Plant disease resistance - Knowledge (XXG)

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resistance trait. QR is important in plant breeding because the resulting resistance is often more durable (effective for more years), and more likely to be effective against most or all strains of a particular pathogen. QR is typically effective against one pathogen species or a group of closely related species, rather than being broadly effective against multiple pathogens. QR is often obtained through plant breeding without knowledge of the causal genetic loci or molecular mechanisms. QR is likely to depend on many of the plant immune system components discussed in this article, as well as traits that are unique to certain plant-pathogen pairings (such as sensitivity to certain pathogen effectors), as well as general plant traits such as leaf surface characteristics or root system or plant canopy architecture. The term QR is synonymous with

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and development. As such, effectors offer examples of co-evolution (example: a fungal protein that functions outside of the fungus but inside of plant cells has evolved to take on plant-specific functions). Pathogen host range is determined, among other things, by the presence of appropriate effectors that allow colonization of a particular host. Pathogen-derived effectors are a powerful tool to identify plant functions that play key roles in disease and in disease resistance. Apparently most effectors function to manipulate host physiology to allow disease to occur. Well-studied bacterial plant pathogens typically express a few dozen effectors, often delivered into the host by a

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attempts to fix the problem on the chestnut involved chemical solutions or physical ones. They attempted to use fungicides, cut limbs off of trees to stop the infection, and completely remove infected trees from habitations to not allow them to infect the others. All of these strategies ended up unsuccessful. Even quarantine measures were put into place which were helped by the passage of Plant Quarantine Act. Chestnut blight still proved to be a huge problem as it rapidly moved through the densely populated forests of chestnut trees. In 1914, the idea was considered to induce blight resistance to the trees through various different means and breeding mechanisms.

222: 798: 604:(siRNAs) systemically through the phloem. This process is thought to occur through the plasmodesmata and involves RNA-binding proteins that assist RNA localization in mesophyll cells. Although they have been identified in the phloem with mRNA, there is no determinate evidence that they mediate long-distant transport of RNAs. EVs may therefore contribute to an alternate pathway of RNA loading into the phloem, or could possibly transport RNA through the apoplast. There is also evidence that plant EVs can allow for interspecies transfer of sRNAs by 46: 445:, are referred to as MAMPs by many researchers. The defenses induced by MAMP perception are sufficient to repel most pathogens. However, pathogen effector proteins (see below) are adapted to suppress basal defenses such as PTI. Many receptors for MAMPs (and DAMPs) have been discovered. MAMPs and DAMPs are often detected by transmembrane receptor-kinases that carry 484:(resistance genes) whose products mediate resistance to specific virus, bacteria, oomycete, fungus, nematode or insect strains. R gene products are proteins that allow recognition of specific pathogen effectors, either through direct binding or by recognition of the effector's alteration of a host protein. Many R genes encode NB-LRR proteins (proteins with 871:, tillage, planting density, disease-free seeds and cleaning of equipment, but plant varieties with inherent (genetically determined) disease resistance are generally preferred. Breeding for disease resistance began when plants were first domesticated. Breeding efforts continue because pathogen populations are under 1778:

Monocrop agricultural systems provide an ideal environment for pathogen evolution, because they offer a high density of target specimens with similar/identical genotypes. The rise in mobility stemming from modern transportation systems provides pathogens with access to more potential targets. Climate

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Potato lines expressing viral replicase sequences that confer resistance to potato leafroll virus were sold under the trade names NewLeaf Y and NewLeaf Plus, and were widely accepted in commercial production in 1999–2001, until McDonald's Corp. decided not to purchase GM potatoes and Monsanto decided

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against an entire pathogen species is often only incompletely effective, but more durable, and is often controlled by many genes that segregate in breeding populations. Durability of resistance is important even when future improved varieties are expected to be on the way: The average time from human

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and evolve increased virulence, pathogens move (or are moved) to new areas, changing cultivation practices or climate favor some pathogens and can reduce resistance efficacy, and plant breeding for other traits can disrupt prior resistance. A plant line with acceptable resistance against one pathogen

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Effectors are central to the pathogenic or symbiotic potential of microbes and microscopic plant-colonizing animals such as nematodes. Effectors typically are proteins that are delivered outside the microbe and into the host cell. These colonist-derived effectors manipulate the host's cell physiology

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the intruder and respond by activating antimicrobial defenses in the infected cell and neighboring cells. In some cases, defense-activating signals spread to the rest of the plant or even to neighboring plants. The two systems detect different types of pathogen molecules and classes of plant receptor

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is used when a pathogen species can be pathogenic on the host species but certain strains of that plant species resist certain strains of the pathogen species. The causes of host resistance and non-host resistance can overlap. Pathogen host range is determined, among other things, by the presence of

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to refer to plants modified using recombinant DNA technologies. Plants with transgenic/GM disease resistance against insect pests have been extremely successful as commercial products, especially in maize and cotton, and are planted annually on over 20 million hectares in over 20 countries worldwide

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Research aimed at engineered resistance follows multiple strategies. One is to transfer useful PRRs into species that lack them. Identification of functional PRRs and their transfer to a recipient species that lacks an orthologous receptor could provide a general pathway to additional broadened PRR

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industry. Field trials demonstrated excellent efficacy and high fruit quality. By 1998 the first transgenic virus-resistant papaya was approved for sale. Disease resistance has been durable for over 15 years. Transgenic papaya accounts for ~85% of Hawaiian production. The fruit is approved for sale

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stage of plant development and continues throughout its lifetime. When used by specialists, the term does not refer to resistance that is only active during the seedling stage. "Seedling resistance" is meant to be synonymous with major gene resistance or all stage resistance (ASR), and is used as a

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Differences in plant disease resistance are often incremental or quantitative rather than qualitative. The term quantitative resistance (QR) refers to plant disease resistance that is controlled by multiple genes and multiple molecular mechanisms that each have small or minor effects on the overall

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The term quantitative resistance (discussed below) refers to plant disease resistance that is controlled by multiple genes and multiple molecular mechanisms that each have small effects on the overall resistance trait. Quantitative resistance is often contrasted to ETI resistance mediated by single

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domains, also known as NLR proteins or STAND proteins, among other names). Most plant immune systems carry a repertoire of 100–600 different R gene homologs. Individual R genes have been demonstrated to mediate resistance to specific virus, bacteria, oomycete, fungus, nematode or insect strains. R

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of insects and mammals, but also exhibit many plant-specific characteristics. The two above-described tiers are central to plant immunity but do not fully describe plant immune systems. In addition, many specific examples of apparent PTI or ETI violate common PTI/ETI definitions, suggesting a need

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plays a central role in cell signaling that regulates processes including protein degradation and immunological response. Although one of the main functions of ubiquitin is to target proteins for destruction, it is also useful in signaling pathways, hormone release, apoptosis and translocation of

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Most plant pathogens reprogram host gene expression patterns to directly benefit the pathogen. Reprogrammed genes required for pathogen survival and proliferation can be thought of as “disease-susceptibility genes.” Recessive resistance genes are disease-susceptibility candidates. For example, a

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Transport of sRNAs during infection is likely facilitated by extracellular vesicles (EVs) and multivesicular bodies (MVBs). The composition of RNA in plant EVs has not been fully evaluated, but it is likely that they are, in part, responsible for trafficking RNA. Plants can transport viral RNAs,

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Plant disease resistance is crucial to the reliable production of food, and it provides significant reductions in agricultural use of land, water, fuel, and other inputs. Plants in both natural and cultivated populations carry inherent disease resistance, but this has not always protected them.

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Chestnut blight was first noticed in American Chestnut trees that were growing in what is now known as the Bronx Zoo in the year 1904. For years following this incident, it was argued as to what the identity of the pathogen was, as well as the appropriate approach to its control. The earliest

1550:–like (TAL) effectors are DNA-binding proteins that activate host gene expression to enhance pathogen virulence. Both the rice and pepper lineages independently evolved TAL-effector binding sites that instead act as an executioner that induces hypersensitive host cell death when up-regulated. 195:

Plant pathogens can spread rapidly over great distances, vectored by water, wind, insects, and humans. Across large regions and many crop species, it is estimated that diseases typically reduce plant yields by 10% every year in more developed nations or agricultural systems, but yield loss to

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Adult plant resistance (APR) is a specialist term referring to quantitative resistance that is not effective in the seedling stage but is effective throughout many remaining plant growth stages. The difference between adult plant resistance and seedling resistance is especially important in

822:. Plant signaling pathways including immune responses are controlled by several feedback pathways, which often include negative feedback; and they can be regulated by De-ubiquitination enzymes, degradation of transcription factors and the degradation of negative regulators of transcription. 1782:

These factors make modern agriculture more prone to disease epidemics. Common solutions include constant breeding for disease resistance, use of pesticides, use of border inspections and plant import restrictions, maintenance of significant genetic diversity within the crop gene pool (see

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So-called "core" effectors are defined operationally by their wide distribution across the population of a particular pathogen and their substantial contribution to pathogen virulence. Genomics can be used to identify core effectors, which can then be used to discover new R gene

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Among the thousands of species of plant pathogenic microorganisms, only a small minority have the capacity to infect a broad range of plant species. Most pathogens instead exhibit a high degree of host-specificity. Non-host plant species are often said to express

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Molina, Antonio; Miedes, Eva; Bacete, Laura; Rodríguez, Tinguaro; Mélida, Hugo; Denancé, Nicolas; Sánchez-Vallet, Andrea; Rivière, Marie-Pierre; López, Gemma; Freydier, Amandine; Barlet, Xavier; Pattathil, Sivakumar; Hahn, Michael; Goffner, Deborah (2021-02-02).

