734:, which presented very similar arguments to Gimbutas, though much fewer. They were presented as counter-arguments to the Kurgan hypothesis, understood in a much more narrow sense than Gimbutas had elaborated. In his work, Mallory provides evidence to support the claim already found in a similar way in Gimbutas (for instance, pp. 357; on page 362, a section is called "The Coexistance of Kurgan Pastoralists and Cucuteni Agriculturalists"), that the Kurgan culture was existing side-by-side along with the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture for about two-thousand years. He, like Gimbutas, demonstrates how there were Kurgan settlements as far west into the Cucuteni-Trypillia region as Transylvania, and postulates that the two cultures would have intermingled:
793:, which created the worst and longest drought in Europe since the end of the last Ice Age. It also was the point when the region in north Africa that had been a land of forests and grassy plains was turned into the largest desert in the world. This must have had a tremendous effect on the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture, which relied entirely on subsistence farming to feed the enormous populations in their massive settlements. Without resources to feed their people, this culture would have most certainly collapsed, and there is much speculation among scholars that if this was not the most significant factor in this culture's demise, that it played an absolutely critical role in bringing it about.
711:, and the burgeoning Feminist Movement, who saw in these ancient Neolithic cultures a model of how human society could exist without war, and how women could be treated with equal status as men. Moreover, the other image of the warlike, patriarchal Indo-European invaders who brought death and destruction to a peaceful, egalitarian people resonated as well with the members of these movements, during a time when the U.S. was involved in an unpopular war in Vietnam. So strongly did these theories affect some people, that they provided much of the foundation for the creation of the Neopagan religious movement, that still views the writings of Gimbutas and Campbell with high regard.
740:
certainly suggests the creation of hybrid communities. By the middle of the fourth millennium B.C. we witness the transformation of Late
Tripolye groups into new cultural entities. Probably the most noted is the Usatovo culture which occupied the territory from the lower Dniester to the mouth of the Danube...In some aspects the culture retains traditional Tripolye styles of painted wares and figures. But, in addition, there also appears...a considerable series of daggers, along with axes, awls and rings, including rings made from silver which is a metal we would attribute to the Proto-Indo-Europeans.
185:
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as horseriding, authoritarian philosophy, hierarchical, a paternalistic social structure including patrilinearity, elite architectural structures, women and children with lower status, a religion around a sun-god instead of understanding nature as a basic fundamental gestalt, warfare, especially from a horse, which necessitated the same set of weapons adapted over time in order to keep being ahead in military effectiveness relative to their opponents: spear, axe, long knife, bow, and arrows.
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125:
219:. The Copper Age, also known as the Eneolithic and Chalcolithic periods, lasted in Europe from roughly 3500 to 1700 BC. However, it ended for this culture between 3000-2750 BC. There is no firm point in time when this happened, since it was done over a period of many years, as first one area and then another would become integrated into the new Bronze Age civilization. Because the Cucuteni-Trypillia society was almost entirely
223:(with no ruling elite), there was no dramatic change of government for the whole region, as is the case when modern nations go to war and are defeated. The Cucuteni-Trypillia settlements existed independently from each other, so each experienced its own separate fate as the end of their culture swept over them, making the transition to the Bronze Age a complex and gradual process, rather than as a result of a single event.
800:"The transition to today's arid climate was not gradual, but occurred in two specific episodes. The first, which was less severe, occurred between 6,700 and 5,500 years ago. The second, which was brutal, lasted from 4,000 to 3,600 years ago. Summer temperatures increased sharply, and precipitation decreased, according to carbon-14 dating. This event devastated ancient civilizations and their socio-economic systems."
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263:. As Soviet scholars began publishing their findings and analyses from these excavations, a new model began to emerge among some members of the international academic community that revised the way that scholars had perceived how the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture ended, among other things. This new model inspired the creation of two theories that came to be known as the
231:. Because the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture was so robust, it continued to spread into new regions as new settlements were built to accommodate the increasing population. This was especially the case in the latter period of its existence, when Cucuteni-Trypillia settlements began to pop up across the unsettled region of what is today western Ukraine.
