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meant) had mostly faded away in the fourth century and that institutionalized
Christianity expanded considerably in that century, while at the same time allowing for Frankfurter's point that the process was much more dynamic and much could continue on a local level beyond that century, such as local religious practices or rituals. In other words, Christianity may be organized to a large extent in the fourth century but it took more time before the new religion was fully integrated into society.
1771:
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24:
1757:, did not have a significant impact either genetically or culturally, and state support of Egyptian religion rendered it essentially stable throughout the country's ancient history. Specific towns and areas of Egypt usually placed varying emphasis on different gods, and most temples were dedicated to a specific god. The religion played a critical role in the life of every Egyptian.
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demolished, all sacred books burned, and all
Christians who were not officials made slaves. The decree was carried out for three years, a period known as the "Era of Martyrs". The lives of many Egyptian Christians were spared only because more workers were needed in the porphyry quarries and emerald mines that were worked by Egyptian Christians as "convict labour".
1869:
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destruction altogether, can be attributed to the priests, bishops, and monks who rampaged through the countryside, intent on "eradicating demons". A fiat of AD 423 prescribed penalties to
Christians who disturbed the homes (including the shrines) of pagans who were "living quietly" and not breaking the law.
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was incisive, especially in unstable regions, and especially so in Egypt. Though undoubtedly effective to check the civil authority of the cults, local village and town based practices seem to have been mostly unaffected by these edicts themselves. Rather, the erosion of native religion, and eventual
2019:
viewed
Christianity as disrupting traditional Roman religion (and thus a greater threat to the solidarity of the empire), so he initiated a severe persecution of Christianity to attempt to curb its growth in the empire. Though this was not the first edict by an emperor against Christianity to affect
2162:
or even an emperor as seen with
Augustus and other first-century emperors who conserved religious infrastructure in the country, Egyptian religion became more and more localised. Religious leaders gradually lost their authority, a probable factor in the conversions to Christianity contemporaneously
2157:
This degeneration of pagan temples for the final time (as opposed to previously, when religious infrastructure would still be repaired or replaced by the pharaonic, Ptolemaic, or early Roman rulers) represents the main cause for the fragmentation of native
Egyptian religion in its later forms. Long
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To describe the process of religious transformation in Late
Antique Egypt, it, therefore, seems best to follow Bagnall in his ideas that ancient Egyptian religion as an institution (with which temple cults, rituals, festivals and sacred scripts in regular use and an organized priesthood are thus
2053:
Native
Egyptian religion had at least a somewhat substantial effect on Graeco-Roman polytheism; in Egypt itself however, native religion likely felt little other effects from the new pagan rulers, until the advent of Christianity. Although Augustus built new temples and repaired existing ones in
2607:
The
Egyptian church was particularly affected by the Roman persecutions, beginning with Septimius Severus's edict of 202 dissolving the influential Christian School of Alexandria and forbidding future conversions to Christianity. In 303 Emperor Diocletian issued a decree ordering all churches
1809:
describes the
Persian rule of Egypt as tyrannical and oppressive, and this is partly supported by the conscription of Egyptians into the Persian army and some slavery by the Persian upper classes, religious practices specifically did not suffer. Egyptian admiral Wedjahor-Resne, serving under
2134:
Instead, it is more appropriate to trace the decline of native religion to the state of its infrastructure. Where Augustus and other emperors of the first and early second centuries AD built in Egypt, and their benevolence is attested to at temples throughout the country, the
2244:, however, the effects of Egyptian religion are clear on other religions. The Greeks and Romans both regarded Egypt as exotic and mystic, and this fascination with the country and its religion led somewhat to its diffusion around the Mediterranean. Deities like Isis and
2045:. Overall, however, the persecutions of Christianity were not successful anywhere in the Empire in ceasing its growth. Traditional religion was already beginning to suffer, even more so in Egypt, where Alexandria was an established and bustling centre for Christianity.
2125:
Though imperial edicts fostered a negative atmosphere towards the pagans, they did not ultimately have a large effect on the disappearance of native religion by themselves. Provincial governors often found that enforcing "anti-pagan" edicts such as those of
2143:
The end of any vital existence for most village temples stripped away the literate and respected leadership class the priesthood had long provided and no doubt eliminated to a large degree the ritual occasions that lent the village a sense of itself as a
1937:
as patrons of their rule. In the second and third centuries AD, Isis and Serapis were worshipped in the majority of towns in even the western half of the empire, although they probably did not pervade the countryside. Temples to them exist from
2109:
in the west. This century also saw significant expansion of institutionalised Christianity into Egypt, but adherence to the old religion on a smaller, more local scale was still prevalent. Philae is also the site of the final
1849:. Nectanebo, though perhaps one of the more competent Egyptian kings of the Late Period, was ultimately unable to undo the centuries-long decline of the civilisation. Egypt would be conquered again by the Persians under
1986:
AD 42. A considerable number of Jews resided in Egypt, and Alexandria specifically, with their residence in the country predating the first Christians by perhaps as long as 600 years. Scholars believe that downward
2343:
During the Late Period, the re-emergence of a centralized royal tradition that interacted with the relatively decentralized network inherited from the Third Intermediate Period created a rich artistic atmosphere.