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have been shown to influence hormonal signalling including auxin, abscisic acid (ABA), jasmonic acid (JA) and salicylic acid (SA). Advances in genome‐wide studies revealed a massive adaptation of host miRNA expression patterns after infection by fungal pathogens

384:(PAMPs or MAMPs). Activation of PRRs leads to intracellular signaling, transcriptional reprogramming, and biosynthesis of a complex output response that limits colonization. The system is known as PAMP-triggered immunity or as pattern-triggered immunity (PTI). 504:, a plant R gene has specificity for a pathogen avirulence gene (Avr gene). Avirulence genes are now known to encode effectors. The pathogen Avr gene must have matched specificity with the R gene for that R gene to confer resistance, suggesting a receptor/ 98:

differences in disease resistance can be observed when multiple specimens are compared (allowing classification as "resistant" or "susceptible" after infection by the same pathogen strain at similar inoculum levels in similar environments), a gradation of

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interaction for Avr and R genes. Alternatively, an effector can modify its host cellular target (or a molecular decoy of that target), and the R gene product (NLR protein) activates defenses when it detects the modified form of the host target or decoy.

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Lacombe, Séverine; Rougon-Cardoso, Alejandra; Sherwood, Emma; Peeters, Nemo; Dahlbeck, Douglas; van Esse, H. Peter; Smoker, Matthew; Rallapalli, Ghanasyam; Thomma, Bart P. H. J.; Staskawicz, Brian; Jones, Jonathan D. G.; Zipfel, Cyril (April 17, 2010).

1787:), and constant surveillance to accelerate initiation of appropriate responses. Some pathogen species have much greater capacity to overcome plant disease resistance than others, often because of their ability to evolve rapidly and to disperse broadly. 1755:

appropriate effectors that allow colonization of a particular host. Pathogen host range can change quite suddenly if, for example, the pathogen's capacity to synthesize a host-specific toxin or effector is gained by gene shuffling/mutation, or by

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materials throughout the cell. Ubiquitination is a component of several immune responses. Without ubiquitin's proper functioning, the invasion of pathogens and other harmful molecules would increase dramatically due to weakened immune defenses.

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describes plants that exhibit little disease damage despite substantial pathogen levels. Disease outcome is determined by the three-way interaction of the pathogen, the plant, and the environmental conditions (an interaction known as the

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Singh, Ravi P.; Singh, Pawan K.; Rutkoski, Jessica; Hodson, David P.; He, Xinyao; Jørgensen, Lise N.; Hovmøller, Mogens S.; Huerta-Espino, Julio (2016-08-04). "Disease Impact on Wheat Yield Potential and Prospects of Genetic Control".

1711:-based resistance is a powerful tool for engineering resistant crops. The advantage of RNAi as a novel gene therapy against fungal, viral, and bacterial infection in plants lies in the fact that it regulates gene expression via 4045:

Park, Robert F.; Golegaonkar, Prashant G.; Derevnina, Lida; Sandhu, Karanjeet S.; Karaoglu, Haydar; Elmansour, Huda M.; Dracatos, Peter M.; Singh, Davinder (2015-08-04). "Leaf Rust of Cultivated Barley: Pathology and Control".

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from rice and Bs3 and Bs4c from pepper, are such “executor” (or "executioner") genes that encode non-homologous plant proteins of unknown function. Executor genes are expressed only in the presence of a specific TAL effector.

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Dadakova, K.; Havelkova, M.; Kurkova, B.; Tlolkova, I.; Kasparovsky, T.; Zdrahal, Z.; Lochman, J. (2015-04-24). "Proteome and transcript analysis of Vitis vinifera cell cultures subjected to Botrytis cinerea infection".

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enzyme is a main component that provides specificity in protein degradation pathways, including immune signaling pathways. The E3 enzyme components can be grouped by which domains they contain and include several types.

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products, is often termed effector-triggered immunity (ETI). ETI is typically activated by the presence of specific pathogen "effectors" and then triggers strong antimicrobial responses (see R gene section below).

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However, disease control is reasonably successful for most crops. Disease control is achieved by use of plants that have been bred for good resistance to many diseases, and by plant cultivation approaches such as

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promoter to contain two additional binding sites for TAL effectors from disparate pathogen strains. Subsequently, an engineered executor gene was deployed in rice by adding five TAL effector binding sites to the

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Growth of breeding candidates in a disease-conducive setting, possibly including pathogen inoculation. Attention must be paid to the specific pathogen isolates, to address variability within a single pathogen

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Hammond-Kosack, K. and Jones, J.D.G. "Responses to plant pathogens." In: Buchanan, Gruissem and Jones, eds. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Plants, Second Edition. 2015. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, NJ.

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will likely display more durable resistance, because pathogens would have to mutate multiple effector genes. DNA sequencing allows researchers to functionally “mine” NLR genes from multiple species/strains.

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Xa13/Os-8N3 is required for pollen development, showing that such mutant alleles can be problematic should the disease-susceptibility phenotype alter function in other processes. However, mutations in the

940:, who identified a single recessive gene for resistance to wheat yellow rust. Nearly every crop was then bred to include disease resistance (R) genes, many by introgression from compatible wild relatives. 367:

The plant immune system carries two interconnected tiers of receptors, one most frequently sensing molecules outside the cell and the other most frequently sensing molecules inside the cell. Both systems

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Rafiqi, Maryam; Ellis, Jeffrey G; Ludowici, Victoria A.; Hardham, Adrienne R.; Dodds, Peter N. (2012). "Challenges and progress towards understanding the role of effectors in plant–fungal interactions".

586:. Changes to sRNA expression in response to fungal pathogens indicate that gene silencing may be involved in this defense pathway. However, there is also evidence that the antifungal defense response to 2408:

Duxbury, Zane; Ma, Yan; Furzer, Oliver J.; Huh, Sung Un; Cevik, Volkan; Jones, Jonathan D.G.; Sarris, Panagiotis F. (2016-06-24). "Pathogen perception by NLRs in plants and animals: Parallel worlds".

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Native populations are often characterized by substantial genotype diversity and dispersed populations (growth in a mixture with many other plant species). They also have undergone of plant-pathogen

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As with many signal transduction pathways, plant gene expression during immune responses can be regulated by degradation. This often occurs when hormone binding to hormone receptors stimulates

642:. An array of mechanisms for this type of resistance may exist depending on the particular gene and plant-pathogen combination. Other reasons for effective plant immunity can include a lack of 395:

In addition to PTI and ETI, plant defenses can be activated by the sensing of damage-associated compounds (DAMP), such as portions of the plant cell wall released during pathogenic infection.

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This diagram shows the process from fungi or bacterial attachment to the plant cell all the way to the specific type of response. PTI stands for Pattern-Triggered Immunity and ETI stands for

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Dadakova, Katerina; Klempova, Jitka; Jendrisakova, Tereza; Lochman, Jan; Kasparovsky, Tomas (2013-12-01). "Elucidation of signaling molecules involved in ergosterol perception in tobacco".

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In a small number of cases, plant genes are effective against an entire pathogen species, even though that species is pathogenic on other genotypes of that host species. Examples include

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Identification of plants that may be less desirable in other ways, but which carry a useful disease resistance trait, including wild plant lines that often express enhanced resistance.

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No other crop with engineered disease resistance against microbial pathogens had reached the market by 2013, although more than a dozen were in some state of development and testing.

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Shirsekar, Gautam; Dai, Liangying; Hu, Yajun; Wang, Xuejun; Zeng, Lirong; Wang, Guo-Liang (February 2010). "Role of Ubiquitination in Plant Innate Immunity and Pathogen Virulence".

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Guo, Na; Ye, Wen-Wu; Wu, Xiao-Ling; Shen, Dan-Yu; Wang, Yuan-Chao; Xing, Han; Dou, Dao-Long (November 2011). "Microarray profiling reveals microRNAs involving soybean resistance to

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spp. infection in maize is not entirely regulated by specific miRNA induction, but may instead act to fine-tune the balance between genetic and metabolic components upon infection.

