460:, Judge McEachern dismissed the plaintiffs' claims to Aboriginal title, jurisdiction (self-government), and Aboriginal rights in the territories. Despite finding that Aboriginal rights of the Gitxsan and Wet’suwet’en had been extinguished, Chief Justice McEachern found that the Crown had made promises beginning in 1859 and 1860 that gave rise to a fiduciary duty: "to permit aboriginal people, but subject to the general law of the province, to use any unoccupied or vacant Crown land for subsistence purposes until such time as the land is dedicated to another purpose." He also dismissed the province's counterclaims for a declaration that the Gitxsan and Wet’suwet’en have no right or interest in the territory and for a declaration that their only claim for compensation could be against Canada.
29:
419:. Delgamuukw (English name Earl Muldoe) was a claimant for the Gitxsan, while Gisday’wa (Alfred Joseph) was one of those representing the Wet’suwet’en. The claim for jurisdiction was novel. If that claim were to have succeeded, Indigenous laws would prevail in the case of conflict with provincial law. BC argued that the "plaintiffs had no right or interest in the land, and that their claim for compensation ought to be against the federal government."
733:
decision made clear how valuable
Aboriginal title is. The government adopted some interim measures that shared some of the economic benefits resulting from resource development in land-claims areas. The response from the various First Nations in British Columbia varied: some interested in the treaty negotiation process, some in the economic integration through interim measures, and some considering additional litigation.
668:
The second prong of the justification test asks whether the infringement is "consistent with the special fiduciary relationship between the Crown and aboriginal peoples." This fiduciary relationship gives rise to two additional components when
Aboriginal title is infringed: the duty to consult (which
663:
the development of agriculture, forestry, mining, and hydroelectric power, the general economic development of the interior of
British Columbia, protection of the environment or endangered species, the building of infrastructure and the settlement of foreign populations to support those aims, are the
658:
The majority affirmed the broad characterization of compelling and substantial legislative objectives that might warrant an infringement: "legitimate government objectives also include the pursuit of economic and regional fairness and the recognition of the historical reliance upon, and participation
468:
as reliable bases for detailed history but they could confirm findings based on other admissible evidence." He described the position of the
Gitxsan and Wet’suwet’en as "idyllic" and "romantic". The Canadian Anthropology Society said the judgement "gratuitously dismisses scientific evidence, is laced
283:
since
Europeans first began settling on their traditional lands in the 1800s. The Canadian federal government received the Gitxsan declaration of claim in 1977, but British Columbia would not participate in the land claims process. By 1984, British Columbia had begun to allow clear-cut logging in the
584:
The trial judge, after refusing to admit, or giving no independent weight to these oral histories, reached the conclusion that the appellants had not demonstrated the requisite degree of occupation for "ownership". Had the trial judge assessed the oral histories correctly, his conclusions on these
508:
unanimously rejected
Justice McEachern's ruling that all of the plaintiffs' Aboriginal rights had been extinguished. The Court of Appeal ordered the case back to trial to determine the nature and scope of those Aboriginal rights. Two of the justices, in dissent, would have gone further to also allow
704:
he Crown is under a moral, if not a legal, duty to enter into and conduct those negotiations in good faith. Ultimately, it is through negotiated settlements, with good faith and give and take on all sides, reinforced by the judgments of this Court, that we will achieve what I stated in Van der Peet
611:
ownership. The inherent limit (that the protected uses not be irreconcilable with the nature of the group's attachment to the land) is derived from one of the purposes of
Aboriginal title: maintaining "the relationship of an aboriginal community with its land here is that it applies not only to the
552:
Both the majority and concurrence agreed that it was an error to " the individual claims brought by the 51 Gitksan and Wet’suwet’en Houses into two collective claims, one by each nation, for
Aboriginal title and self-government." The court found this error sufficient to call for a new trial. Thus,
227:
lost the case at trial, but the
Supreme Court of Canada allowed the appeal in part and ordered a new trial because of deficiencies relating to the pleadings and treatment of evidence. In this decision, the Court went on to describe the "nature and scope" of the protection given to Aboriginal title
728:
and the inherent limit was reworded. There, the Court said that