2032:
would be the most severe. In AD 303, Diocletian ordered all churches destroyed, sacred books burned, and enslaved all Christians who were not officials. This decree was in effect for three years, leading to the
1841:), improved on this legacy and further established the dynasty as a time during which Egyptian culture thrived. The latter Nectanebo was thoroughly involved with religion and was quite enthusiastic about the
2054:
Egypt, Roman religious involvement in the province appears to have peaked here. Later emperors may have done the same on a much smaller scale, but it is evident by the complete lack of involvement after the
2105:
believed to be one of the final remaining places of worship of native Egyptian religion. By this time, Egyptian religion was largely confined to the south of the country and to the distant, isolated
2217:
Perhaps the most influential and recognisable legacies of Egyptian religion are the monuments erected in honour of it throughout Egyptian history. Temples, statues, the world-famous
1810:
Cambyses, records in his autobiography that Cambyses respected tradition and observance of religious customs in Egypt. When Cambyses placed a garrison of troops nearby the Temple of
1753:. For a period of nearly three millennia, Egypt largely assimilated any conquerors or invaders from outside of the country who entered. Rulers who came from outside, such as the
41:
3186:
Tiradritti, Francesco (2005). "The Return of Isis in Egypt: Remarks on Some Statues of Isis and the Diffusion of Her Cult in the Graeco-Roman World". In Hoffmann, Adolf (ed.).
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1966:) of native Egyptian gods so that they were more palatable to converts. The form that Isis took among Greeks and Romans combined her Egyptian traits with Graeco-Roman ideas.
1660:
2081:
that contributed even more to the erosion of traditional religion. In AD 333, the number of Egyptian bishops is estimated to be just under 100; the Christianisation of the
1991:
of Jews in Roman Egypt made them more receptive to Christianity. In any case, Alexandrian Christianity began to grow rapidly starting from its very establishment. Under
3169:
Nile into Tiber: Egypt in the Roman World. Proceedings of the IIIrd International Conference of Isis Studies, Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, May 11–14 2005
3167:
Sfameni Gasparro, Giulia (2007). "The Hellenistic Face of Isis: Cosmic and Saviour Goddess". In Bricault, Laurent; Versluys, Miguel John; Meyboom, Paul G. P. (eds.).
1829:, the founder of this dynasty, became an accomplished builder, he worked on temples across the country and is responsible for initiating construction at the site of
2845:
2865:
Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Teil II: Principat. Band 18: Religion. 5. Teilband: Heidentum: Die religiösen Verhältnisse in den Provinzen (Forts.)
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in AD 1953, over two millennia later, the end of native hegemony over Egypt can in no way be considered the end of ancient Egyptian culture in the country.
2122:, who ruled from 527 to 565. As official temples fell into disrepair, and religious structures across Egypt declined, the religion gradually faded away.
1975:
2139:
exhibits much less imperial activity in the region and religion. Temples during this era entered "a state of progressive ruin", falling into disrepair.
1793:), apparently consisted of somewhat of a renewal of Egyptian culture, nationalism, and religion. Though Egypt experienced two separate invasions by the
2521:
1958:. In this way, Egyptian religion diffused into that of the Romans and enjoyed a wide range of worship all over the Mediterranean. Despite this, this
88:
1653:
60:
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Interest in Egyptian religion has led to attempted renewings of the religion. The contemporary revival of ancient Egyptian religion is known as
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lived much of their lives, and native Egyptian religion may have put up little resistance to the permeation of Christianity into the province.
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1995:, a bishop from AD 189 to 231, Christianity spread through Egypt up the Nile and increased its influence in the larger Church. Up until the
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Philo claims that "no less than a million Jews" lived in Egypt, most of them in Alexandria, especially in the two quarters mentioned above.
202:
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3188:Ägyptische Kulte und ihre Heiligtümer im Osten des Römischen Reiches. Internationales Kolloquium 5./6. September 2003 in Bergama (Türkei)
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of the latter was in stark opposition to the freeform syncretism of paganism. Local Christians engaged in campaigns of proselytism and
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that Egyptian religion began to fragment and localise in the wake of the loss of centralisation as in Pharaonic and Ptolemaic Egypt.
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By the fourth century AD, the old ways were largely concentrated in the south of Egypt and the remote Western Desert oasis of Siwa.
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nine years later in 332 BC. Although the deposition of Nectanebo II in 343 BC represents the end of Egyptian autonomy until the
2561:
1617:
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220:
165:
2093:(regarded by some as a symbol of the decline of the religion itself due to their close ties) dates from AD 394, known as the
1992:
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45:
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2230:
2226:
1782:
1726:
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2041:, but many Egyptian Christians survived the persecution because they were instead sent to work in quarries and mines, as
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made their way across the Mediterranean and the Near East, and the recherché view of Egypt sparked some Greek and Roman
1786:
3008:
De Memphis à Rome: Actes du Ier Colloque international sur les études isiaques, Poitiers – Futuroscope, 8–10 avril 1999
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Still, at the end of the 5th century, the Neo-Platonist philosopher Heraescus, possibly the uncle and father-in-law of
2136:
1818:, Wedjahor-Resne convinced the king to move them, as their presence may have been viewed as sacrilegious by the gods.