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pathways are understood to be important components of pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP)-triggered immunity (PTI) and effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Bacteria‐induced

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Nürnberger, Thorsten; Brunner, Frédéric; Kemmerling, Birgit; Piater, Lizelle (April 2004). "Innate immunity in plants and animals: striking similarities and obvious differences".

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to close their NatureMark potato business. NewLeaf Y and NewLeaf Plus potatoes carried two GM traits, as they also expressed Bt-mediated resistance to Colorado potato beetle.

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Plant defense signaling is activated by the pathogen-detecting receptors that are described in an above section. The activated receptors frequently elicit reactive oxygen and

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Nowara, Daniela; Gay, Alexandra; Lacomme, Christophe; Shaw, Jane; Ridout, Christopher; Douchkov, Dimitar; Hensel, Götz; Kumlehn, Jochen; Schweizer, Patrick (September 2010).

646:(the pathogen and/or plant lack multiple mechanisms needed for colonization and growth within that host species), or a particularly effective suite of pre-formed defenses. 4777:

Michelmore, Richard W.; Christopoulou, Marilena; Caldwell, Katherine S. (2013-08-04). "Impacts of Resistance Gene Genetics, Function, and Evolution on a Durable Future".

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is the causal agent of bacterial spot disease of pepper and tomato. The first “effector-rationalized” search for a potentially durable R gene followed the finding that

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change can alter the viable geographic range of pathogen species and cause some diseases to become a problem in areas where the disease was previously less important.

1411:, conferred resistance to a wide range of bacterial pathogens. EFR expression in tomato was especially effective against the widespread and devastating soil bacterium 1616:(ATP)–binding cassette (ABC) transporter. The dominant allele that provides disease resistance was recently found in cultivated wheat (not in wild strains) and, like 4260:

Mahlein, A.-K.; Kuska, M.T.; Behmann, J.; Polder, G.; Walter, A. (2018-08-25). "Hyperspectral Sensors and Imaging Technologies in Phytopathology: State of the Art".

2769:"The Arabidopsis miR472-RDR6 Silencing Pathway Modulates PAMP- and Effector-Triggered Immunity through the Post-transcriptional Control of Disease Resistance Genes" 969:. This proved to be a widely applicable mechanism for inhibiting viral replication. Combining coat protein genes from three different viruses, scientists developed 1484:, was moved into tomato, where it inhibited pathogen growth. Field trials demonstrated robust resistance without bactericidal chemicals. However, rare strains of 2710:

Zhang, Weixiong; Gao, Shang; Zhou, Xiang; Chellappan, Padmanabhan; Chen, Zheng; Zhou, Xuefeng; Zhang, Xiaoming; Fromuth, Nyssa; Coutino, Gabriela (2010-12-12).

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Karthikeyan, A.; Deivamani, M.; Shobhana, V. G.; Sudha, M.; Anandhan, T. (2013). "RNA interference: Evolutions and applications in plant disease management".

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hybrids with field-validated, multiviral resistance. Similar levels of resistance to this variety of viruses had not been achieved by conventional breeding.

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The second strategy attempts to deploy multiple NLR genes simultaneously, a breeding strategy known as stacking. Cultivars generated by either DNA-assisted

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Lindeberg, Magdalen; Cunnac, Sébastien; Collmer, Alan (April 2012). "Pseudomonas syringae type III effector repertoires: last words in endless arguments".

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mutations that avoid recognition but retain virulence. Stacking R genes that each recognize a different core effector could delay or prevent adaptation.

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Studied R genes usually confer specificity for particular strains of a pathogen species (those that express the recognized effector). As first noted by

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Another class of plant disease resistance genes opens a “trap door” that quickly kills invaded cells, stopping pathogen proliferation. Xanthomonas and

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Hammond-Kosack, Kim E; Parker, Jane E (April 2003). "Deciphering plant–pathogen communication: fresh perspectives for molecular resistance breeding".

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such as Host-Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS). The transport of RNA between plants and fungi seems to be bidirectional as sRNAs from the fungal pathogen

107:. Plants consistently resist certain pathogens but succumb to others; resistance is usually specific to certain pathogen species or pathogen strains. 754:-associated degradation of repressor proteins that block expression of certain genes. The net result is hormone-activated gene expression. Examples: 1825: 801:

This image depicts the pathways taken during responses in plant immunity. It highlights the role and effect ubiquitin has in regulating the pathway.

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Ghag, Siddhesh B. (December 2017). "Host induced gene silencing, an emerging science to engineer crop resistance against harmful plant pathogens".

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Selection of disease-resistant individuals that retain other desirable traits such as yield, quality and including other disease resistance traits.

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Defense-activating compounds can move cell-to-cell and systematically through the plant's vascular system. However, plants do not have circulating

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remodelling through small non-coding RNAs. Mechanistically, the silencing processes are guided by processing products of the double-stranded RNA (

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Plant breeders emphasize selection and development of disease-resistant plant lines. Plant diseases can also be partially controlled by use of

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contrast to "adult plant resistance". Seedling resistance is often mediated by single R genes, but not all R genes encode seedling resistance.

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in two ways: by pre-formed structures and chemicals, and by infection-induced responses of the immune system. Relative to a susceptible plant,

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gene products control a broad set of disease resistance responses whose induction is often sufficient to stop further pathogen growth/spread.

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More than 50 loci in wheat strains confer disease resistance against wheat stem, leaf and yellow stripe rust pathogens. The Stem rust 35 (

761:: binds to receptors that then recruit and degrade repressors of transcriptional activators that stimulate auxin-specific gene expression. 3458:

Weiberg, Arne; Wang, Ming; Lin, Feng-Mao; Zhao, Hongwei; Zhang, Zhihong; Kaloshian, Isgouhi; Huang, Hsien-Da; Jin, Hailing (2013-10-03).

3246:"Identification of translocatable RNA-binding phloem proteins from melon, potential components of the long-distance RNA transport system" 1642:

Natural promoter variation can lead to the evolution of recessive disease-resistance alleles. For example, the recessive resistance gene

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Padmanabhan, Chellappan; Zhang, Xiaoming; Jin, Hailing (August 2009). "Host small RNAs are big contributors to plant innate immunity".

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to preserve highly desirable plant varieties, because for these species, outcrossing seriously disrupts the preferred traits. See also

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Jasmonic acid: similar to auxin, except with jasmonate receptors impacting jasmonate-response signaling mediators such as JAZ proteins.

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cascades that directly activate cellular changes (such as cell wall reinforcement or antimicrobial production), or activate changes in

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Tabashnik, Bruce E.; Brevault, Thierry; Carriere, Yves (2013). "Insect resistance to Bt crops: lessons from the first billion acres".

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Boccara, Martine; Sarazin, Alexis; Thiébeauld, Odon; Jay, Florence; Voinnet, Olivier; Navarro, Lionel; Colot, Vincent (2014-01-16).

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is reduced, EIN2 protein is cleaved and a portion of the protein moves to the nucleus to activate ethylene-response gene expression.

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in barley, rice, tomato, pepper, pea, lettuce, and melon. The discovery prompted a successful mutant screen for chemically induced

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Numerous genes and/or proteins as well as other molecules have been identified that mediate plant defense signal transduction.

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Cowger, Christina; Brown, James K.M. (2019-08-25). "Durability of Quantitative Resistance in Crops: Greater Than We Know?".

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recognition of a new fungal disease threat to the release of a resistant crop for that pathogen is at least twelve years.

369: 1830: 377: 2853:"Transcriptional Analysis of Soybean Root Response to Fusarium virguliforme, the Causal Agent of Sudden Death Syndrome" 777:

Ethylene: Inhibitory phosphorylation of the EIN2 ethylene response activator is blocked by ethylene binding. When this

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Effector triggered immunity (ETI) is activated by the presence of pathogen effectors. The ETI response is reliant on

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McDonald, B. A.; Linde, C. (2002). "Pathogen population genetics, evolutionary potential, and durable resistance".

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Dodds, P. N.; Rathjen, J. P. (2010). "Plant immunity: Towards an integrated view of plant–pathogen interactions".

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Lucas, J.A., "Plant Defence." Chapter 9 in Plant Pathology and Plant Pathogens, 3rd ed. 1998 Blackwell Science.

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Restrepo, Silvia; Tabima, Javier F.; Mideros, Maria F.; Grünwald, Niklaus J.; Matute, Daniel R. (4 August 2014).

1443: 961:). Transgenic plant disease resistance against microbial pathogens was first demonstrated in 1986. Expression of 949: 930: 519: 4360:

Kavanagh, T. A.; Spillane, C. (1995-02-01). "Strategies for engineering virus resistance in transgenic plants".

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Stuthman, D. D.; Leonard, K. J.; Miller-Garvin, J. (2007). "Breeding crops for durable resistance to disease".

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Dodds, P.; Rathjen, J. (2010). "Plant immunity: towards an integrated view of plant–pathogen interactions".

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Shimelis, H.; Laing, M. "Timelines in conventional crop improvement: pre-breeding and breeding procedures".