707:"primitive", wild, half-starved savages. These theories were more fully developed during the cultural upheavals of the 1960s, and were received with tremendous support by many people, especially by many of the younger college students who were exposed to them. Additionally, the theories were greatly acclaimed by supporters of the
397:(also known as the Pit grave culture), which was the society that Gimbutas suggested was the most likely candidate for being the Proto-Indo-European group that was active in the first wave of the Kurgan conquests of Old European cultures. Here, then, are the basic details about these two cultures, according to Gimbutas:
773:
Beginning in 1975, with V. Danilenko and M. Shmaglij, scholars began to write about the
Eneolithic as a time of "violation of equilibrium between society and the ambient environment." Ecological deterioration was beginning to accrue after millennia of farming and deforestation took their toll, making
769:
The sudden disappearance of the gigantic
Cucuteni-Trypillia settlements is seen as a switch from an extensive agricultural and mixed economy to one placing more emphasis on herding the livestock, particularly cattle. Although this coincided neatly with Gimbutas' theory of a complete cultural conquest
752:
These Kurgan tribes and others, like the German tribes invading Roman territory much later, were - as
Mallory points out - different in some aspects and dimensions of their basic cultural gestalts. The Kurgan tribes - as Gimbutas had empirically shown, see above - shared basic cultural features, such
607:
Superior work in copper metalworking than the
Cucuteni-Trypillia during the Eneolithic. Later, the Yamna worked in brass, and some of their brass artifacts have been found in Cucuteni-Trypillia sites. The Yamna also used domestic horses for travel, which the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture most likely did
714:
Throughout the next few decades, the Kurgan hypothesis was the dominant theory on the subject of the end of the
Cucuteni-Trypillia culture (among other related subjects of this period). Although today there are many who have challenged the Kurgan hypothesis, it still stands as a critically important
616:
Almost no artifacts have been found that would have been meant for defense against a human enemy. No skeletal remains have been found that would indicate the person had been killed with a weapon. Only at the end of their culture did they begin to build walls and ditches around their settlements, yet
226:
Although there were many other
Neolithic and Eneolithic cultures in eastern Europe during this time, the Cucuteni-Trypillia was probably the most advanced and influential, due to its robust settlements, highly refined ceramic art, and location. This culture was situated astride the natural "highway"
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Ethnographic evidence suggests a very fluid boundary between mobile and settled communities, and it is entirely probable that some pastoralists may have settled permanently whilst
Tripoleans may have become integrated into the more mobile steppe communities. The resultant archaeological evidence
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Taken together, the Kurgan hypothesis and the Old
European culture theories presented a compelling story that directly went against the prevalent image of prehistoric cultures (especially cultures that existed outside of the traditional "Cradle of Civilization" in the Fertile Crescent) as
669:
Starting around 4500 BC, Cucuteni-Trypillia settlements began to appear in western
Ukraine, where they encountered Yamna tribes. Some scholars hold that this is partly the cause for the creation of very large settlements in this region, to aid in defense against Yamna raids.
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into modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, and eastern Hungary. This matched the archaeological evidence that showed that the Cucuteni-Trypillia settlements (some of which were the largest in the world at the time), were all abandoned by 2750 BC, marking the end of the culture.
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Another important factor was that the late period of the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture witnessed a very dramatic shift in world climate. For the entire duration of this culture's history, the earth had been going through what paleoclimatologists have called the
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The Yamna perfected military weapons, rode domesticated horses, and probably conducted raids against other peoples regularly. Many weapons have been found in their grave sites. In addition, they also constructed hill-top fortresses, similar to the Medieval
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by the Kurgan culture, which was pastoral, over the Cucuteni-Trypillia, which was agricultural, there may be another explanation for it based on what happened to the climate and environment towards the end of the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture's existence.
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The process of Indo-Europeanization was a cultural, not a physical, transformation. It must be understood as a military victory in terms of successfully imposing a new administrative system, language, and religion upon the indigenous
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theory that anyone interested in this historical period must confront. The theory's basic elements still offer substantial insights for students of history, regardless of how strongly they ultimately agree with its conclusions.
749:(which existed from 3500 to 3000 BC) thus provides very substantial evidence to support Gimbutas' and Mallory's claim of a gradual transformation from Cucuteni-Trypillia to different Kurgan cultures, such as Yamna or Usatovo.
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between Central Asia and Europe, which may have directly contributed to its demise as other cultures from the east moved into this region following the route across the grassy plains that lie to the north and northwest of the
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Due partly to the fact that this took place before the written record of this region began, there have been a number of theories presented over the years to fill the gap of knowledge about how and why the end of the
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Very rudimentary trade network involving only a handful of goods, the most important of which was salt. No indication of traders or merchants as a profession. Some evidence does indicate the possible use of
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An extensive trade network spanning a large region from central and southeast Europe to modern-day Kazakhstan and Russia, involving many trade goods, and indication of a class of merchants and traders.