1531:
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by Christian emperors in the third and fourth centuries AD compounded the decline, and the last known inscription in
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1822:
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2328:"Egypt in the Late Period (ca. 712–332 B.C.) - Heilbronn Timeline of Art History - The Metropolitan Museum of Art"
81:
34:
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2191:
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1825:, the last native rulers of Egypt for over 2,000 years, enabled Egyptian culture, religion, and art to flourish.
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1694:
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than any other stage, especially grammatically), enduring for over a millennium before its relegation to a
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Philae and the End of Ancient Egyptian Religion: A Regional Study of Religious Transformation (298-642 CE)
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Philae and the End of Ancient Egyptian Religion: A Regional Study of Religious Transformation (298-642 CE)
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2055:
1346:
1232:
1149:
399:
1929:, Egyptian deities nevertheless gradually became normalised in Roman religion and were considered by the
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1738:
1697:. Although religious practices within Egypt stayed relatively constant despite contact with the greater
3318:
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2222:
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1996:
1636:
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accepted the influence and integration of native Egyptian deities and practices into its tradition,
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1979:
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From Temple to Church: Destruction and Renewal of Local Cultic Topography in Late Antiquity
2233:, and the integration and adaptation of religious motifs from Egypt into Western art after
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a crucial insight into the phonology of the Egyptian language, partly because it is not an
2962:
2225:, and other creations were heavily influenced by religion. In turn, the distinct style of
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2004:
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1934:
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973:
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234:
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1789:. This era, lasting from 664 BC to 332 BC (the deposition of the final native pharaoh,
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1710:
1706:
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respected Egyptian culture and religion and made no attempts to suppress it. Though
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1790:
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1421:
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1401:
1381:
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792:
730:
464:
389:
1837:(who succeeded him after leading a military coup against the designated successor
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2119:
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1943:
1918:
1889:, which led to a large degree of syncretism rather than opposition. The cult of
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of the gods, and art under his reign left a distinctive mark on the art of the
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1685:. Historical Christianity's strict monotheistic teachings did not allow the
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1717:, Christianity directly competed with the native religion. Even before the
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being a notable tradition which arose from the reticent magical wisdom of
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2267:. It arose along with other neopagan religious movements in the 1970s.
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2636:(3rd Revised ed.). London, UK: Thames & Hudson. p. 14.
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1951:
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2867:(in German). Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. p. 2947.
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in 664 BC is traditionally considered to mark the beginning of the
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2207:
2114:
inscription, dating to AD 452. The temple was closed in AD 553 by
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1868:
1811:
1769:
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where numerous influential Christian writers of antiquity such as
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17:
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Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku; Gates (Jr.), Henry Louis (2012).
2832:
Alexandria in Late Antiquity: Topography and Social Conflict
2786:
2784:
2771:
2769:
2767:
2765:
1749:
Egyptian religion during the Pharaonic era had its roots in
2357:"Late Period of Ancient Egypt - World History Encyclopedia"
1017:
2591:"Egypt - Egypt under Rome and Byzantium, 30 B.C.-A.D. 640"
1881:, though they were added in a 17th-century reconstruction.
2571:. Tertiary Education and Research Network of South Africa
3130:. Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press.
2961:
Bommas, Martin (2012). "Isis, Osiris, and Serapis". In
2666:(podcast). BBC History Magazine. Event occurs at 53:46
2443:
Bricault, Laurent, "Études isiaques: perspectives", in
2097:. It is located at the temple of Isis on the island of
2806:
Dictionary of African Biography. Volume 1: Abach–Brand
1974:
The largest and oldest Christian church in Egypt, the
1925:(another prominent god in Ptolemaic Egypt) within the
2385:
The twilight of ancient Egypt: first millennium B.C.E
2190:
of the country and remained fundamentally similar to
3104:
Religion in Roman Egypt: Assimilation and Resistance
2531:. Austin Graduate School of Theology. Archived from
2178:
One of the final bastions of Egyptian religion, the
262:
1921:and annexing Egypt, disallowed statues to Isis and
1885:Egyptian religion initially came into contact with
319:
266:
48:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3123:
3084:The Cult of Isis in the Roman Empire: Isis Invicta
2989:Initiation into the Mysteries of the Ancient World
2210:and thus records vowels, unlike hieroglyphics and
3282:The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: 1st Millennium B.C
3142:The Secret Lore of Egypt: Its Impact on the West.
3126:The Secret Lore of Egypt: Its Impact on the West
2926:"Kemetism_Ancient Religions in our Modern World"
2480:
2229:has reached the modern day through styles like
2158:since missing the central authority given by a
2141:
1721:in AD 313, which legalised Christianity in the
3150:Foreign Cults in Rome: Creating a Roman Empire
2499:. American Univ in Cairo Press. pp. 28–.
2202:by the 16th century. Coptic would give later
2028:and forbade conversion to Christianity), the
1893:spread first to the Hellenistic world in the
1873:Distinctively Roman statue of Isis holding a
1654:
8:
3258:Lavan, Luke; Mulryan, Michael, eds. (2011).