Aboriginal title "cannot be alienated except to the Crown or encumbered in ways that would prevent future generations of the group from using and enjoying it. Nor can the land be developed or misused in a way that would substantially
463:
This decision has been criticized for both its treatment of the oral evidence and for its tone. Chief Justice McEachern described pre-contact life of the Gitxsan and Wet’suwet’en as "nasty, brutish, and short." He didn't recognize pre-contact "institutions" and instead said that "they more likely
732:
The second trial that was ordered has never happened, so the claim in this case remains unresolved. In the years soon after the decision, the province largely maintained its negotiating position, only changing it minimally. The decision did not order the government to change its position and the
578:
Notwithstanding the challenges created by the use of oral histories as proof of historical facts, the laws of evidence must be adapted in order that this type of evidence can be accommodated and placed on an equal footing with the types of historical evidence that courts are familiar with, which
438:
The Gitxsan and Wet’suwet’en relied upon their oral histories as evidence about their historical relationship with the land. Sixty-one witnesses gave evidence at trial, many in their own languages, using translators. Some witnesses sang or described ceremonial songs and performance relating the
630:
The majority also lays out the test for proving Aboriginal title: "(i) the land must have been occupied prior to sovereignty, (ii) if present occupation is relied on as proof of occupation pre-sovereignty, there must be a continuity between present and pre-sovereignty occupation, and (iii) at
598:
I have arrived at the conclusion that the content of aboriginal title can be summarized by two propositions: first, that aboriginal title encompasses the right to exclusive use and occupation of the land held pursuant to that title for a variety of purposes, which need not be aspects of those
360:
was relatively new. Courts had not yet given meaning to subsection (1): "The existing Aboriginal and treaty rights of the Aboriginal peoples of Canada are hereby recognized and affirmed", although the meaning was fairly well developed by the time the case made it to the Supreme Court in 1997.
469:
with ethnocentric bias and is rooted in the colonial belief that white society is inherently superior." Chief Justice Lamer, writing for the majority at the Supreme Court of Canada, acknowledged that Chief Justice McEachern did not have the benefit of the reasons from
414:
In 1984, Gitxsan and Wet’suwet’en hereditary chiefs claimed, on behalf of their Houses, unextinguished Aboriginal title and jurisdiction over territory in northwest British Columbia totalling 58,000 square kilometres, and compensation for land already
54:
Delgamuukw, also known as Earl Muldoe, suing on his own behalf and on behalf of all the members of the Houses of Delgamuukw and Haaxw (and others) v Her Majesty The Queen in Right of the Province of British Columbia and The Attorney General of
284:
Gitxsan and Wet’suwet’en territory without permission from the hereditary chiefs. On October 24, 1984, thirty-five Gitxsan and thirteen Wet’suwet’en hereditary chiefs filed their statement of claim with the British Columbia Supreme Court.
2029:
1306:
599:
aboriginal practices, customs and traditions which are integral to distinctive aboriginal cultures; and second, that those protected uses must not be irreconcilable with the nature of the group's attachment to that land.
625:
Aboriginal title, which is right to the land itself, and which entails the right to a broad range of uses, only subject to the inherent limit against uses irreconcilable with the nature of the group's attachment to the
521:
to the Supreme Court of Canada. However, they obtained an adjournment in order to pursue a treaty settlement instead. The province suspended those negotiations in February 1996 and the parties revived their litigation.
308:, the Supreme Court recognized that Aboriginal title to land was based in "historic occupation and possession" of their traditional territories and "does not depend on treaty, executive order or legislative enactment."
631:
sovereignty, that occupation must have been exclusive." That will be enough to demonstrate that the occupancy of the land is "sufficiently important to be of central significance to the culture of the claimants."
1961:
2367:
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practices, customs, and traditions integral to the group's distinctive culture, with little connection to a particular piece of land, which still lead to Aboriginal rights to those activities,
1307:
https://docs2.cer-rec.gc.ca/ll-eng/llisapi.dll/fetch/2000/90464/90550/554112/915551/1060220/2453041/2565524/B86-9___-_6_Delgamuukw_v_British_Columbia_-_A4F3Y3.pdf?nodeid=2565423&vernum=-2
2535:
785:
312:
he fact is that when the settlers came, the Indians were there, organized in societies and occupying the land as their forefathers had done for centuries. This is what Indian title means...
2009:
378:
475:, which says "courts must not undervalue the evidence presented by aboriginal claimants simply because that evidence does not conform precisely with the evidentiary standards ."