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of present-day Europeans. Although highly controversial, Cavalli-Sforza's work was undeniably groundbreaking and genuinely innovative, and lay the foundation for the subsequent science of human genetic
786:, which lasted from 7000 to 3200 BC. During this time, the earth was both warmer and wetter than it has been at any time since the end of the last Ice Age, making conditions optimal for growing crops.
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happened. These theories include invasions from various groups of people, a gradual cultural shift as more advanced societies settled in their region, and environmental collapse.
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To illustrate these two theories, the table below juxtaposes the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture, which Gimbutas included as one of the Old European culture societies, against the
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Also beginning around 4500 BC, the Yamna culture began to establish settlements as far west as Transylvania, which existed side-by-side with Cucuteni-Trypillia settlements.
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Gimbutas pointed out how the extinction of the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture coincided with the 3rd Wave of Kurgan expansion, c. 3000–2800 BC, which saw the Kurgans move
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366:. He attempted (among other things) to substantiate Gimbutas' claim of an Indo-European conquest of the indigenous Neolithic European peoples by comparing
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Superior work in agricultural techniques, as well as in ceramics, compared to the Yamna. Cucuteni-Trypillia ceramics have been found in Yamna sites.
88:
1484:
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superimposed on modern state and provincial borders; following Igor Manzura, “Steps to the Steppe: Or, How the North Pontic Region was Colonized,”
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There is evidence to indicate that they probably participated in ritual human sacrifice of captured enemies. They worshipped a warlike male deity.
320:. Campbell and Gimbutas worked together in formulating these theories; both of their personal collections of books and papers are today housed in
306:(androcratic) and warlike, invaded southeast Europe from the eastern steppes, and brought destruction to the formerly peaceful European societies.
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Todorova, Henrietta (1995). Bailey, Douglass W.; Panayotov, Ivan (eds.). "The Neolithic, Eneolithic, and Transitional in Bulgarian prehistory".
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535:
389:, linking it with Gimbutas' theories of Indo-European conquest to explain how this family of languages was dispersed throughout Europe.
1286:(1982). "Old Europe in the Fifth Millenium B.C.: The European Situation on the Arrival of Indo-Europeans". In Polomé, Edgar C. (ed.).
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what had once been a land that was bursting with abundance and fertile soil into a relative desert of overworked soil, similar to the
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The archaeological record indicates the worship of a female fertility goddess. There is also evidence to indicate that they used clay
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Gimbutas believed that the expansion of the Kurgan culture was conducted as a series of hostile, military conquests. Gimbutas wrote:
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106:
49:
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However, beginning around 3200 BC, the Earth's climate began to become significantly more arid and cool. This resulted in the
73:
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Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Edwards, Anthony William Fairbank (1965). Geerts, Sipke J (ed.). "Analysis of human evolution".
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The prehistory of eastern Europe, pt. 1: Mesolithic, neolithic and copper age cultures in Russia and the Baltic area
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to describe the indigenous Neolithic European peoples. According to Gimbutas, these people were peaceful and
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The horse, the wheel, and language: how Bronze Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world
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954:. Proceedings of the XI International Congress of Genetics, The Hague, The Netherlands, September, 1963.
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904:. Bulletin (American School of Prehistoric Research). Vol. 20. Cambridge, Mass.: Peabody Museum.
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In the larger perspective, the end of the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture marked the boundary between the
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An amalgam of Eneolithic Proto-Indo-European tribes from the southern region of the great
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Map showing the approximate maximal extent of the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture (all periods)
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The gods and goddesses of old Europe, 7000 to 3500 BC: myths, legends and cult images
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The French Government's Ministry of Culture's page on Cucuteni Culture (in English).
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1231:. Monographs in world archaeology (22). Madison, WI: Prehistoric Press: 79–98.
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1070:[Neo-plastic representations of Neolithic "Dance ritual" of Moldova].
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In the 1950s, as a result of the cultural renaissance that was part of the
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988:"Archeological transformations: crossing the pastoral/agricultural bridge"
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and western Ukraine; all of which were Neolithic and non-Indo-European.
298:). She then proposed that the Bronze Age Proto-Indo-Europeans (from the
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Trypillya Culture proto-cities: history of discovery and investigations
1068:""Dansul ritual" în reprezentările plastice neo eneolitice din Moldova"
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who began in the 1950s to recover a sense of historical depth to the
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The Romanian Dacian Museum page on Cucuteni Culture (in English).