2632:Aldred, Cyril (1998) . Dodson, Aidan (ed.).
1962:almost certainly involved the modification (
2790:
2775:
2756:
2326:Allen, James; Hill, Marsha (October 2004).
3260:The Archaeology of Late Antique 'Paganism'
2844:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2809:. New York City: Oxford University Press.
2407:
1976:Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria
1693:and other polytheistic religions, such as
1661:
1647:
263:
121:
3027:Atlas de la diffusion des cultes isiaques
2496:Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity
2387:. Cornell University Press. p. 173.
108:Learn how and when to remove this message
3284:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
2493:Otto Friedrich August Meinardus (2002).
2456:
2444:
2431:
2073:was not nearly as accepting. The strict
2911:
2899:
2887:
2318:
2170:, was buried according to pagan rites.
1677:is largely attributed to the spread of
133:
2924:Daugherty, Michelle (2 October 2014).
2837:
2597:. U.S. Department of the Army. 1986–98
2468:
1999:in AD 451, Alexandria was on par with
57:"Decline of ancient Egyptian religion"
2861:"Religion im römerzeitlichen Ägypten"
2619:
2419:
1865:Syncretism with Graeco-Roman religion
7:
2562:"Early Christianity in North Africa"
1675:decline of ancient Egyptian religion
46:adding citations to reliable sources
3046:Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt
3029:(in French). Diffusion de Boccard.
2560:Sawyer, Kenneth; Youssef, Youhana.
2355:Mark, Joshua J. (12 October 2016).
2037:dating system later created by the
2967:The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt
2687:"Egypt: The End of a Civilisation"
2685:Dodson, Aidan (17 February 2011).
2293:Decline of Graeco-Roman polytheism
2007:as an influential Christian city.
14:
2026:Catechetical School of Alexandria
2024:in AD 202, when he dissolved the
1777:, the founder of the 30th Dynasty
3171:(in French and English). Brill.
3010:(in French and English). Brill.
2522:"Earliest Christianity in Egypt"
2277:
1630:
144:
22:
3239:; Gotter, Ulrich, eds. (2008).
3082:Donalson, Malcolm Drew (2003).
3006:Bricault, Laurent, ed. (2000).
2192:the language of Pharaonic Egypt
1618:Church of the Most High Goddess
33:needs additional citations for
3220:. Princeton University Press.
3107:. Princeton University Press.
2332:The Metropolitan Museum of Art
1:
2830:Haas, Christopher J. (1997).
2231:Egyptian Revival architecture
2227:ancient Egyptian architecture
1983:
1783:Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt
3314:Religion in the Roman Empire
2660:The amazing history of Egypt
2235:Napoleon's campaign in Egypt
2152:, in Frankfurter 1998, p. 28
2049:Decline of paganism in Egypt
1727:early centre of Christianity
3152:. Oxford University Press.
3101:Frankfurter, David (1998).
2969:. Oxford University Press.
2434:, pp. 138–139, 159–162
2137:Crisis of the Third Century
3335:
3086:. The Edwin Mellen Press.
3025:Bricault, Laurent (2001).
2362:World History Encyclopedia
2194:(although more similar to
1978:, credits its founding to
1823:Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
3309:Ancient Egyptian religion
2931:Michigan State University
2834:. Baltimore. p. 129.
2383:Myśliwiec, Karol (2000).
2303:Christianity and paganism
1970:Christianity enters Egypt
1797:, Persian rulers such as
1781:The establishment of the
1691:ancient Egyptian religion
377:
3063:Dijkstra, Jitse (2008).
2859:Haase, Wolfgang (1995).
2715:Dijkstra, Jitse (2008).
2030:Diocletianic Persecution
2011:Diocletianic Persecution
1637:Ancient Egypt portal
3218:Egypt in Late Antiquity
3148:Orlin, Eric M. (2010).
3044:David, Rosalie (2002).
2719:. Peeters. p. 22.
2657:Joann Fletcher (2016).
2095:Graffito of Esmet-Akhom
1960:intercultural diffusion
1897:after the conquests of
1887:Graeco-Roman polytheism
3122:Hornung, Erik (2001).
2155:
2056:Nerva-Antonine dynasty
1882:
1778:
1150:Souls of Pe and Nekhen
400:Amenhotep, son of Hapu
2991:. Walter de Gruyter.
2934:. USA. Archived from
2481:Sfameni Gasparro 2007
2298:Christianity in Egypt
1872:
1773:
1739:Clement of Alexandria
2538:on 18 September 2017
2285:Ancient Egypt portal
2223:Great Sphinx of Giza
2039:Church of Alexandria
1997:Council of Chalcedon
1787:Egyptian Late Period
42:improve this article
2938:on 28 February 2018
2520:Pearson, Birger A.
2200:liturgical language
1980:Mark the Evangelist
1899:Alexander the Great
1855:Alexander the Great
1853:in 343 BC, then by
1701:, such as with the
1699:Mediterranean world
1310:Symbols and objects
1297:The Indestructibles
1187:Hermes Trismegistus
2914:, pp. 140–141
2622:, pp. 325–28.