2318:
1954:
2423:
342:, the Court elaborated, "it is more than the right to enjoyment and occupancy, although, … it is difficult to describe what more in traditional property law terminology." In
2649:
2618:
1947:
818:
568:
The majority also found that the factual findings of the trial court could not stand because Justice McEachern's approach did not meet the principles laid out in
302:
By the 1970s, the courts had "begun to acknowledge the existence of Aboriginal legal rights in the land other than those provided for by treaty or statute." In
1133:
525:
The appeal was heard at the Supreme Court of Canada on June 16 and 17, 1997. The six justices announced their decision on December 11, 1997. The opinion of
1319:
740:
2664:
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activities that take place on and have an intimate connection with a particular piece of land, which might lead to site-specific Aboriginal rights, and
2388:
2311:
1344:
518:
2528:
2014:
1845:
The Spirit in the Land: The Opening Statement of the Gitksan and Wet’suwet’en Hereditary Chiefs in the Supreme Court of British Columbia, 1987–1990.
959:
779:
715:
561:
492:
354:
259:
229:
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applies when Aboriginal title is infringed. The decision is also important for its treatment of oral testimony as evidence of historic occupation.
2514:
2262:
488:
979:
2639:
2360:
2274:
484:
2644:
1749:
2561:
1701:
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to be a basic purpose of s. 35(1) -- “the reconciliation of the pre-existence of aboriginal societies with the sovereignty of the Crown”.
849:
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1101:
2674:
1773:
1282:
2019:
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505:
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1999:
756:
297:
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kinds of objectives that are consistent with this purpose and, in principle, can justify the infringement of Aboriginal title.
390:
2353:
1515:
1202:
1076:
761:
456:
318:
304:
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The court said that the trial did not yield sufficient evidence to give any opinion regarding the right to self-government.
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The trial took 374 days (318 days of evidence and 56 days of closing argument), spanning May 11, 1987, to June 30, 1990, in
2268:
2079:
447:(a song or songs about trails between territories) of the Wet’suwet’en. Some of this knowledge was translated into maps.
2124:
2659:
2566:
685:
The court held that the province does not have the power to extinguish Aboriginal rights, neither directly (because of
2178:
374:
546:
106:
1381:
Spike, Matthew (1998). "A Map that Roared and an Original Atlas: Canada, Cartography, and the Narration of Nation".
700:
Both opinions concluded by encouraging all parties to pursue negotiated agreements through good faith negotiations.
2280:
2004:
432:
1880:
Delgamuukw : the Supreme Court of Canada decision on Aboriginal title Vancouver: Greystone Books. pages 75-77
253:(since a new trial was ordered due to errors in how the evidence and pleadings were treated), the principles from
2402:
1933:
1540:"Invention of Anthropology in British Columbia's Supreme Court: Oral Tradition as Evidence in Delgamuukw v. B.C."
1461:
692:) nor indirectly through laws of general applicability (because they could not indicate clear and plain intent).
416:
353:, no Canadian court had defined in detail what Aboriginal title means. And, at the outset of this case in 1984,
2098:
1509:
1068:
744:
2085:
1983:
Note: "Aboriginal law" refers to Canadian law dealing with Indigenous peoples; "Indigenous law" refers to the
1922:
1539:
2553:
2148:
2067:
1974:
1970:
1914:
1629:
1596:
200:
34:
2136:
2051:
686:
234:
1836:
Fisher, Robin (1992) "Judging History: Reflections on the Reasons for Judgment in Delgamuukw vs. B.C."
1672:
804:
2300:
28:
2339:
1918:
1482:
1457:
965:
542:
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The Gitxsan and Wet’suwet’en appealed. In the time between the trial judgement and the appeal, the
238:, defined how a claimant can prove Aboriginal title, and clarified how the justification test from
102:
1269:
1249:
1231:
1208:
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Delgamuukw set a precedent for Indigenous rights and the use of oral testimony in Canadian courts.
938:
2604:
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1796:
1398:
1225:
538:
328:
122:
1716:
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nations. In 1997, for the purpose of the court proceedings, 'Delgamuukw', then 61, had his name
382:
276:
216:
1873:
Colonialism on Trial: Indigenous Land Rights and the Gitksan and Wet’suwet’en Sovereignty Case.
1177:
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varies with the degree of the infringement), and the requirement to provide fair compensation.
2542:
2185:
2154:
1745:
517:
In March 1994, the Gitxsan and Wet’suwet’en and the Province of British Columbia were granted
495:. The new government abandoned the position taken at trial on the issue of extinguishment, so
464:
acted as they did because of survival instincts." He was "unable to accept adaawk, kungax and
166:
Iacobucci, Gonthier, and Sopinka JJ took no part in the consideration or decision of the case.