455:, mostly along river valleys, including (from west to east) the
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In search of the Indo-Europeans: language, archaeology and myth
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in various ritualistic purposes, ranging from fertility to
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Studii și Cercetări de Istorie Veche și Arheologie (SCIVA)
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The Civilization of the Goddess. The World of Old Europe
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for protection against evil spirits or human enemies.
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The Indo-Europeans in the Fourth and Third Millennia
1154:(first ed.). New York: HarperCollins. pp.
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Comparison of Cucuteni-Trypillia and Yamna cultures
278:(January 23, 1921 – February 2, 1994): a Lithuanian
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958:(Symposia 14–25). Oxford: Pergamon Press: 923–933.
432:), and the Musical note culture (also known as the
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235:The Old European culture and the Kurgan hypothesis
342:(January 25, 1922 – August 31, 2018): an Italian
312:(March 26, 1904 – October 31, 1987): an American
1026:"The Cucutenian Communities in the Bahlui Basin"
778:of the American Great Plains during the 1930s.
322:The Joseph Campbell and Marija Gimbutas Library
900:Gimbutas, Marija (1956). Hencken, Hugh (ed.).
796:According to The American Geographical Union:
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1206:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
8:
1118:, London: Thames & Hudson, p. 303,
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568:Many specialized occupations, including
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350:Cavalli-Sforza used the different human
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87:Relevant discussion may be found on the
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617:still no weapons have been found.
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1078:(2). Bucharest: Academia Română,
1024:Boghian, Dumitru (7 April 2008).
823:XXIv.4 (2005), pp. 313–338.
330:OPUS Archives and Research Center
31:This article has multiple issues.
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1290:. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers.
1066:Marinescu-Bîlcu, Silvia (1974).
284:The prehistory of eastern Europe
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998:. Leiden: E.J. Brill: 151–190.
732:In Search of the Indo-Europeans
39:or discuss these issues on the
657:as an early form of exchange.
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1030:Eneoliticul est-carpatic blog
868:. London: Thames and Hudson.
820:Oxford Journal of Archaeology
601:Technological Sophistication
434:Middle Linear Pottery culture
286:. Gimbutas coined the phrase
387:Proto-Indo-European language
316:and author of the 1959 book
282:and author of the 1956 book
1110:Gimbutas, Marija Alseikaitė
723:In 1989 the Irish-American
719:Gradual assimilation theory
666:Encounters with each other
563:occupational specialization
409:Cucuteni-Trypillia culture
362:through the application of
348:Analysis of human evolution
334:Pacifica Graduate Institute
136:to comply with Knowledge's
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1485:Cucuteni–Trypillia culture
1355:Cucuteni–Trypillia culture
1202:Anthony, David W. (2007).
1179:Videiko, Mykhailo (2002).
931:. New York: Viking Press.
424:, with some traces of the
358:dispersion and historical
346:and author of the article
249:archaeological excavations
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1146:Gimbutas, Marija (1991).
923:Campbell, Joseph (1959).
860:Mallory, James P (1989).
784:Holocene climatic optimum
340:Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza
324:on the Lambert campus in
1429:Old Europe (archaeology)
986:Khol, Philip L. (2002).
302:), who she claimed were
149:may contain suggestions.
134:may need to be rewritten
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536:Generalized reciprocity
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444:region of southeastern
326:Carpinteria, California
314:comparative mythologist
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201:End of the Copper Age
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74:synthesis of material
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1183:. pp. 103–125.
288:Old European culture
265:Old European culture
1454:Sredny Stog culture
1424:Chalcolithic Europe
1384:Religion and ritual
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1254:"The primal wound"
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84:to the main topic.
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1369:Settlements
1277:Works cited
1036:22 February
1009:21 November
582:metalsmiths
513:Egalitarian
492:Sedentistic
477:West Manych
406:Comparison
368:blood types
352:blood types
304:patriarchal
221:egalitarian
805:References
608:not have.
547:featuring
373:haplogroup
217:Bronze Age
213:Copper Age
155:March 2014
97:March 2014
36:improve it
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776:Dust Bowl
765:Stone axe
630:Religion
552:bartering
383:linguists
375:research.
296:matristic
229:Black Sea
147:talk page
89:talk page
42:talk page
1479:Category
1189:52587844
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635:fetishes
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574:warriors
522:chiefdom
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483:rivers.
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430:Anatolia
417:Origins
364:genetics
267:and the
215:and the
1389:Economy
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1292:ISBN
1266:2010
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1084:ISSN
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