2471:, pp. 431–432
2459:, pp. 174–179
2067:Graeco-Roman world
2020:Egypt (that being
1913:, after defeating
1883:
1779:
1725:, Egypt became an
1695:that of the Romans
1559:Books of Breathing
593:Four sons of Horus
3269:978-0-7546-3603-8
3250:978-90-04-13141-5
3227:978-0-691-06986-9
3214:Bagnall, Roger S.
3197:978-1-55540-549-6
3190:. Ege Yayınları.
3178:978-90-04-15420-9
3159:978-0-19-973155-8
3093:978-0-7734-6894-8
3036:978-2-87754-123-7
3017:978-90-04-11736-5
2998:978-3-11-029955-7
2976:978-0-19-957145-1
2874:978-3-11-087572-0
2816:978-0-19-538207-5
2759:, pp. 23–30.
2506:978-977-424-757-6
2022:Septimius Severus
1859:Republic of Egypt
1847:Ptolemaic Kingdom
1795:Achaemenid Empire
1671:
1670:
1614:Kemetic Orthodoxy
1589:Related religions
1571:Book of the Earth
1261:
1260:
118:
117:
110:
92:
3326:
3295:
3278:Myśliwiec, Karol
3273:
3254:
3235:Hahn, Johannes;
3231:
3201:
3182:
3163:
3144:
3129:
3118:
3097:
3078:
3059:
3040:
3021:
3002:
2980:
2963:Riggs, Christina
2948:
2947:
2945:
2943:
2921:
2915:
2909:
2903:
2902:, pp. 19–25
2897:
2891:
2885:
2879:
2878:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2843:
2835:
2827:
2821:
2820:
2800:
2794:
2791:Frankfurter 1998
2788:
2779:
2776:Frankfurter 1998
2773:
2760:
2757:Frankfurter 1998
2754:
2748:
2741:
2735:
2734:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2700:
2698:
2682:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2671:
2665:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2629:
2623:
2617:
2611:
2610:
2604:
2602:
2587:
2581:
2580:
2578:
2576:
2566:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2545:
2543:
2537:
2526:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2490:
2484:
2483:, pp. 71–72
2478:
2472:
2466:
2460:
2454:
2448:
2441:
2435:
2429:
2423:
2417:
2411:
2405:
2399:
2398:
2380:
2374:
2373:
2371:
2369:
2352:
2346:
2345:
2340:
2338:
2323:
2287:
2282:
2281:
2280:
2252:belief systems,
2184:Christianisation
2153:
2150:Roger S. Bagnall
2065:religion of the
1993:Pope Demetrius I
1985:
1895:Ptolemaic period
1833:. His grandson,
1729:, especially in
1663:
1656:
1649:
1635:
1634:
1633:
1567:Book of the Dead
1372:Egyptian obelisk
818:Kothar-wa-Khasis
264:
230:Offering formula
148:
137:
136:Ancient Egyptian
122:
113:
106:
102:
99:
93:
91:
50:
26:
18:
3334:
3333:
3329:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3324:
3323:
3299:
3298:
3292:
3276:
3270:
3257:
3251:
3234:
3228:
3212:
3209:
3207:Further reading
3204:
3198:
3185:
3179:
3166:
3160:
3147:
3138:
3121:
3115:
3100:
3094:
3081:
3075:
3062:
3056:
3043:
3037:
3024:
3018:
3005:
2999:
2985:Bremmer, Jan N.
2983:
2977:
2960:
2956:
2951:
2941:
2939:
2923:
2922:
2918:
2910:
2906:
2898:
2894:
2886:
2882:
2875:
2858:
2857:
2853:
2836:
2829:
2828:
2824:
2817:
2802:
2801:
2797:
2789:
2782:
2774:
2763:
2755:
2751:
2745:Bellum Persicum
2742:
2738:
2727:
2714:
2713:
2709:
2696:
2694:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2656:
2655:
2651:
2644:
2631:
2630:
2626:
2618:
2614:
2600:
2598:
2595:Country Studies
2589:
2588:
2584:
2574:
2572:
2564:
2559:
2558:
2554:
2541:
2539:
2535:
2524:
2519:
2518:
2514:
2507:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2479:
2475:
2467:
2463:
2455:
2451:
2442:
2438:
2430:
2426:
2418:
2414:
2408:Tiradritti 2005
2406:
2402:
2395:
2382:
2381:
2377:
2367:
2365:
2354:
2353:
2349:
2336:
2334:
2325:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2283:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2180:Coptic language
2176:
2154:
2148:
2051:
2013:
2005:Constantinopole
1989:social mobility
1972:
1935:Flavian dynasty
1867:
1768:
1763:
1747:
1667:
1631:
1629:
1624:
1623:
1590:
1582:
1581:
1563:Book of Caverns
1545:
1537:
1536:
1357:Crook and flail
1312:
1302:
1301:
1272:
1264:
1263:
1262:
1257:
373:
315:
260:
245:
244:
216:
208:
207:
156:
135:
114:
103:
97:
94:
51:
49:
39:
27:
12:
11:
5:
3332:
3330:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3301:
3300:
3297:
3296:
3291:978-0801486302
3290:
3274:
3268:
3255:
3249:
3237:Emmel, Stephen
3232:
3226:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3202:
3196:
3183:
3177:
3164:
3158:
3145:
3136:
3119:
3113:
3098:
3092:
3079:
3074:978-9042920316
3073:
3060:
3054:
3041:
3035:
3022:
3016:
3003:
2997:
2981:
2975:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2949:
2916:
2904:
2892:
2880:
2873:
2851:
2822:
2815:
2795:
2780:
2761:
2749:
2736:
2726:978-9042920316
2725:
2707:
2677:
2649:
2642:
2624:
2612:
2582:
2552:
2529:austingrad.edu
2512:
2505:
2485:
2473:
2461:
2449:
2436:
2424:
2412:
2400:
2393:
2375:
2347:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2272:
2269:
2175:
2172:
2163:and later on.