1884:
Roth, Christopher F (2002) "Without Treaty, without Conquest: Indigenous Sovereignty in Post-
509:
the appeal on the issue of Aboriginal title and to send that question back to trial as well.
219:
peoples claimed Aboriginal title and jurisdiction over 58,000 square kilometers in northwest
2654:
2521:
2374:
2256:
2118:
2091:
1788:
1390:
1108:
743:, begun in solidarity with Wet’suwet’en hereditary chiefs opposed to the development of the
570:
471:
220:
204:
114:
1702:"Assessing the Delgamuukw Principles:National Implications and Potential Effects in Quebec"
2430:
2287:
1936:– Proceedings at trial transcripts of this historic case – UBC Library Digital Collections
1320:"Legendary Gitxsan Artist and Indigenous Rights Icon Delgamuukw (Earl Muldon) Passes Away"
1134:"Twenty years after historic Delgamuukw land claims case, pipeline divides Gitxsan Nation"
1038:
451:
398:
280:
126:
1939:
401:' for his paintings and artistry. Delgamuukw died on January 3, 2022, at the age of 85.
2416:
2061:
1360:
Mr. Muldon died in Hazelton, B.C., on Jan.3, at the age of 85, after a lengthy illness.
465:
386:
980:"20 years ago, this court case changed the way Canadians understood Indigenous rights"
615:
The majority places Aboriginal title on a spectrum alongside other Aboriginal rights:
2633:
2580:
2493:
2464:
2451:
2437:
2073:
2024:
1984:
1601:
651:
534:
526:
394:
178:
130:
95:
61:
639:
As with other Aboriginal rights, Aboriginal title can be infringed. The majority in
607:
right arising from the prior occupation of the land by Indigenous people; it is not
2587:
2472:
2444:
2409:
1511:
Placing Gitxsan stories in text : returning the feathers, Guuxs Mak'am mik'aax
1402:
1073:
Placing Gitxsan stories in text : returning the feathers, Guuxs Mak'am mik'aax
555:
497:
249:
110:
2570:
1774:"British Columbia after the Delgamuukw Decision: Land Claims and other Processes"
2599:
2500:
1927:
1561:""Nasty, Brutish and Short": Anthropology and the Gitksan-Wet'suwet'en Decision"
1560:
773:
645:
334:
240:
279:
peoples had attempted to negotiate jurisdiction, recognition of ownership, and
2507:
2479:
2458:
2395:
2346:
2249:
1740:
Ziff, Bruce; de Beer, Jeremy; Harris, Douglas C; McCallum, Margaret E (2016).
767:
608:
530:
118:
559:, but it is still significant in that it has been restated and summarized in
2241:
2236:
2142:
1394:
1263:
1178:"Aboriginal Title: The Supreme Court of Canada Decision in Delgamuukw v. BC"
428:
224:
1625:
Delgamuukw and the people without culture : anthropology and the Crown
850:"The Delgamuukw decision: Putting the Wet'suwet'en conflict in perspective"
1345:"Gitxsan hereditary chief was lead plaintiff in famous Supreme Court case"
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2486:
1800:
370:
272:
212:
346:, the Court said that Aboriginal title is a kind of Aboriginal right.
1014:"Sovereignty's Alchemy: An Analysis of Delgamuukw v British Columbia"
208:
1792:
454:
was released on March 8, 1991. Contrary to legal precedents such as
263:, 2014 SCC 44. There has not yet been a second trial in this case.
2592:
2031:
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act
1866:
Hang on to these words' : Johnny David's Delgamuukw evidence.
1623:
819:"Plaintiff helped win a major victory for Canada's native people"
659:
in, the fishery by non-aboriginal groups." It then goes further:
1859:
Eagle Down Is Our Law: Witsuwit'en Law, Feasts, and Land Claims.
1824:
The Pleasure of the Crown: Anthropology, Law, and First Nations.
594:
Chief Justice Lamer summarized the content of Aboriginal title:
1943:
1831:
Our Box Was Full: An Ethnography for the Delgamuukw Plaintiffs.
369:
The defendant, born May 16, 1936, as 'Delgamuukw', served as a
397:
as 'Earl Muldoe'. In 2010, Muldoe was also designated as a '
1659:
1444:
1283:"Legendary Gitxsan Indigenous rights leader dies at age 85"
365:
Defendant on behalf of the Wet'suwet'en and Gitxsan Nations
1062:
1060:
1058:
786:
Grassy Narrows First Nation v. Ontario (Natural Resources)
2010:
Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
1742:
A Property Law Reader: Cases, Questions, & Commentary
747:
through territory to which they claim rights and title.
