581:, began oral argument by stating, "The court does not wish to hear argument on the question whether the provision in the
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941:
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2131:
1283:"United States of America, Plaintiff-appellant, v. S. Steve Sourapas and Crest Beverage Company, Defendants-appellees"
1018:
951:
481:
1492:"United States Code: Title 1,1. Words denoting number, gender, and so forth | LII / Legal Information Institute"
1081:
1063:
1045:
982:
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right against self-incrimination for a corporation, since the right can be exercised only on an individual basis. In
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philosophy should reject the doctrine of corporate personhood under the Fourteenth Amendment. Indeed, Chief Justice
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906:
489:
58:
1312:
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1180:
881:
536:– 17 U.S. 518 (1819), writing: "The opinion of the Court, after mature deliberation, is that this corporate
425:
410:
269:
194:
114:
568:– 118 U.S. 394 (1886), Chief Justice Waite of the Supreme Court orally directed the lawyers that the
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in 1819, had recognized that corporations were entitled to some of the protections of the Constitution. In
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151:
2107:
992:
934:
911:
834:
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333:'does not depend upon the identity of its source, whether corporation, association, union, or individual
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from personal liability (i.e. protecting personal assets which were not invested in the corporation).
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1353:
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346:
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Russell, J. F. S. (1955). "The Railroads in the "Conspiracy Theory" of the Fourteenth Amendment".
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1955:
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Mindful economics: how the U.S. economy works, why it matters, and how it could be different
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1610:
1591:
Ralph Nader and Robert Weissman. Letter to the Editor: Ralph Nader on Scalia's "originalism"
1153:
916:
735:
695:
646:
477:
341:
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17:
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In determining the meaning of any Act of Congress, unless the context indicates otherwise—
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121:
27:
Notion that corporations can have some legal rights, responsibilities and accountability
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578:
574:
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126:
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Granting non-human entities personhood is a Western concept applied to corporations.
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2155:
1808:
1635:
1337:
921:
473:
1819:
Unequal Protection: How Corporations Became ""People"" – and How You Can Fight Back
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556:
251:
234:
190:
186:
495:
As the 19th century matured, manufacturing in the U.S. became more complex as the
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a corporation rather than directly under the owner's own name. Corporate attorney
1817:
1453:
Unequal Protection: The Rise of Corporate Dominance and the Theft of Human Rights
841:
did not preclude a Montana state law prohibiting corporate spending in elections.
672:
664:
658:
503:
Following the reasoning of the Dartmouth College case and other precedents (see
395:
298:
147:
99:
1599:, Published: Thursday, November 13, 2008, Updated: Tuesday, September 29, 2009.
1850:
Corporate Bodies and Guilty Minds: The Failure of Corporate Criminal Liability
1491:
959:
322:
218:
159:; and limited liability. The word "corporation" itself derives from the Latin
1158:
1027:
590:
549:
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts v. Town of Pawlet
198:
156:
1304:
547:
Seven years after the Dartmouth College opinion, the Supreme Court decided
1465:
118 U.S. 394 (1886) – Official court Syllabus in the United States Reports
1222:"Birds to holy rivers: A list of everything India considers 'legal persons
1099:
650:
541:
462:
321:
The dominant view from the 1920s to the 1980s, championed by philosopher
255:
237:, and gram panchayats (village councils), rivers, all animals and birds.
230:
214:
131:
1000:
845:
The corporate personhood aspect of the campaign finance debate turns on
2099:
2042:
1967:
1938:
1909:
1800:
1325:
Corporations and organizations also do not have any Privacy Act rights.
552:
537:
222:
1917:
McLaughlin, A. C. (1940). "The Court, the Corporation, and Conkling".
210:
140:
2034:
1959:
1930:
1901:
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regulatory agency, and government funding of presidential campaigns.
328:
Some rulings combine multiple perspectives; the majority opinion in
1792:
1567:"Corporate Person-hood and Constitutional Rights for Corporations"
1181:"When Did Companies Become People? Excavating The Legal Evolution"
1140:
Davoudi, Leonardo; McKenna, Christopher; Olegario, Rowena (2018).
826:
Western Tradition Partnership, Inc. v. Attorney General of Montana
202:
1661:"Citizens United v. Federal Election Comm'n, 558 U.S. 310 (2010)"
721:, banned corporate political contributions to national campaigns.