2146:
2050:
2047:
2035:Era of Martyrs
2012:
2009:
1971:
1968:
1901:, and then to
1866:
1863:
1851:Artaxerxes III
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1746:
1743:
1719:Edict of Milan
1669:
1668:
1666:
1665:
1658:
1651:
1643:
1640:
1639:
1626:
1625:
1622:
1621:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1591:
1588:
1587:
1584:
1583:
1580:
1579:
1550:Funerary texts
1546:
1543:
1542:
1539:
1538:
1535:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1349:
1344:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1313:
1308:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1273:
1270:
1269:
1266:
1265:
1259:
1258:
1256:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1214:
1213:
1202:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1190:
1189:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1153:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1061:
1060:
1055:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1009:
1008:
1003:
998:
987:
986:
981:
976:
971:
960:
959:
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
924:
919:
908:
907:
902:
897:
892:
887:
882:
877:
872:
867:
862:
857:
852:
847:
842:
837:
832:
821:
820:
815:
810:
805:
800:
795:
790:
788:Khenti-Amentiu
785:
780:
769:
768:
763:
758:
753:
748:
743:
738:
733:
728:
723:
718:
707:
706:
701:
696:
695:
694:
684:
679:
674:
669:
664:
659:
654:
649:
644:
639:
634:
629:
624:
619:
608:
607:
596:
595:
584:
583:
578:
567:
566:
564:Cavern deities
555:
554:
549:
544:
539:
534:
529:
524:
519:
514:
503:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:
477:
472:
467:
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:
378:
375:
374:
372:
371:
366:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
331:
325:
323:
317:
316:
314:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
272:
270:
261:
251:
250:
247:
246:
243:
242:
237:
232:
223:
217:
214:
213:
210:
209:
206:
205:
200:
195:
190:
189:
188:
178:
173:
168:
163:
157:
154:
153:
150:
149:
141:
140:
131:
130:
116:
115:
30:
28:
21:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3331:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3306:
3304:
3293:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3265:
3261:
3256:
3252:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3233:
3229:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3210:
3206:
3199:
3193:
3189:
3184:
3180:
3174:
3170:
3165:
3161:
3155:
3151:
3146:
3143:
3139:
3137:0-8014-3847-0
3133:
3128:
3127:
3120:
3116:
3114:0-691-07054-7
3110:
3106:
3105:
3099:
3095:
3089:
3085:
3080:
3076:
3070:
3066:
3061:
3057:
3055:0-14-026252-0
3051:
3047:
3042:
3038:
3032:
3028:
3023:
3019:
3013:
3009:
3004:
3000:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2959:
2958:
2953:
2937:
2933:
2932:
2927:
2920:
2917:
2913:
2908:
2905:
2901:
2896:
2893:
2890:, pp. 75
2889:
2884:
2881:
2876:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2855:
2852:
2847:
2841:
2833:
2826:
2823:
2818:
2812:
2808:
2807:
2799:
2796:
2793:, p. 26.
2792:
2787:
2785:
2781:
2778:, p. 27.