729:
deprive future generations of the benefit of the land."
1744:(4th ed.). Toronto: Thomson Reuters. p. 415.
423:
The trial and Chief Justice McEachern's decision (1991)
161:
La Forest J (paras 187-208), joined by L'Heureux-Dubé J
1868:
Toronto : University of Toronto Press pages 13–14
443:(the personal bloodline histories) of the Gitxsan and
1675:. BC Ministry of Aboriginal Affairs. February 1, 1996
1559:
Waldram, James; Berringer, Pat; Warry, Wayne (1992).
1107:. BC Treaty Commission. November 1999. Archived from
1673:"Province Suspends Treaty Negotiations with Gitxsan"
2552:
2331:
2168:
2109:
2049:
2040:
1992:
1597:"Two Controversial Judges: One Replacing the Other"
379:
Office of the Hereditary Chiefs of the WetĘĽsuwetĘĽen
157:
149:
145:
Lamer CJ (paras 1-186), joined by Cory and Major JJ
141:
136:
86:
78:
70:
60:
49:
42:
21:
643:clarified how the justification test developed in
549:; Justice McLachlin was in substantial agreement.
501:were appointed to assist the court on that issue.
2619:Index of articles related to Indigenous Canadians
1383:Annals of the Association of American Geographers
1033:
1031:
953:
951:
949:
947:
203:that contains its first comprehensive account of
1861:Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.
2319:Ongoing treaty negotiations in British Columbia
702:
661:
596:
582:
576:
338:right, not found elsewhere in property law. In
310:
82:Appeal allowed in part, cross appeal dismissed.
1196:
1194:
585:issues of fact might have been very different.
1955:
1533:
1531:
928:
926:
924:
922:
920:
918:
8:
2020:Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867
1096:
1094:
1092:
916:
914:
912:
910:
908:
906:
904:
902:
900:
898:
655:applies when Aboriginal title is infringed.
332:, the Court described Aboriginal title as a
741:2020 Canadian pipeline and railway protests
485:British Columbia government changed parties
2106:
2046:
1962:
1948:
1940:
1590:
1588:
1554:
1552:
882:
880:
878:
876:
874:
872:
870:
364:
247:While much of the decision is technically
2650:First Nations history in British Columbia
1219:
1217:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1007:
1005:
1003:
579:largely consists of historical documents.
207:(a distinct kind of Aboriginal right) in
2015:Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982
1901:Tribal Boundaries in the Nass Watershed.
1767:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1434:
1432:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1368:
381:, and as a representative for the joint
373:Indigenous rights leader, as one of the
2515:St Catharines Milling and Lumber Co v R
2263:James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement
1649:
1647:
1645:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1412:
797:
553:the rest of the opinion is technically
479:British Columbia Court of Appeal (1993)
2389:Native Women's Assn of Canada v Canada
1871:Monet, Don, and Ardythe Wilson (1992)
1826:Burnaby, British Columbia: Talonbooks.
1568:The Canadian Journal of Native Studies
739:has featured in discussion around the
504:On June 25, 1993, five members of the
18:
2529:Tsilhqot'in Nation v British Columbia
1875:Philadelphia: New Society Publishers.
978:Kurjata, Andrew (December 11, 2017).
960:Tsilhqot'in Nation v British Columbia
780:Tsilhqot'in Nation v British Columbia
716:Tsilhqot'in Nation v British Columbia
562:Tsilhqot'in Nation v British Columbia
541:concurred. The concurring opinion of
260:Tsilhqot'in Nation v British Columbia
7:
1102:"A Lay Person's Guide to Delgamuukw"
843:
841:
839:
817:McCreary, Tyler (October 10, 2018).
603:The majority affirms that this is a
2340:Attorney General of Canada v Lavell
805:SCC Case Information - Docket 23799
710:Subsequent influence and treatment
612:past, but to the future as well."
14:
2665:History of human rights in Canada
2361:Chippewas of Sarnia Band v Canada
1892:vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 143–165.
1843:Gisday Wa and Delgam Uukw (1992)
1343:Stueck, Wendy (20 January 2022).
1132:Jang, Trevor (February 7, 2017).
848:Forester, Brett (March 4, 2020).
450:The judgement from Chief Justice
16:1977 Supreme Court of Canada case
1987:of individual Indigenous groups.