1547: 1186: 918: 469: 355: 74: 4425:"Interfamily transfer of a plant pattern-recognition receptor confers broad-spectrum bacterial resistance" 1613: 1460: 1412: 263: 128: 120: 91: 3134:

Micali, Cristina O.; Neumann, Ulla; Grunewald, Dorit; Panstruga, Ralph; O'Connell, Richard (2010-10-28).

4667:"The politics of genetic technoscience for conservation: The case of blight-resistant American chestnut" 1724: 1397: 977: 910: 601: 555: 253: 185: 1571:

construct conferred resistance against Xanthomonas bacterial blight and bacterial leaf streak species.

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if it continues to be effective over multiple years of widespread use as pathogen populations evolve. "

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powdery mildew–resistance genes. Both genes are unusual in wheat and its relatives. Combined with the

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apparatus. Fungal, oomycete and nematode plant pathogens apparently express a few hundred effectors.

2712:"Bacteria-responsive microRNAs regulate plant innate immunity by modulating plant hormone networks" 1505: 922: 902: 771: 576: 489: 446: 2900:

Xin, Mingming; Wang, Yu; Yao, Yingyin; Xie, Chaojie; Peng, Huiru; Ni, Zhongfu; Sun, Qixin (2010).

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Crossing of a desirable but disease-susceptible variety to a plant that is a source of resistance.

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is a gene that provides partial resistance to leaf and yellow rusts and powdery mildew in wheat.

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trafficking dynamics help to orient plant defense responses toward the point of pathogen attack.

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gene that acts additively with at least Sr33, they could provide durable disease resistance to

905:" is specific to certain races or strains of a pathogen species, is often controlled by single 4828: 4808: 4800: 4757: 4720: 4709: 4639: 4595: 4587: 4546: 4513:

Bettgenhaeuser, Jan; Gilbert, Brian; Ayliffe, Michael; Moscou, Matthew J. (11 December 2014).

4444: 4377: 4334: 4291: 4283: 4234: 4201: 4155: 4147: 4077: 4069: 4014: 4006: 3917: 3874: 3825: 3784: 3738: 3692: 3674: 3635: 3583: 3540: 3505: 3487: 3440: 3422: 3383: 3332: 3324: 3275: 3267: 3226: 3218: 3169: 3161: 3116: 3108: 3069: 3061: 3016: 2998: 2945: 2927: 2882: 2874: 2827: 2808: 2790: 2749: 2731: 2692: 2684: 2641: 2623: 2576: 2532: 2485: 2439: 2431: 2390: 2333: 2293: 2275: 2225: 2165: 2126: 2062: 2008: 1947: 1919: 1519: 711: 639: 561: 497: 312: 268: 166: 161: 4827:

Schumann, G. Plant Diseases: Their Biology and Social Impact. 1991 APS Press, St. Paul, MN.

4792: 4747: 4739: 4686: 4631: 4577: 4536: 4526: 4487: 4436: 4369: 4326: 4275: 4193: 4139: 4061: 3998: 3952: 3909: 3864: 3856: 3815: 3776: 3728: 3682: 3666: 3625: 3617: 3575: 3532: 3495: 3479: 3430: 3414: 3375: 3314: 3257: 3208: 3151: 3100: 3051: 3006: 2988: 2935: 2917: 2864: 2819: 2798: 2780: 2739: 2723: 2676: 2631: 2615: 2566: 2524: 2477: 2423: 2380: 2372: 2325: 2283: 2265: 2215: 2207: 2157: 2116: 2052: 2044: 2000: 1909: 1901: 1052: 811: 767: 610: 605: 17: 4635: 164:

epidemics spreading from East Africa into the Indian subcontinent are caused by rust fungi

1974: 1820: 1740: 1588:(involved in cell wall degradation), conferring resistance to the powdery mildew pathogen 778: 695: 635: 415: 403: 177: 157: 35: 2246:"Arabidopsis cell wall composition determines disease resistance specificity and fitness" 1688:(OsSWEET14) TAL effector–binding element were made by fusing TAL effectors to nucleases ( 4796: 4682: 4582: 4565: 4483: 4279: 4143: 4065: 4002: 3948: 3905: 3772: 3571: 3475: 3371: 3310: 3136:"Biogenesis of a specialized plant-fungal interface during host cell internalization of 2984: 2672: 2611: 2520: 2261: 2112: 1897: 4541: 4514: 3715:

Sadanandom, Ari; Bailey, Mark; Ewan, Richard; Lee, Jack; Nelis, Stuart (October 2012).

3687: 3654: 3630: 3605: 3500: 3460:"Fungal Small RNAs Suppress Plant Immunity by Hijacking Host RNA Interference Pathways" 3459: 3435: 3402: 3011: 2964: 2940: 2901: 2803: 2768: 2744: 2711: 2636: 2595: 2385: 2360: 2288: 2245: 2220: 2195: 1914: 1881: 1784: 1260: 1123: 1074: 970: 937: 790: 726: 687: 679: 627: 588: 422: 411: 143: 45: 4197: 3869: 3844: 3536: 103:

differences in disease resistance is more typically observed between plant strains or

4853: 4346: 4026: 3733: 3716: 3262: 3245: 3156: 3135: 3056: 3035: 1712: 1708: 1585: 1447: 1090: 926: 868: 731: 316: 242: 230: 201: 189: 87: 39: 4820: 4651: 4499: 4389: 4303: 4246: 3964: 3181: 2345: 2329: 2177: 770:: Gibberellin causes receptor conformational changes and binding and degradation of 4769: 4456: 4167: 3892:

Trujillo, Marco; Shirasu, Ken (1 August 2010). "Ubiquitination in plant immunity".

3344: 2451: 2074: 1558:

Engineered executor genes were demonstrated by successfully redesigning the pepper

1431: 1417: 1335: 707: 690:. These events in turn typically lead to the modification of proteins that control 660: 643: 320: 2619: 4491: 3579: 2993: 2823: 2785: 722:

Plant immune system activity is regulated in part by signaling hormones such as:

2004: 1768: 1470: 1374: 1205: 1142: 1037: 847: 548: 450: 399: 139: 3670: 3379: 2571: 2554: 2211: 279:

Receptors that perceive pathogen presence and activate inducible plant defences

4691: 4666: 3956: 3913: 3802:

Craig, A.; Ewan, R.; Mesmar, J.; Gudipati, V.; Sadanandom, A. (1 March 2009).

3780: 3319: 3294: 3034:

Lu, Shanfa; Sun, Ying-Hsuan; Amerson, Henry; Chiang, Vincent L. (2007-08-07).

2727: 2680: 2528: 2481: 1967: 1631:

are also recessive viral-resistance genes. Some have been deployed to control

1095: 962: 953: 864: 683: 573: 350: 249: 181: 30: 4804: 4591: 4381: 4287: 4238: 4230: 4151: 4073: 4010: 3759:

Trujillo, M.; Shirasu, K. (August 2010). "Ubiquitination in plant immunity".

3678: 3491: 3426: 3387: 3328: 3271: 3222: 3165: 3112: 3065: 3002: 2931: 2922: 2878: 2794: 2735: 2688: 2627: 2435: 2279: 72:

growth on or in the plant (and hence a reduction of disease), while the term

4531: 3483: 2869: 2852: 2410: 2270: 1905: 1772: 1716: 1668:

gene has a mutated effector-binding element in its promoter that eliminates

1632: 1544: 1298: 751: 668: 539: 466: 346: 342: 324: 293: 289: 237: 205: 153: 4812: 4761: 4643: 4599: 4550: 4448: 4424: 4338: 4295: 4159: 4081: 4018: 3921: 3878: 3860: 3829: 3788: 3742: 3696: 3639: 3621: 3587: 3544: 3509: 3444: 3418: 3336: 3279: 3230: 3173: 3120: 3073: 3020: 2949: 2886: 2831: 2812: 2753: 2696: 2645: 2580: 2536: 2489: 2443: 2427: 2394: 2376: 2337: 2297: 2229: 2169: 2130: 2066: 2012: 1923: 917:

Crops such as potato, apple, banana, and sugarcane are often propagated by

465:, and is activated by specific pathogen strains. Plant ETI often causes an 4617: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4609: 4097:"Adult plant resistance (APR): the strategy to beat persistent pathogens" 3820: 3803: 3213: 3196: 1728: 851: 736: 675: 543: 331: 245: 136: 124: 104: 69: 61: 2965:"Genome-Wide Profiling of miRNAs and Other Small Non-Coding RNAs in the 2161: 2121: 2096: 614:

have been shown to target host defense genes in Arabidopsis and tomato.

4373: 3717:"The ubiquitin–proteasome system: central modifier of plant signalling" 3295:"Extracellular vesicles as key mediators of plant–microbe interactions" 1101: 664: 335: 305: 301: 257: 4752: 2555:"Manipulation of Plant Cells by Cyst and Root-Knot Nematode Effectors" 2145: 2057: 1323:

Approved and commercially sold since 1998, sold into Japan since 2012

4440: 4403:

Kaniewski, Wojciech K.; Thomas, Peter E. (2004). "The Potato Story".