2777:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2753:
2750:
2746:
2740:
2737:
2733:
2728:
2722:
2718:
2711:
2708:
2704:
2692:
2688:
2681:
2678:
2662:
2661:
2653:
2650:
2645:
2643:9780500280362
2639:
2635:
2634:The Egyptians
2628:
2625:
2621:
2616:
2613:
2609:
2596:
2592:
2586:
2583:
2570:
2563:
2556:
2553:
2549:
2534:
2530:
2523:
2516:
2513:
2508:
2502:
2498:
2497:
2489:
2486:
2482:
2477:
2474:
2470:
2465:
2462:
2458:
2457:Bricault 2001
2453:
2450:
2447:, p. 206
2446:
2445:Bricault 2000
2440:
2437:
2433:
2432:Donalson 2003
2428:
2425:
2422:, p. 211
2421:
2416:
2413:
2410:, p. 210
2409:
2404:
2401:
2396:
2394:0-8014-8630-0
2390:
2386:
2379:
2376:
2364:
2363:
2358:
2351:
2348:
2344:
2333:
2329:
2322:
2319:
2313:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2290:
2286:
2275:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2261:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2238:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2215:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2204:Egyptologists
2201:
2197:
2196:Late Egyptian
2193:
2189:
2185:
2182:survived the
2181:
2173:
2171:
2169:
2164:
2161:
2151:
2145:
2140:
2138:
2132:
2129:
2123:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2091:hieroglyphics
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2059:
2057:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2018:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1981:
1977:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1964:Hellenisation
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1880:
1876:
1871:
1864:
1862:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1819:
1817:
1813:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1776:
1772:
1765:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1689:seen between
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1664:
1659:
1657:
1652:
1650:
1645:
1644:
1642:
1641:
1638:
1628:
1627:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1592:
1586:
1585:
1577:
1576:
1575:Book of Gates
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1541:
1540:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1412:Hieracosphinx
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1377:Egyptian pool
1375:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1342:Book of Thoth
1340:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1311:
1306:
1305:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1274:
1268:
1267:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1220:
1219:
1218:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1206:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1188:
1185:
1184:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1159:
1158:
1157:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1066:
1065:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1049:
1048:Renpetneferet
1046:
1044:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1015:
1014:
1013:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
997:
994:
993:
992:
991:
985:
982:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
966:
965:
964:
958:
955:
953:
950:
948:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
933:
930:
928:
925:
923:
920:
918:
915:
914:
913:
912:
906:
903:
901:
898:
896:
893:
891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
876:
873:
871:
868:
866:
863:
861:
858:
856:
853:
851:
848:
846:
843:
841:
838:
836:
833:
831:
828:
827:
826:
825:
819:
816:
814:
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
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98:December 2017
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59: –
58:
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53:Find sources:
47:
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37:
36:
31:This article
29:
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2954:Bibliography
2940:. Retrieved
2936:the original
2929:
2919:
2912:Bremmer 2014
2907:
2900:Hornung 2001
2895:
2888:Hornung 2001
2883:
2864:
2854:
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2798:
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2695:. Retrieved
2690:
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2668:. Retrieved
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2599:. Retrieved
2594:
2585:
2573:. Retrieved
2568:
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2547:
2540:. Retrieved
2533:the original
2528:
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2366:. Retrieved
2360:
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2335:. Retrieved
2331:
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2188:Islamisation
2177:
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2156:
2142:
2133:
2128:Theodosius I
2124:
2085:itself, and
2083:Roman Empire
2071:Christianity
2060:
2052:
2043:penal labour
2015:The Emperor
2014:
1973:
1950:(modern-day
1884:
1835:Nectanebo II
1820:
1791:Nectanebo II
1780:
1748:
1723:Roman Empire
1679:Christianity
1674:
1672:
1553:
1422:Imiut fetish
1417:Hypocephalus
1402:Hemhem crown
1382:Eye of Horus
1292:Land of Manu
1216:
1215:
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917:Nebethetepet
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909:
823:
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793:Khenti-kheti
771:
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605:Gate deities
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52:
40:Please help
35:verification
32:
15:
3319:Roman Egypt
3067:. Peeters.
3048:. Penguin.
2743:Procopius,
2697:21 December
2601:22 December
2575:22 December
2542:22 December
2469:Bommas 2012
2368:21 December
2337:21 December
2254:Hermeticism
2120:Justinian I
2103:Upper Egypt
1919:Mark Antony
1827:Nectanebo I
1799:Cambyses II
1775:Nectanebo I
1766:Late Period
1600:Hermeticism
1527:Was-sceptre
1482:Seqtet boat
860:Mehet-Weret
692:Harpocrates
517:Banebdjedet
480:Arensnuphis
3303:Categories
2942:18 January
2670:17 January
2620:David 2002
2420:Orlin 2010
2314:References
2186:and later
2144:community.
2107:Siwa Oasis
2079:iconoclasm
2075:monotheism
2061:Where the
2017:Diocletian
1751:prehistory
1745:Background
1731:Alexandria
1687:syncretism
1610:Kemeticism
1532:Winged sun
1497:Set animal
1437:Matet boat
1352:Corn mummy
1248:Werethekau
1080:Sebiumeker
880:Meretseger
741:Ikhemu-sek
677:Hermanubis
581:Duau (god)
198:Philosophy
193:Numerology
68:newspapers
3262:. Brill.
3243:. Brill.
2840:cite book
2691:bbc.co.uk
2242:antiquity
2168:Horapollo
2116:Byzantine
1956:Britannia
1948:Londinium
1915:Cleopatra
1909:. Though
1807:Herodotus
1703:Assyrians
1502:Shen ring
1492:Serpopard
1467:Ouroboros
1387:Eye of Ra
1347:Cartouche
1271:Locations
1194:Tjenenyet
1177:Ta-Bitjet
1120:Shesmetet
1038:Renenutet
1023:Raet-Tawy
937:Nehmetawy
885:Meskhenet
647:Hedjhotep
490:Assessors
226:Offerings
215:Practices
181:Mythology
166:Cosmology
161:Afterlife
3280:(2000).
3216:(1993).
2987:(2014).
2747:, i. 19.
2308:Kemetism
2271:See also
2265:Kemetism
2250:esoteric
2240:In late
2219:pyramids
2212:hieratic
2147:—
2118:emperor
1931:emperors
1927:pomerium
1911:Augustus
1803:Darius I
1707:Persians
1427:Khepresh
1243:Wepwawet
1228:Wadj-wer
932:Nehebkau
927:Nefertem
840:Mandulis
778:Kebechet
766:Iusaaset
699:Heryshaf
637:Hatmehit
455:Apedemak
344:Nephthys
240:Pyramids
221:Funerals
138:religion
127:a series
125:Part of
2965:(ed.).