226:
2103:
714:
In the United States, legal milestones in this debate include:
577:, noted in the headnote to the opinion that the Chief Justice,
146:
In the Middle Ages, juridical persons were chartered either as
2057:"Introduction – Corporate Personhood Ushers in the Gilded Age"
790:(2007) weakened McCain–Feingold, but upheld core of McConnell.
389:
29:
1746:
Trusted Criminals: White Collar Crime in Contemporary Society
486:
The Rev John Bracken v. The Visitors of Wm & Mary College
45:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
1946:
Mendelson, W. (1970). "Hugo Black and Judicial Discretion".
1541:"Corporate Personhood: What It Means and How It Has Evolved"
787:
Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc.
1779:
Hamilton, W. H. (1938). "The Path of Due Process of Law".
54:
1475:
Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Co. v. Pennsylvania
596:
Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Co. v. Pennsylvania
268:
claimed to state the sense of the Court regarding the
98:
is the legal notion that a juridical person such as a
1369:
Concurrence & Dissent In Part (John Paul Stevens)
1074:
Chicago, Milwaukee, & St. Paul Railroad v. Ackley
1742:"Corporate Personhood and Corporate Decision Making"
358:
United States v. Sourapas and Crest Beverage Company
2174:
2138:
2000:"Can Corporate Personhood Be Socially Responsible?"
1142:"The historical role of the corporation in society"
265:
Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.
1428:Encyclopedia of American civil liberties, Volume 1
859:ruled that political spending is protected by the
504:
1711:"Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission"
1201:"Corporate Personhood and the Corporate Persona"
774:which mentioned candidates close to an election.
2004:The debate over corporate social responsibility
1011:Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad
897:History of central banking in the United States
770:(McCain–Feingold), banned corporate funding of
711:and the role which money may play in politics.
515:Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad
125:that operated in the public interest. The late
1366:Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission
1351:Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission
852:Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission
795:Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission
370:Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission
2115:
1838:The Transformation of American Law: 1870–1960
1609:United States Supreme Court (April 6, 1978).
1539:School, Purdue Global Law (January 6, 2023).
782:(2003), substantially upheld McCain–Feingold.
8:
2233:Political controversies in the United States
1515:"Does "We the People" Include Corporations?"
1513:Torres-Spelliscy, Ciara (October 11, 2017).
1424:"Freedom of Speech Extended to Corporations"
1382:"Does "We the People" Include Corporations?"
653:activities, similar to a person acting as a
1975:Phillips, Peter; et al., eds. (2004).
1611:"FIRST NATIONAL BANK OF BOSTON v. BELLOTTI"
424:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2122:
2108:
2100:
2002:. In May, Steve Kent; et al. (eds.).
1981:Censored 2005: The Top 25 Censored Stories
1056:Peik v. Chicago & Northwestern Railway
1038:Chicago, B&Q Railroad v. State of Iowa
476:, a private attorney and a veteran of the
386:Historical background in the United States
303:Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
1194:
1192:
1190:
1157:
922:Legal fiction § Corporate personhood
753:First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti
682:First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti
533:Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward
444:Learn how and when to remove this message
295:Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993
77:Learn how and when to remove this message
2023:The Mississippi Valley Historical Review
1113:, 118 U.S. 356 (1886) is available from:
1095:, 337 U.S. 562 (1949) is available from:
1014:, 118 U.S. 394 (1886) is available from:
779:McConnell v. Federal Election Commission
727:of 1971, campaign financing legislation.
1873:. Seven Stories Press. pp. 71–73.
1132:
1077:, 94 U.S. 179 (1876) is available from:
1059:, 94 U.S. 164 (1876) is available from:
1041:, 94 U.S. 155 (1876) is available from:
978:, 17 U.S. 518 (1819) is available from:
605:Northwestern Nat Life Ins. Co. v. Riggs
281:, although numerous other cases, since
996:, 83 U.S. 36 (1872) is available from:
768:Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002
761:Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce
43:The examples and perspective in this
1636:"Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1 (1976)"
1305:"Overview of the Privacy Act of 1974"
902:Electoral reform in the United States
671:and others have argued that a strict
7:
1261:"Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc"
505:§ Case law in the United States
422:adding citations to reliable sources
367:Since the Supreme Court's ruling in
1565:Winkler, Adam (February 26, 2022).
1199:Blair, Margaret (January 1, 2013).
290:Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.
61:, or create a new, as appropriate.
25:
1977:"Corporate Personhood Challenged"
1494:. .law.cornell.edu. April 7, 2010
1205:University of Illinois Law Review
649:have always been able to perform
293:(2014), the Court found that the
2238:United States corporate case law
612:Legislation in the United States
510:Delaware General Corporation Law
394:
34:
1890:The Journal of American History
1852:. University of Chicago Press.