4330: 1293: 1181: 1118: 1105: 1025: 985: 981: 906: 819: 672: 623: 527: 505: 481: 462: 388: 358:– a rapid host cell death response associated with defence induction. 297: 133: 4743: 3104: 2196:"Transcriptional Regulation of Pattern-Triggered Immunity in Plants" 2048: 4515:"Nonhost resistance to rust pathogens – a continuation of continua" 1303:

Resting lymphocyte kinase (RLK) gene from resistant barley cultivar

311:

Antimicrobial chemicals, including reactive oxygen species such as

1720: 1689: 1672:

binding and renders these lines resistant to strains that rely on

1623:

Natural alleles of host translation elongation initiation factors

1387: 1069: 796: 758: 631: 442: 438: 407: 274: 44: 29: 2146:"Regulation of pattern recognition receptor signalling in plants" 421:

Plant immune systems show some mechanistic similarities with the

3604:

Moore, John W.; Loake, Gary J.; Spoel, Steven H. (August 2011).

3197:"Long distance transport and movement of RNA through the phloem" 1882:"Pivoting the Plant Immune System from Dissection to Deployment" 1503:) NLR gene, cloned from a diploid relative of cultivated wheat, 1255: 1148: 1047: 597: 936:

Scientific breeding for disease resistance originated with Sir

3655:"Stressed Out About Hormones: How Plants Orchestrate Immunity" 3040:

L.) and their association with fusiform rust gall development"

966: 530:, which can be used in plant breeding for disease resistance. 380:

that are activated by recognition of evolutionarily conserved

2596:"Endogenous small RNAs and antibacterial immunity in plants" 965:

protein gene sequences conferred virus resistance via small

2963:

Yin, Zujun; Li, Yan; Han, Xiulan; Shen, Fafu (2012-04-25).

818:

These include the Ring and U-box single subunit, HECT, and

2194:

Li, Bo; Meng, Xiangzong; Shan, Libo; He, Ping (May 2016).

742:

There can be substantial cross-talk among these pathways.

4844: 2851:

Radwan, Osman; Liu, Yu; Clough, Steven J. (August 2011).

850:. Seedling resistance is resistance which begins in the 3845:"The Ubiquitin-Proteasome Pathway and Plant Development" 1880:

Dangl, J. L.; Horvath, D. M.; Staskawicz, B. J. (2013).

4665:

Barnes, Jessica C; Delborne, Jason A (September 2022).

3754: 3752: 2361:"Of PAMPs and Effectors: The Blurred PTI-ETI Dichotomy" 2311: 2309: 2307: 196:

diseases often exceeds 20% in less developed settings.

2189: 2187: 441:, conserved molecules that inhabit multiple pathogen 398:

Responses activated by PTI and ETI receptors include

273:

Detoxifying enzymes that break down pathogen-derived

180:, as well as recurrent severe plant diseases such as 3978: 3976: 3974: 4566:"Speciation in Fungal and Oomycete Plant Pathogens" 1000:Examples of transgenic disease resistance projects 998: 382:

pathogen or microbial–associated molecular patterns

4104:(International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) 4040: 4038: 4036: 3599: 3597: 2030: 2028: 2026: 2024: 2022: 1985: 1983: 1968:Key part of plants' rapid response system revealed 1700:, but still provided normal development function. 1474:species and is required for pathogen fitness. The 1602:orthologs also confer powdery mildew resistance. 1492:-mediated resistance in pepper by acquisition of 3804:"E3 ubiquitin ligases and plant innate immunity" 3244:Gómez, G.; Torres, H.; Pallás, V. (2004-11-29). 2463: 2461: 2359:Thomma, B.; Nurnberger, T.; Joosten, M. (2011). 2090: 2088: 2086: 2084: 1620:, provides broad-spectrum resistance in barley. 1395:demonstrated that deployment of EFR into either 1153:12 years of field trials at time of publication 933:to manage genes that affect disease resistance. 718:Mechanisms of transcription factors and hormones 4472:Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 3293:Rutter, Brian D; Innes, Roger W (August 2018). 2553:Hewezi, Tarek; Baum, Thomas J. (January 2013). 2250:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1360:3 years of field trials at time of publication 1247:2 years of field trials at time of publication 1230:2 years of field trials at time of publication 1110:4 years of field trials at time of publication 1082:2 years of field trials at time of publication 1598:gene and spontaneously mutated pea and tomato 944:GM or transgenic engineered disease resistance 841:Adult plant resistance and seedling resistance 702:Transcription factors and the hormone response 90:, so most cell types exhibit a broad suite of 3710: 3708: 3706: 2548: 2546: 2501: 2499: 1131:1 year of field trial at time of publication 418:that then elevate other defensive responses. 8: 4671:Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space 1509:, provides resistance to wheat rust isolate 879:Breeding for resistance typically includes: 426:for broadened definitions and/or paradigms. 4179: 4177: 3653:Bürger, Marco; Chory, Joanne (2019-08-14). 3360:Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology 694:, and the activation of defense-associated 500:in his mid-20th century formulation of the 3606:"Transcription Dynamics in Plant Immunity" 1692:). Genome-edited rice plants with altered 1343:Approved and commercially sold since 1994 1268:Regulatory approvals, no commercial sales 976:A similar strategy was deployed to combat 4751: 4690: 4581: 4540: 4530: 3868: 3819: 3732: 3686: 3629: 3499: 3434: 3318: 3261: 3212: 3155: 3055: 3010: 2992: 2939: 2921: 2868: 2802: 2784: 2743: 2635: 2570: 2384: 2287: 2269: 2219: 2120: 2056: 1913: 1426:) gene can be transferred from tomato to 1937: 1935: 1933: 1875: 1873: 1871: 1869: 1867: 1865: 1826:Plant use of endophytic fungi in defense 1715:degradation, translation repression and 1430:, where it confers resistance to race 1 1382:receptor (EFR) recognizes the bacterial 376:The first tier is primarily governed by 220: 27:Ability of plants to withstand pathogens 1863: 1861: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1849: 1847: 1845: 1841: 911:Horizontal or broad-spectrum resistance 387:The second tier, primarily governed by 284:Inducible post-infection plant defenses 4636:10.1146/annurev.phyto.40.120501.101443 1791:Case Study of American Chestnut Blight 1676:. This finding also demonstrated that 1660:strains that express the TAL effector 980:, which by 1994 threatened to destroy 1977:. Washington University in St. Louis. 1523:, encodes a wheat ortholog to barley 867:and by cultivation practices such as 859:Plant breeding for disease resistance 682:and other hormones and activation of 7: 2857:Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions 2559:Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions 1696:binding sites remained resistant to 876:may lack resistance against others. 212:Common disease resistance mechanisms 132:. The world's first mass-cultivated 4797:10.1146/annurev-phyto-082712-102334 4583:10.1146/annurev-phyto-102313-050056 4280:10.1146/annurev-phyto-080417-050100 4144:10.1146/annurev-phyto-080615-095835 4066:10.1146/annurev-phyto-080614-120324 4003:10.1146/annurev-phyto-082718-100016 1357:Mammalian interferon-induced enzyme 217:Pre-formed structures and compounds 4223:Australian Journal of Crop Science 3195:Kehr, J.; Buhtz, A. (2007-12-18). 2095:Jones, J. D.; Dangl, J.L. (2006). 25: 3560:Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 1654:is transcriptionally activated by 1468:is found in most disease-causing 1407:(tomato), which cannot recognize 3894:Current Opinion in Plant Biology 3761:Current Opinion in Plant Biology 3734:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04266.x 3525:Current Opinion in Biotechnology 3299:Current Opinion in Plant Biology 3263:10.1111/j.1365-313x.2004.02278.x 3157:10.1111/j.1462-5822.2010.01530.x 3057:10.1111/j.1365-313x.2007.03208.x 2661:Current Opinion in Plant Biology 2509:Current Opinion in Plant Biology 1763:Epidemics and population biology 1680:is required for susceptibility. 989:in the U.S., Canada, and Japan. 952:) is often used as a synonym of 4780:Annual Review of Phytopathology 4624:Annual Review of Phytopathology 4570:Annual Review of Phytopathology 4263:Annual Review of Phytopathology 4127:Annual Review of Phytopathology 4095:Bhavani, Sridhar (2021-06-18). 4049:Annual Review of Phytopathology 3986:Annual Review of Phytopathology 2330:10.1111/j.0105-2896.2004.0119.x 1816:Plant defense against herbivory 1478:NLR gene from the wild pepper, 1079:Overexpressed R gene from wheat 655:Perception of pathogen presence 534:Small RNAs and RNA interference 330:Antimicrobial proteins such as 123:of the 1840s was caused by the 4576:(1). Annual Reviews: 289–316. 3808:Journal of Experimental Botany 3201:Journal of Experimental Botany 2144:Couto, D.; Zipfel, C. (2016). 1944:Plant Pathology, Fifth Edition 1723:) trigger, which are known as 1372:repertoires. For example, the 341:Antimicrobial enzymes such as 1: 4198:10.1016/S0065-2113(07)95004-X 3537:10.1016/s0958-1669(03)00035-1 3036:"MicroRNAs in loblolly pine ( 2620:10.1016/j.febslet.2008.06.053 1698:Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae 1657:Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae 1415:. Conversely, the tomato PRR 1384:translation elongation factor 378:pattern recognition receptors 38:, a disease that affects the 4492:10.1080/03235408.2013.769315 3843:Moon, J. (1 December 2004). 3580:10.1016/j.plaphy.2013.09.009 2994:10.1371/journal.pone.0035765 2824:10.1371/journal.ppat.1004814 2786:10.1371/journal.ppat.1003883 1831:Systemic acquired resistance 18:Crop disease resistance gene 4459:– via www.nature.com. 2594:Jin, Hailing (2008-07-11). 2005:10.1016/j.jprot.2015.02.001 1811:Induced systemic resistance 1591:Golovinomyces cichoracearum 1575:Host susceptibility alleles 1340:Pathogen-derived resistance 1320:Pathogen-derived resistance 1265:Pathogen-derived resistance 1210:R genes from wild relatives 1147:Antibacterial protein from 1128:Pathogen-derived resistance 457:Effector triggered immunity 94:defenses. Although obvious 51:Effector-triggered immunity 4886: 4519:Frontiers in Plant Science 3671:10.1016/j.chom.2019.07.006 3380:10.1016/j.pmpp.2017.10.003 2572:10.1094/MPMI-05-12-0106-FI 2212:10.1016/j.chom.2016.04.011 1942:Agrios, George N. (2005). 1806:Gene-for-gene relationship 1738: 1517:, from the wheat relative 959:genetically modified crops 786:Ubiquitin and E3 signaling 502:gene-for-gene relationship 451:LysM extracellular domains 434:Pattern-triggered immunity 176:. Other epidemics include 4692:10.1177/25148486211024910 3957:10.1007/s12374-009-9087-x 3914:10.1016/j.pbi.2010.04.002 3781:10.1016/j.pbi.2010.04.002 3320:10.1016/j.pbi.2018.01.008 2969:–Inoculated Cotton Roots" 2728:10.1007/s11103-010-9710-8 2681:10.1016/j.pbi.2009.06.005 2529:10.1016/j.pbi.2012.05.003 2482:10.1016/j.tim.2012.01.003 2150:Nature Reviews Immunology 2097:"The plant immune system" 1244:R gene from wild relative 1227:R gene from wild relative 1164:Multibacterial resistance 909:and can be less durable. 746:Regulation by degradation 142:was lost in the 1920s to 3937:Journal of Plant Biology 2923:10.1186/1471-2229-10-123 1757:horizontal gene transfer 1646:in rice is an allele of 1594:. Similarly, the Barley 1567:promoter. The synthetic 1391:. Research performed at 1213:3 years of field trials 618:Species-level resistance 58:Plant disease resistance 4732:Nature Reviews Genetics 4532:10.3389/fpls.2014.00664 3659:Cell Host & Microbe 3484:10.1126/science.1239705 2870:10.1094/mpmi-11-10-0271 2716:Plant Molecular Biology 2271:10.1073/pnas.2010243118 2200:Cell Host & Microbe 2037:Nature Reviews Genetics 1906:10.1126/science.1236011 1548:transcription activator 919:vegetative reproduction 826:Quantitative resistance 638:and wheat Yr36 against 470:hypersensitive response 356:Hypersensitive response 121:Great Famine of Ireland 3861:10.1105/tpc.104.161220 3622:10.1105/tpc.111.087346 3419:10.1105/tpc.110.077040 2470:Trends in Microbiology 2428:10.1002/bies.201600046 2377:10.1105/tpc.110.082602 1725:small interfering RNAs 1614:adenosine triphosphate 1413:Ralstonia solanacearum 1191:Novel gene from pepper 950:"genetically modified" 802: 602:small interfering RNAs 476:R genes and R proteins 430:major-effect R genes. 264:Antimicrobial peptides 254:sesquiterpene lactones 226: 129:Phytophthora infestans 54: 42: 3849:The Plant Cell Online 3144:Cellular Microbiology 3138:Golovinomyces orontii 2318:Immunological Reviews 1993:Journal of Proteomics 1580:mutation disabled an 1535:and its derivatives. 1398:Nicotiana benthamiana 978:papaya ringspot virus 897:Resistance is termed 833:minor gene resistance 800: 556:Fusarium virguliforme 308:, cell wall proteins) 224: 186:soybean cyst nematode 146:caused by the fungus 60:protects plants from 48: 33: 4429:Nature Biotechnology 4319:Nature Biotechnology 4186:Advances in Agronomy 2967:Verticillium dahliae 1966:Lutz, Diana (2012). 