1833:Vancouver: UBC Press. page xviii
724:were restated and summarized in
506:British Columbia Court of Appeal
399:Companion of The Order of Canada
292:descriptions of Aboriginal title
257:were restated and summarized in
27:
2295:Duty to consult and accommodate
2131:Lake Simcoe–Lake Huron Purchase
2000:Aboriginal land title in Canada
757:Aboriginal land title in Canada
635:Infringements and justification
529:attracted a majority: Justices
422:
298:Aboriginal land title in Canada
1516:University of British Columbia
1203:Calder v British Columbia (AG)
1077:University of British Columbia
889:Aboriginal Peoples and the Law
762:Calder v British Columbia (AG)
720:The principles established by
681:Extinguishment by the province
457:Calder v British Columbia (AG)
319:Calder v British Columbia (AG)
305:Calder v British Columbia (AG)
1:
2640:Supreme Court of Canada cases
2382:Delgamuukw v British Columbia
2269:Nunavut Land Claims Agreement
2080:Peace and Friendship Treaties
1655:Delgamuukw v British Columbia
1595:Mulgrew, Ian (June 5, 2017).
1483:"The Delgamuukw Court Action"
1440:Delgamuukw v British Columbia
934:Delgamuukw v British Columbia
174:Delgamuukw v British Columbia
22:Delgamuukw v British Columbia
2645:Canadian Aboriginal case law
2125:Penetanguishene Bay Purchase
1934:Delgamuukw Trial Transcripts
1852:A Death Feast in Dimlahamid.
1847:Gabriola, B.C.: Reflections.
1660: 1993 CanLII 4516 (BCCA)
1445: 1991 CanLII 2372 (BCSC)
2179:Gradual Enfranchisement Act
1245:Canadian Pacific Ltd v Paul
1012:Burrows, John (Fall 1999).
340:Canadian Pacific Ltd v Paul
45:Judgment: December 11, 1997
43:Hearing: June 16, 17, 1997
2691:
2670:Aboriginal title in Canada
2005:Royal Proclamation of 1763
1928:Archive of Delgamuukw Case
1854:Vancouver: New Star Books.
1538:Cruikshank, Julie (1992).
891:. Vancouver: Purich Books.
713:
696:Encouragement to negotiate
433:Smithers, British Columbia
295:
2675:1997 in Canadian case law
2614:
2403:R v Marshall; R v Bernard
2354:Calder v British Columbia
1981:
1462:The Canadian Encyclopedia
1176:Hurley, Mary (Feb 2000).
165:
91:
26:
2554:Indigenous customary law
2099:Gradual Civilization Act
2086:Treaties of Fort Niagara
1903:Vancouver: U.B.C. Press.
1857:Mills, Antonia C (1994)
1018:Osgoode Hall Law Journal
745:Coastal GasLink Pipeline
2424:Paul v British Columbia
2281:Nisga'a Final Agreement
2149:Saugeen Tract Agreement
2068:Great Peace of Montreal
1915:Supreme Court of Canada
1772:Dacks, Gurston (2002).
1630:Simon Fraser University
1395:10.1111/0004-5608.00109
1180:. Library of Parliament
807:Supreme Court of Canada
513:Supreme Court of Canada
405:British Columbia courts
201:Supreme Court of Canada
35:Supreme Court of Canada
2043:governmental relations
1781:Canadian Public Policy
1622:Culhane, Dara (1994).
1508:Smith, M Jane (2004).
1067:Smith, M Jane (2004).
887:Reynolds, Jim (2018).
707:
689:Constitution Act, 1867
687:Section 91(24) of the
666:
601:
587:
581:
547:Justice L'Heureux-Dubé
357:Constitution Act, 1982
324:
235:Constitution Act, 1982
184:Delgamuukw v The Queen
153:McLachlin J (para 209)
1850:Glavin, Terry (1990)
1829:Daly, Richard (2005)
1822:Culhane, Dara (1998)
199:, is a ruling by the
107:Claire L'Heureux-Dubé
2137:Huron Tract Purchase
1888:British Columbia."
1700:Joffe, Paul (2000).
1287:North Delta Reporter
493:New Democratic Party
190:Delgamuukw-Gisday’wa
1971:Canadian Aboriginal
1840:vol. 95, no. 43-54.
1464:. January 11, 2019
527:Chief Justice Lamer
489:Social Credit Party
2577:Great Law of Peace
2301:Jordan's Principle
2169:Post-Confederation
2157:(1850, 1854, 1859)
1878:Persky, S (1998).