1767:, New York: The Penguin Press.
1455:. New York: St. Martin's Press.
1092:Wheeling Steel Corp. v. Glander
693:) in his dissenting opinion in
565:Santa Clara v. Southern Pacific
480:, represented the board of the
467:First Bank of the United States
262:in the 1886 Supreme Court case
1919:The American Historical Review
1822:. Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
1146:Journal of the British Academy
555:to revoke the grants. Justice
461:chartered a 20-year corporate
170:Joint Stock Companies Act 1856
1:
1740:Friedrichs, David O. (2009).
975:Dartmouth College v. Woodward
817:(1990) and partly overruling
725:Federal Election Campaign Act
522:Case law in the United States
284:Dartmouth College v. Woodward
2197:Collective rights management
1426:. In Finkelman, Paul (ed.).
942:Outline of corporate finance
703:Corporate political spending
18:Corporate political spending
2063:. Oxford University Press.
2006:. Oxford University Press.
1948:Political Science Quarterly
1844:Laufer, William S. (2008).
1406:Providence Bank v. Billings
829:(2012). U.S. Supreme Court
528:United States Supreme Court
482:College of William and Mary
57:, discuss the issue on the
2254:
2055:Wiist, William H. (2010).
1430:. CRC Press. p. 650.
615:
112:
1846:"Recognizing Pershonhood"
907:History of rail transport
490:Supreme Court of Virginia
2175:Rights of other entities
2047:— See also Jack Beatty,
1545:Purdue Global Law School
1519:American Bar Association
1338:"Resolutions in Support"
1313:US Department of Justice
1983:. Seven Stories Press.
1867:Magnuson, Joel (2008).
1816:Hartmann, Thom (2010).
882:Anti-corporate activism
709:campaign finance reform
270:equal protection clause
115:History of corporations
1571:New England Law Review
1451:Hartman, Thom (2002).
1422:Calvert, Clay (2006).
930:Foundation (nonprofit)
632:
593:, two years later, in
1765:The Assault on Reason
1183:. NPR. July 28, 2014.
1159:10.5871/jba/006s1.017
993:Slaughter-House Cases
935:Voluntary association
912:Industrial Revolution
835:Montana Supreme Court
833:of a decision by the
640:constitutional rights
625:
497:Industrial Revolution
176:Country specific laws
96:juridical personality
2223:Corporate personhood
2202:Corporate personhood
2192:Collective agreement
1836:Horwitz, Morton J.,
1748:. Cengage Learning.
1354:Opinion of the Court
892:Corporate governance
864:right to free speech
583:Fourteenth Amendment
570:Fourteenth Amendment
418:improve this section
347:right of association
301:from aspects of the
274:Fourteenth Amendment
241:In the United States
135:) such as the early
92:Corporate personhood
1998:Ritz, Dean (2007).
1386:www.americanbar.org
967:Supreme Court cases
887:Corporate behaviour
719:Tillman Act of 1907
618:Creature of statute
362:Privacy Act of 1974
311:John Norton Pomeroy
2161:Self-determination
2080:Montana Law Review
1686:"Buckley v. Valeo"
1596:Harvard Law Record
1340:. Movetoamend.org.
1315:. January 15, 2020
1285:. Cases.justia.com
1110:Yick Wo v. Hopkins
772:issue advocacy ads
197:etc.", as well as
165:East India Company
2228:Collective rights
2210:
2209:
2187:Return of results
2070:978-0-19-537563-3
2013:978-0-19-517882-1
1990:978-1-58322-655-1
1880:978-1-58322-847-0
1859:978-0-226-47041-2
1829:978-1-60509-559-2
1773:978-1-59420-122-6
1763:Gore, Al (2007).
1755:978-0-495-60082-4
1437:978-0-415-94342-0
1234:, September 2019.
947:Persona designata
677:William Rehnquist
647:juridical persons
562:In the 1886 case
488:(7 Va. 573; 1790
459:Bank Bill of 1791
454:
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342:juridical persons
248:juridical persons
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917:Juridical person
847:Buckley v. Valeo
831:summary reversal
736:Buckley v. Valeo
696:McConnell v. FEC
645:Corporations as
478:Continental Army
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2166:Right of return
2146:Right to resist
2139:National rights
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2054:
2049:Age of Bettayal
2035:10.2307/1889179
2020:
2014:
1997:
1991:
1974:
1960:10.2307/2147556
1945:
1931:10.2307/1839788
1916:
1902:10.2307/1890641
1896:(4): 970–1005.