1461:Xanthomona perforans 1404:Solanum lycopersicum 1393:Sainsbury Laboratory 1055:and bacterial streak 678:, altered levels of 650:Signaling mechanisms 568:Verticillium dahliae 480:Plants have evolved 225:secondary plant wall 152:. The current wheat 68:is the reduction of 4683:2022EnPlE...5.1518B 4484:2013ArPPP..46.1430K 3949:2010JPBio..53...10S 3906:2010COPB...13..402T 3773:2010COPB...13..402T 3572:2013PlPB...73..121D 3476:2013Sci...342..118W 3372:2017PMPP..100..242G 3311:2018COPB...44...16R 2985:2012PLoSO...735765Y 2673:2009COPB...12..465P 2612:2008FEBSL.582.2679J 2521:2012COPB...15..477R 2262:2021PNAS..11810243M 2162:10.1038/nri.2016.77 2122:10.1038/nature05286 2113:2006Natur.444..323J 1898:2013Sci...341..746D 1748:non-host resistance 1639:alleles in tomato. 1506:Triticum monococcum 1458:effector gene from 1194:Now in field trial 1017:Development status 1001: 923:asexual propagation 903:Vertical resistance 686:and other specific 580:, and the oomycete 490:leucine-rich repeat 4374:10.1007/BF00023943 3821:10.1093/jxb/erp059 3214:10.1093/jxb/erm176 3089:Phytophthora sojae 2256:(5): e2010243118. 1973:2023-04-18 at the 1946:. Academic Press. 1481:Capsicum chacoense 1444:molecular breeding 1033:R gene from pepper 1011:Disease resistance 999: 873:selection pressure 803: 692:gene transcription 583:Phytophthora sojae 520:Type III secretion 486:nucleotide-binding 319:, or more complex 227: 162:yellow stripe rust 149:Fusarium oxysporum 66:disease resistance 55: 43: 34:Cankers caused by 4478:(12): 1430–1441. 4411:(1&2): 41–46. 3855:(12): 3181–3195. 3470:(6154): 118–123. 3250:The Plant Journal 3044:The Plant Journal 2910:BMC Plant Biology 2904:Triticum aestivum 2606:(18): 2679–2684. 2107:(7117): 323–329. 1892:(6147): 746–751. 1520:Aegilops tauschii 1364: 1363: 1282:R gene from maize 1173:Laboratory scale 1058:Engineered E gene 640:wheat stripe rust 562:Erysiphe graminis 313:hydrogen peroxide 269:Enzyme inhibitors 167:Puccinia graminis 75:disease tolerance 16:(Redirected from 4877: 4870:Chemical ecology 4824: 4773: 4755: 4697: 4696: 4694: 4677:(3): 1518–1540. 4662: 4656: 4655: 4619: 4604: 4603: 4585: 4561: 4555: 4554: 4544: 4534: 4510: 4504: 4503: 4467: 4461: 4460: 4441:10.1038/nbt.1613 4419: 4413: 4412: 4400: 4394: 4393: 4368:(1–3): 149–158. 4357: 4351: 4350: 4331:10.1038/nbt.2597 4314: 4308: 4307: 4257: 4251: 4250: 4218: 4212: 4211: 4181: 4172: 4171: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4111: 4110: 4092: 4086: 4085: 4042: 4031: 4030: 3980: 3969: 3968: 3932: 3926: 3925: 3889: 3883: 3882: 3872: 3840: 3834: 3833: 3823: 3814:(4): 1123–1132. 3799: 3793: 3792: 3756: 3747: 3746: 3736: 3712: 3701: 3700: 3690: 3650: 3644: 3643: 3633: 3616:(8): 2809–2820. 3601: 3592: 3591: 3555: 3549: 3548: 3520: 3514: 3513: 3503: 3455: 3449: 3448: 3438: 3413:(9): 3130–3141. 3398: 3392: 3391: 3355: 3349: 3348: 3322: 3290: 3284: 3283: 3265: 3241: 3235: 3234: 3216: 3192: 3186: 3185: 3159: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3084: 3078: 3077: 3059: 3050:(6): 1077–1098. 3031: 3025: 3024: 3014: 2996: 2960: 2954: 2953: 2943: 2925: 2897: 2891: 2890: 2872: 2848: 2842: 2841: 2837:Retraction Watch 2816: 2806: 2788: 2764: 2758: 2757: 2747: 2707: 2701: 2700: 2656: 2650: 2649: 2639: 2591: 2585: 2584: 2574: 2550: 2541: 2540: 2503: 2494: 2493: 2465: 2456: 2455: 2405: 2399: 2398: 2388: 2356: 2350: 2349: 2313: 2302: 2301: 2291: 2273: 2240: 2234: 2233: 2223: 2191: 2182: 2181: 2141: 2135: 2134: 2124: 2092: 2079: 2078: 2060: 2032: 2017: 2016: 1987: 1978: 1964: 1958: 1957: 1939: 1928: 1927: 1917: 1877: 1279:Bacterial streak 1187:Xanthomonas wilt 1053:Bacterial blight 1005:Publication year 1002: 929:method of plant 812:ubiquitin ligase 768:Gibberellic acid 611:Botrytis cinerea 606:RNA interference 513:Effector biology 119:The late blight 81:disease triangle 21: 4885: 4884: 4880: 4879: 4878: 4876: 4875: 4874: 4850: 4849: 4841: 4776: 4744:10.1038/nrg2812 4729: 4705: 4703:Further reading 4700: 4664: 4663: 4659: 4621: 4620: 4607: 4563: 4562: 4558: 4512: 4511: 4507: 4469: 4468: 4464: 4421: 4420: 4416: 4402: 4401: 4397: 4359: 4358: 4354: 4316: 4315: 4311: 4259: 4258: 4254: 4220: 4219: 4215: 4208: 4183: 4182: 4175: 4122: 4121: 4117: 4108: 4106: 4094: 4093: 4089: 4044: 4043: 4034: 3982: 3981: 3972: 3934: 3933: 3929: 3891: 3890: 3886: 3842: 3841: 3837: 3801: 3800: 3796: 3758: 3757: 3750: 3721:New Phytologist 3714: 3713: 3704: 3652: 3651: 3647: 3603: 3602: 3595: 3557: 3556: 3552: 3522: 3521: 3517: 3457: 3456: 3452: 3400: 3399: 3395: 3357: 3356: 3352: 3292: 3291: 3287: 3243: 3242: 3238: 3194: 3193: 3189: 3133: 3132: 3128: 3105:10.1139/g11-050 3099:(11): 954–958. 3086: 3085: 3081: 3033: 3032: 3028: 2962: 2961: 2957: 2899: 2898: 2894: 2850: 2849: 2845: 2818:(Erratum: 2817: 2779:(1): e1003883. 2766: 2765: 2761: 2722:(1–2): 93–105. 2709: 2708: 2704: 2658: 2657: 2653: 2593: 2592: 2588: 2552: 2551: 2544: 2505: 2504: 2497: 2467: 2466: 2459: 2407: 2406: 2402: 2358: 2357: 2353: 2315: 2314: 2305: 2242: 2241: 2237: 2193: 2192: 2185: 2143: 2142: 2138: 2094: 2093: 2082: 2049:10.1038/nrg2812 2034: 2033: 2020: 1989: 1988: 1981: 1975:Wayback Machine 1965: 1961: 1954: 1941: 1940: 1931: 1879: 1878: 1843: 1839: 1821:Plant pathology 1802: 1793: 1765: 1752:host resistance 1743: 1741:Plant pathology 1737: 1706: 1577: 1541: 1440: 1369: 1317:Ring spot virus 946: 861: 843: 828: 808: 788: 779:phosphorylation 748: 720: 704: 696:gene expression 688:protein kinases 657: 652: 620: 536: 515: 478: 459: 436: 416:gene expression 404:oxidative burst 365: 292:reinforcement ( 286: 219: 214: 178:chestnut blight 113: 36:Chestnut blight 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4883: 4881: 4873: 4872: 4867: 4865:Plant immunity 4862: 4860:Phytopathology 4852: 4851: 4848: 4847: 4840: 4839:External links 4837: 4836: 4835: 4825: 4789:Annual Reviews 4774: 4738:(8): 539–548. 4727: 4716: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4698: 4657: 4605: 4556: 4505: 4462: 4435:(4): 365–369. 4414: 4395: 4352: 4325:(6): 510–521. 4309: 4272:Annual Reviews 4252: 4213: 4206: 4173: 4136:Annual Reviews 4115: 4087: 4058:Annual Reviews 4032: 3995:Annual Reviews 3970: 3927: 3900:(4): 402–408. 3884: 3835: 3794: 3767:(4): 402–408. 3748: 3702: 3665:(2): 163–172. 3645: 3610:The Plant Cell 3593: 3550: 3531:(2): 177–193. 3515: 3450: 3407:The Plant Cell 3393: 3350: 3285: 3256:(1): 107–116. 3236: 3187: 3150:(2): 210–226. 3126: 3079: 3026: 2955: 2892: 2863:(8): 958–972. 2843: 2773:PLOS Pathogens 2759: 2702: 2667:(4): 465–472. 2651: 2586: 2542: 2515:(4): 477–482. 2495: 2476:(4): 199–208. 2457: 2400: 2365:The Plant Cell 2351: 2324:(1): 249–266. 2303: 2235: 2206:(5): 641–650. 2183: 2156:(9): 537–552. 2136: 2080: 2043:(8): 539–548. 2018: 1979: 1959: 1953:978-0120445653 1952: 1929: 1840: 1838: 1835: 1834: 1833: 1828: 1823: 1818: 1813: 1808: 1801: 1798: 1792: 1789: 1785:crop diversity 1764: 1761: 1736: 1733: 1705: 1704:Gene silencing 1702: 1584:gene encoding 1576: 1573: 1540: 1539:Executor genes 1537: 1439: 1436: 1368: 1365: 1362: 1361: 1358: 1355: 1354:Potato virus X 1352: 1349: 1345: 1344: 1341: 1338: 1336:mosaic viruses 1332: 1329: 1325: 1324: 1321: 1318: 1315: 1312: 1308: 1307: 1304: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1287: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1274: 1270: 1269: 1266: 1263: 1261:Plum pox virus 1258: 1253: 1249: 1248: 1245: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1232: 1231: 1228: 1225: 1222: 1219: 1215: 1214: 1211: 1208: 1203: 1200: 1196: 1195: 1192: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1175: 1174: 1171: 1165: 1162: 1159: 1155: 1154: 1151: 1145: 1140: 1137: 1133: 1132: 1129: 1126: 1124:Potato virus Y 1121: 1116: 1112: 1111: 1108: 1099: 1093: 1088: 1084: 1083: 1080: 1077: 1075:Powdery mildew 1072: 1067: 1063: 1062: 1059: 1056: 1050: 1045: 1041: 1040: 1034: 1031: 1030:Bacterial spot 1028: 1023: 1019: 1018: 1015: 1012: 1009: 1006: 945: 942: 938:Rowland Biffen 931:transformation 895: 894: 891: 887: 884: 860: 857: 842: 839: 827: 824: 807: 804: 791:Ubiquitination 787: 784: 783: 782: 775: 772:Della proteins 765: 762: 747: 744: 740: 739: 734: 729: 727:Salicylic acid 719: 716: 703: 700: 680:salicylic acid 656: 653: 651: 648: 628:powdery mildew 619: 616: 589:Colletotrichum 535: 532: 514: 511: 477: 474: 458: 455: 435: 432: 423:immune systems 412:protein kinase 364: 361: 360: 359: 353: 339: 328: 309: 285: 282: 281: 280: 277: 271: 266: 261: 248:(for example: 240: 234: 218: 215: 213: 210: 173:P. striiformis 144:Panama disease 112: 109: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4882: 4871: 4868: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4858: 4857: 4855: 4846: 4843: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4781: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4754: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4728: 4726: 4725:9780470714218 4722: 4717: 4715: 4714:0-632-03046-1 4711: 4707: 4706: 4702: 4693: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4661: 4658: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4618: 4616: 4614: 4612: 4610: 4606: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4584: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4560: 4557: 4552: 4548: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4509: 4506: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4466: 4463: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4418: 4415: 4410: 4406: 4399: 4396: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4356: 4353: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4313: 4310: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4264: 4256: 4253: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4225:: 1542–1549. 