2160:pharaoh
2112:demotic
1940:Palmyra
1933:of the
1923:Serapis
1875:sistrum
1761:History
1605:Thelema
1595:Atenism
1522:Ushabti
1472:Pschent
1462:Neshmet
1392:Griffin
1362:Deshret
1167:Taweret
1162:Tatenen
1095:Serapis
1085:Sekhmet
1058:Resheph
1001:Qed-her
952:Nekhbet
922:Nebtuwi
783:Khensit
751:Imhotep
746:Imentet
642:Hedetet
495:Astarte
430:Andjety
405:Amesemi
253:Deities
235:Temples
155:Beliefs
82:scholar
3288:
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2174:Legacy
2099:Philae
2087:edicts
1952:London
1879:situla
1877:and a
1831:Philae
1755:Hyksos
1735:Origen
1715:Romans
1713:, and
1711:Greeks
1555:Amduat
1517:Uraeus
1507:Sphinx
1487:Serekh
1477:Scarab
1442:Medjed
1397:Hedjet
1282:Benben
1253:Wosret
1238:Wepset
1223:Wadjet
1140:Sopdet
1125:Shezmu
1105:Seshat
1100:Serket
1043:Renpet
1028:Rekhyt
1006:Qetesh
969:Pakhet
895:Mnevis
870:Menhit
850:Mafdet
845:Medjed
830:Maahes
813:Khonsu
803:Kherty
798:Khepri
662:Hemsut
632:Hathor
627:Hauron
552:Buchis
537:Ba-Pef
522:Bastet
450:Anuket
445:Anubis
420:Amu-Aa
415:Am-heh
369:Tefnut
354:Osiris
321:Ennead
306:Naunet
296:Kauket
286:Hauhet
281:Amunet
268:Ogdoad
84:
77:
70:
63:
55:
2693:. BBC
2664:(MP3)
2569:TENET
2565:(PDF)
2536:(PDF)
2525:(PDF)
2258:Thoth
2208:abjad
2101:, in
2063:pagan
1954:) in
1944:Syria
1903:Italy
1843:cults
1812:Neith
1683:Egypt
1544:Texts
1457:Nemes
1447:Menat
1432:Kneph
1407:Hennu
1233:Weneg
1182:Thoth
1145:Sopdu
1135:Sobek
1090:Seker
1075:Satis
1053:Repyt
996:Qebui
979:Petbe
974:Perit
957:Neper
947:Nemty
942:Neith
900:Montu
875:Meret
865:Mehit
855:Mehen
835:Ma'at
808:Khnum
761:Iunit
716:Iabet
687:Horus
682:Hesat
672:Heqet
667:Henet
657:Hemen
576:Dedun
542:Bennu
440:Anput
435:Anhur
410:Ammit
395:Akhty
186:Index
176:Ma'at
89:JSTOR
75:books
3286:ISBN
3264:ISBN
3245:ISBN
3222:ISBN
3192:ISBN
3173:ISBN
3154:ISBN
3132:ISBN
3109:ISBN
3088:ISBN
3069:ISBN
3050:ISBN
3031:ISBN
3012:ISBN
2993:ISBN
2971:ISBN
2944:2017
2869:ISBN
2846:link
2811:ISBN
2721:ISBN
2699:2017
2672:2016
2638:ISBN
2603:2017
2577:2017
2544:2017
2501:ISBN
2389:ISBN
2370:2017
2339:2017
2003:and
2001:Rome
1917:and
1907:Rome
1905:and
1891:Isis
1839:Teos
1821:The
1816:Sais
1801:and
1737:and
1673:The
1512:Tyet
1452:Nebu
1367:Djed
1337:Atet
1332:Atef
1327:Ankh
1322:Abtu
1317:Aani
1287:Duat
1277:Aaru
1211:Unut
1199:Tutu
1172:Tayt
1115:Shed
1110:Shai
984:Ptah
731:Igai
652:Heka
622:Hapi
532:Bata
512:Babi
500:Aten
475:Aqen
465:Apis
460:Apep
425:Anat
390:Aker
385:Aati
339:Isis
329:Atum
276:Amun
257:list
203:Soul
171:Duat
61:news
2246:Bes
1946:to
1942:in
1814:at
1681:in
1130:Sia
1070:Sah
1033:Rem
905:Mut
890:Min
756:Ipy
736:Ihy
726:Iat
721:Iah
547:Bes
527:Bat
485:Ash
470:Apt
364:Shu
359:Set
349:Nut
334:Geb
301:Kek
291:Heh
44:by
3305::
3140:.
2928:.
2863:.
2842:}}
2838:{{
2783:^
2764:^
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1984:c.
1982:,
1709:,
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1616:•
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1557:•
1018:Ra
704:Hu
617:Ha
311:Nu
228::
129:on
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1612:(
1578:)
1552:(
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710:I
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599:G
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558:C
506:B
380:A
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111:)
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96:(
86:·
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38:.
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