1709:McGill Law Journal
1349:The Globe and Mail
1226:Guerin v The Queen
823:The Globe and Mail
768:Guerin v The Queen
355:Section 35 of the
329:Guerin v The Queen
123:Beverley McLachlin
2627:
2626:
2543:Restoule v Canada
2368:Corbiere v Canada
2327:
2326:
2186:Numbered Treaties
2164:
2163:
2155:Robinson Treaties
1890:WĂÄŤazo Ĺ a Review,
1751:978-0-7798-7246-6
1458:"Delgamuukw Case"
543:Justice La Forest
539:Justice McLachlin
375:Hereditary Chiefs
170:
169:
2682:
2536:Daniels v Canada
2522:R v Van der Peet
2375:Daniels v Canada
2119:Toronto Purchase
2107:
2092:Douglas Treaties
2047:
1964:
1957:
1950:
1941:
1895:Sterritt, Neil,
1864:Mills, A (2005)
1811:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1778:
1769:
1756:
1755:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1728:
1727:
1721:
1715:. Archived from
1706:
1697:
1684:
1683:
1681:
1680:
1669:
1663:
1657:
1651:
1640:
1639:
1637:
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1619:
1613:
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1609:
1592:
1583:
1582:
1580:
1579:
1565:
1556:
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1546:
1535:
1526:
1525:
1523:
1522:
1505:
1499:
1498:
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1479:
1473:
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1469:
1454:
1448:
1442:
1436:
1407:
1406:
1378:
1363:
1362:
1357:
1355:
1340:
1334:
1333:
1331:
1330:
1315:
1309:
1304:
1298:
1297:
1295:
1294:
1279:
1273:
1267:
1259:
1253:
1247:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1221:
1212:
1206:
1198:
1189:
1188:
1186:
1185:
1173:
1148:
1147:
1145:
1144:
1129:
1123:
1122:
1120:
1119:
1113:
1106:
1098:
1087:
1086:
1084:
1083:
1064:
1053:
1052:
1050:
1049:
1039:"Recent History"
1035:
1026:
1025:
1009:
998:
997:
992:
990:
975:
969:
966: 2014 SCC 44
963:
955:
942:
939: 3 SCR 1010
936:
930:
893:
892:
884:
865:
864:
862:
860:
845:
834:
833:
831:
829:
814:
808:
802:
649:and modified in
590:Aboriginal title
571:R v Van der Peet
472:R v Van der Peet
322:
221:British Columbia
205:Aboriginal title
181:, also known as
115:Charles Gonthier
103:GĂ©rard La Forest
100:Puisne Justices:
87:Court membership
31:
19:
2690:
2689:
2685:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2680:
2679:
2630:
2629:
2628:
2623:
2610:
2562:Self-government
2548:
2431:Paulette Caveat
2323:
2312:specific claims
2303:(proposed 2005)
2288:Paix des Braves
2170:
2160:
2111:
2105:
2054:
2042:
2036:
1988:
1977:
1968:
1910:
1819:
1817:Further reading
1814:
1805:
1803:
1793:10.2307/3552327
1776:
1771:
1770:
1759:
1752:
1739:
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1366:
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1342:
1341:
1337:
1328:
1326:
1318:Blagden, Jeff.
1317:
1316:
1312:
1305:
1301:
1292:
1290:
1281:
1280:
1276:
1270: 3 SCR 101
1261:
1260:
1256:
1250: 2 SCR 654
1243:
1242:
1238:
1232: 2 SCR 335
1223:
1222:
1215:
1200:
1199:
1192:
1183:
1181:
1175:
1174:
1151:
1142:
1140:
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1126:
1117:
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811:
803:
799:
795:
753:
718:
712:
698:
683:
675:
673:Self-government
637:
592:
519:leave to appeal
515:
481:
466:oral traditions
452:Allan McEachern
425:
412:
407:
367:
323:
316:
300:
294:
281:self-government
269:
127:Frank Iacobucci
98:
44:
38:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2688:
2686:
2678:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
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2483:
2476:
2469:
2468:
2467:
2455:
2448:
2441:
2434:
2427:
2420:
2417:Mitchell v MNR
2413:
2406:
2399:
2392:
2385:
2378:
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2364:
2357:
2350:
2343:
2335:
2333:
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2304:
2298:
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2266:
2260:
2254:
2253:(1876–present)
2246:
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2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2183:
2174:
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2166:
2165:
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2161:
2159:
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2146:
2140:
2134:
2128:
2122:
2115:
2113:
2104:
2103:
2095:
2089:
2083:
2077:
2071:
2065:
2062:Covenant Chain
2058:
2056:
2044:
2038:
2037:
2035:
2034:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1996:
1994:
1993:Sources of law
1990:
1989:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1975:Indigenous law
1969:
1967:
1966:
1959:
1952:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1931:
1925:
1909:
1908:External links
1906:
1905:
1904:
1893:
1882:
1876:
1869:
1862:
1855:
1848:
1841:
1834:
1827:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1812:
1787:(2): 239–255.