4224: 4217: 4214: 4209: 4207:9780123741653 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4180: 4178: 4174: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4128: 4119: 4116: 4105: 4103: 4098: 4091: 4088: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4050: 4041: 4039: 4037: 4033: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3987: 3979: 3977: 3975: 3971: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3931: 3928: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3888: 3885: 3880: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3839: 3836: 3831: 3827: 3822: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3798: 3795: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3755: 3753: 3749: 3744: 3740: 3735: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3703: 3698: 3694: 3689: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3649: 3646: 3641: 3637: 3632: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3600: 3598: 3594: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3554: 3551: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3519: 3516: 3511: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3454: 3451: 3446: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3397: 3394: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3354: 3351: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3321: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3289: 3286: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3240: 3237: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3215: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3191: 3188: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3139: 3130: 3127: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3083: 3080: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3058: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3039: 3030: 3027: 3022: 3018: 3013: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2995: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2979:(4): e35765. 2978: 2974: 2970: 2968: 2959: 2956: 2951: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2905: 2896: 2893: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2871: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2847: 2844: 2839: 2838: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2814: 2810: 2805: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2787: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2763: 2760: 2755: 2751: 2746: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2706: 2703: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2655: 2652: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2590: 2587: 2582: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2549: 2547: 2543: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2502: 2500: 2496: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2464: 2462: 2458: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2412: 2404: 2401: 2396: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2355: 2352: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2312: 2310: 2308: 2304: 2299: 2295: 2290: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2272: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2239: 2236: 2231: 2227: 2222: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2190: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2140: 2137: 2132: 2128: 2123: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2091: 2089: 2087: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2059: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2031: 2029: 2027: 2025: 2023: 2019: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1986: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1969: 1963: 1960: 1955: 1949: 1945: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1930: 1925: 1921: 1916: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1876: 1874: 1872: 1870: 1868: 1866: 1864: 1862: 1860: 1858: 1856: 1854: 1852: 1850: 1848: 1846: 1842: 1836: 1832: 1829: 1827: 1824: 1822: 1819: 1817: 1814: 1812: 1809: 1807: 1804: 1803: 1799: 1797: 1790: 1788: 1786: 1780: 1776: 1774: 1770: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1753: 1749: 1742: 1734: 1732: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1713:messenger RNA 1710: 1709:RNA silencing 1703: 1701: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1658: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1640: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1621: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1592: 1587: 1586:pectate lyase 1583: 1574: 1572: 1570: 1566: 1561: 1556: 1553: 1549: 1546: 1538: 1536: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1521: 1516: 1513:. Similarly, 1512: 1508: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1482: 1477: 1473: 1472: 1467: 1463: 1462: 1457: 1452: 1449: 1448:gene transfer 1445: 1437: 1435: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1419: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1405: 1400: 1399: 1394: 1390: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1376: 1366: 1359: 1356: 1353: 1350: 1347: 1346: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1333: 1330: 1327: 1326: 1322: 1319: 1316: 1313: 1310: 1309: 1305: 1302: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1289: 1288: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1275: 1272: 1271: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1251: 1250: 1246: 1243: 1240: 1237: 1234: 1233: 1229: 1226: 1223: 1220: 1217: 1216: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1201: 1198: 1197: 1193: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1176: 1172: 1170: 1166: 1163: 1160: 1157: 1156: 1152: 1150: 1146: 1144: 1141: 1138: 1135: 1134: 1130: 1127: 1125: 1122: 1120: 1117: 1114: 1113: 1109: 1107: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1089: 1086: 1085: 1081: 1078: 1076: 1073: 1071: 1068: 1065: 1064: 1060: 1057: 1054: 1051: 1049: 1046: 1043: 1042: 1039: 1035: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1021: 1020: 1016: 1013: 1010: 1007: 1004: 1003: 997: 994: 990: 987: 983: 979: 974: 972: 968: 964: 960: 955: 951: 948:The term GM ( 943: 941: 939: 934: 932: 928: 927:biotechnology 924: 920: 915: 912: 908: 904: 900: 892: 888: 885: 882: 881: 880: 877: 874: 870: 869:crop rotation 866: 858: 856: 853: 849: 840: 838: 836: 834: 825: 823: 821: 816: 813: 805: 799: 795: 792: 785: 780: 776: 773: 769: 766: 763: 760: 757: 756: 755: 753: 745: 743: 738: 735: 733: 732:Jasmonic acid 730: 728: 725: 724: 723: 717: 715: 713: 709: 701: 699: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 674: 670: 666: 662: 654: 649: 647: 645: 641: 637: 634:Lr34 against 633: 629: 625: 617: 615: 613: 612: 607: 603: 600:, miRNAs and 599: 593: 591: 590: 585: 584: 579: 578: 575: 570: 569: 564: 563: 558: 557: 551: 550: 545: 541: 533: 531: 529: 523: 521: 512: 510: 507: 503: 499: 494: 491: 487: 483: 475: 473: 471: 468: 464: 456: 454: 452: 448: 444: 440: 433: 431: 427: 424: 419: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 396: 393: 390: 385: 383: 379: 374: 371: 363:Immune system 362: 357: 354: 352: 348: 344: 340: 337: 333: 329: 326: 322: 318: 317:peroxynitrite 314: 310: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 288: 287: 283: 278: 276: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 259: 255: 251: 247: 244: 243:Antimicrobial 241: 239: 235: 232: 231:Plant cuticle 229: 228: 223: 216: 211: 209: 207: 203: 202:crop rotation 197: 193: 191: 190:citrus canker 187: 183: 179: 175: 174: 169: 168: 163: 159: 155: 151: 150: 145: 141: 138: 135: 131: 130: 126: 122: 117: 110: 108: 106: 102: 97: 93: 92:antimicrobial 89: 84: 82: 77: 76: 71: 67: 63: 59: 52: 47: 41: 40:chestnut tree 37: 32: 19: 4784: 4778: 4735: 4731: 4674: 4670: 4660: 4627: 4623: 4573: 4569: 4559: 4522: 4518: 4508: 4475: 4471: 4465: 4432: 4428: 4417: 4408: 4404: 4398: 4365: 4361: 4355: 4322: 4318: 4312: 4267: 4261: 4255: 4222: 4216: 4189: 4185: 4131: 4125: 4118: 4107:. Retrieved 4100: 4090: 4053: 4047: 3990: 3984: 3943:(1): 10–18. 3940: 3936: 3930: 3897: 3893: 3887: 3852: 3848: 3838: 3811: 3807: 3797: 3764: 3760: 3727:(1): 13–28. 3724: 3720: 3662: 3658: 3648: 3613: 3609: 3563: 3559: 3553: 3528: 3524: 3518: 3467: 3463: 3453: 3410: 3406: 3396: 3363: 3359: 3353: 3302: 3298: 3288: 3253: 3249: 3239: 3207:(1): 85–92. 3204: 3200: 3190: 3147: 3143: 3137: 3129: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3082: 3047: 3043: 3037: 3029: 2976: 2972: 2966: 2958: 2913: 2909: 2903: 2895: 2860: 2856: 2846: 2836: 2834:, 2776: 2772: 2762: 2719: 2715: 2705: 2664: 2660: 2654: 2603: 2600:FEBS Letters 2599: 2589: 2562: 2558: 2512: 2508: 2473: 2469: 2415: 2409: 2403: 2368: 2364: 2354: 2321: 2317: 2253: 2249: 2238: 2203: 2199: 2153: 2149: 2139: 2104: 2100: 2040: 2036: 1996: 1992: 1962: 1943: 1889: 1885: 1794: 1781: 1777: 1766: 1751: 1747: 1744: 1707: 1697: 1693: 1685: 1682: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1641: 1636: 1628: 1624: 1622: 1617: 1609: 1605: 1604: 1599: 1595: 1589: 1581: 1578: 1568: 1564: 1559: 1557: 1551: 1542: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1504: 1500: 1498: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1479: 1475: 1469: 1465: 1459: 1455: 1453: 1441: 1432:Verticillium 1427: 1423: 1418:Verticillium 1416: 1408: 1402: 1396: 1386: 1379: 1373: 1370: 1367:PRR transfer 1168: 1038:field trials 995: 991: 975: 947: 935: 916: 898: 896: 878: 862: 848:annual crops 844: 837: 832: 829: 817: 809: 806:E3 signaling 789: 749: 741: 721: 708:Cytoskeleton 705: 663:production, 661:nitric oxide 658: 644:coadaptation 626:MLO against 621: 609: 594: 587: 581: 572: 566: 560: 554: 547: 546:(miRNAs) in 537: 524: 516: 495: 479: 460: 437: 428: 420: 410:changes, or 397: 394: 386: 375: 366: 327:or camalexin 321:phytoalexins 198: 194: 171: 165: 147: 127: 118: 114: 101:quantitative 100: 95: 88:immune cells 85: 80: 73: 65: 57: 56: 4791:: 291–319. 4630:: 349–379. 4274:: 535–558. 4192:: 319–367. 4138:: 303–322. 4060:: 565–589. 3997:: 253–277. 3566:: 121–127. 3366:: 242–254. 3038:Pinus taeda 2565:(1): 9–16. 2422:: 769–781. 2371:(4): 4–15. 1999:: 143–153. 1769:coevolution 1750:. 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