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861:First Amendment
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746:First Amendment
705:
655:sole proprietor
620:
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376:Citizens United
354:Fifth Amendment
345:as well as the
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2029:(4): 601–622.
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260:court reporter
258:issued by the
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49:of the subject
47:worldwide view
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474:John Marshall
470:
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403:This section
401:
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199:trust estates
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109:Early history
108:
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89:
81:
78:
70:
60:
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55:improve this
50:
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2132:group rights
2083:
2079:
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2003:
1980:
1954:(1): 17–39.
1951:
1947:
1925:(1): 45–63.
1922:
1918:
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1849:
1837:
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1784:
1780:
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1714:
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1689:
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1664:
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1639:
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1618:. Retrieved
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1570:
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1544:
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1518:
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1496:. Retrieved
1486:
1479:125 U.S. 394
1474:
1470:
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1277:
1265:. Retrieved
1255:
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1149:
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669:Phil Radford
663:
659:shareholders
644:
637:
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626:
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603:
601:
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587:Constitution
563:
561:
557:Joseph Story
548:
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531:
525:
513:
502:
494:
485:
471:
455:
440:
434:October 2011
431:
416:Please help
404:
381:
375:
368:
366:
357:
351:
339:
329:
327:
320:
316:
307:
288:
282:
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252:corporations
244:
219:universities
191:body politic
187:legal person
184:
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148:corporations
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130:
120:
118:
104:
95:
91:
90:
88:
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1720:December 6,
1695:December 6,
1498:January 19,
1410:29 U.S. 514
1319:December 4,
1289:January 19,
1267:January 26,
926:Nonprofit:
849:(1976) and
673:originalist
665:Ralph Nader
299:Hobby Lobby
277:well as to
205:, temples,
152:foundations
100:corporation
2217:Categories
2086:(1): 101.
1665:Justia Law
1640:Justia Law
1391:October 7,
1127:References
960:University
651:commercial
616:See also:
323:John Dewey
250:including
113:See also:
67:April 2023
1809:143498111
1576:March 28,
1550:March 28,
1524:March 28,
1165:April 23,
1152:: 17–47.
819:McConnell
591:precedent
405:does not
340:Treating
297:exempted
215:hospitals
157:unanimity
59:talk page
2130:Various
1715:Find Law
1690:Find Law
1670:July 20,
1645:July 20,
1107:Text of
1089:Text of
1071:Text of
1053:Text of
1035:Text of
1008:Text of
990:Text of
972:Text of
875:See also
866:, while
855:(2010):
806:U.S. 844
691:Bellotti
687:Bellotti
542:contract
530:decided
465:for the
463:monopoly
256:headnote
231:railways
223:colleges
207:churches
132:collegia
53:You may
2092:2225851
2043:1889179
1968:2147556
1939:1839788
1910:1890641
1801:2988994
1615:Findlaw
1481:(1886).
1412:(1830).
1118:Findlaw
1100:Findlaw
1082:Findlaw
1064:Findlaw
1046:Findlaw
1019:Findlaw
1001:Findlaw
983:Findlaw
857:Buckley
821:(2003).
585:to the
553:Vermont
538:charter
426:removed
411:sources
272:of the
211:mosques
2090:
2067:
2041:
2010:
1987:
1966:
1937:
1908:
1877:
1856:
1826:
1807:
1799:
1781:Ethics
1771:
1752:
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1371:(2010)
1356:(2010)
1231:Quartz
1211:: 785.
1121:
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512:). In
161:corpus
150:or as
141:guilds
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1964:JSTOR
1935:JSTOR
1906:JSTOR
1805:S2CID
1797:JSTOR
540:is a
227:banks
203:deity
181:India
122:śreṇī
2088:SSRN
2065:ISBN
2008:ISBN
1985:ISBN
1875:ISBN
1854:ISBN
1824:ISBN
1769:ISBN
1750:ISBN
1722:2019
1697:2019
1672:2018
1647:2018
1622:2020
1578:2024
1552:2024
1526:2024
1500:2011
1432:ISBN
1393:2022
1321:2020
1291:2011
1269:2018
1209:2013
1167:2022
740:424
409:any
407:cite
337:").
254:. A
2031:doi
1956:doi
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2027:41
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1962:.
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1950:.
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1638:.
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1593:.
1569:.
1543:.
1517:.
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1323:.
1311:.
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1228:,
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1203:.
1189:^
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