1757:
1750:
1732:
1685:
1664:
1641:
1628:(PhD Thesis).
1614:
1584:
1548:
1527:
1514:(PhD Thesis).
1500:
1474:
1449:
1408:
1389:(3): 463–495.
1364:
1335:
1310:
1299:
1274:
1254:
1236:
1213:
1190:
1149:
1124:
1088:
1075:(PhD Thesis).
1054:
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970:
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866:
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714:Main article:
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545:was joined by
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383:Tribal Council
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296:Main article:
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2581:Haudenosaunee
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2567:Grand Council
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2512:
2510:
2509:
2505:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2496:
2495:
2494:R v Pamajewon
2491:
2489:
2488:
2484:
2482:
2481:
2477:
2475:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2465:Gladue report
2463:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2456:
2454:
2453:
2452:R v Gladstone
2449:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2440:
2439:
2438:Powley ruling
2435:
2433:
2432:
2428:
2426:
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2255:
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2100:
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2074:Nanfan Treaty
2072:
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2063:
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2059:
2057:
2053:
2052:Confederation
2048:
2045:
2041:Treaties and
2039:
2033:
2032:
2028:
2026:
2025:Treaty rights
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1985:customary law
1980:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1960:
1958:
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1951:
1946:
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1935:
1932:
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1926:
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1913:Full text of
1912:
1911:
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1874:
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1842:
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1838:B.C. Studies,
1835:
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1825:
1821:
1820:
1816:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1775:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1747:
1743:
1736:
1733:
1722:on 2019-02-23
1718:
1714:
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1668:
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1602:Vancouver Sun
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1210:
1209: SCR 313
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1204:
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1179:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1160:
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1150:
1139:
1138:The Discourse
1135:
1128:
1125:
1114:on 2020-09-22
1110:
1103:
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1074:
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693:
691:
690:
680:
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672:
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660:
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654:
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652:R v Gladstone
648:
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618:
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137:Reasons given
135:
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131:John C. Major
128:
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97:
96:Antonio Lamer
94:
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77:
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65:
63:
59:
56:
52:
48:
41:
37:
36:
30:
25:
20:
2660:Wet'suwet'en
2598:
2588:Pittailiniit
2586:
2541:
2534:
2527:
2520:
2513:
2506:
2499:
2492:
2485:
2478:
2473:R v Gonzales
2471:
2457:
2450:
2445:R v Drybones
2443:
2436:
2429:
2422:
2415:
2410:R v Marshall
2408:
2401:
2394:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2373:
2366:
2359:
2352:
2345:
2338:
2297:(since 2004)
2286:
2248:
2188:(1871–1921)
2177:
2110:Upper Canada
2097:
2030:
1917:decision at
1900:
1896:
1889:
1885:
1879:
1872:
1865:
1858:
1851:
1844:
1837:
1830:
1823:
1804:. Retrieved
1784:
1780:
1741:
1735:
1724:. Retrieved
1717:the original
1712:
1708:
1677:. Retrieved
1667:
1654:
1633:. Retrieved
1624:
1617:
1606:. Retrieved
1600:
1576:. Retrieved
1574:(2): 309–311
1571:
1567:
1542:
1519:. Retrieved
1510:
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2605:Plains Cree
2600:Wahkohtowin
2501:R v Sparrow
2307:Land claims
2257:White Paper
2182:(1869–1876)
2171:(post-1867)
2102:(1857–1869)
2088:(1764–1784)
2082:(1725–1779)
1930:– NativeWeb
1043:gitxsan.com
774:R v Sparrow
726:Tsilhqot'in
646:R v Sparrow
605:sui generis
487:, from the
335:sui generis
241:R v Sparrow
158:Concurrence
150:Concurrence
2634:Categories
2508:Re Eskimos
2480:R v Guerin
2459:R v Gladue
2396:Kruger v R
2347:R v Badger
2250:Indian Act
2055:(pre-1867)
1921: and
1886:Delgamuukw
1806:2019-02-23
1726:2019-02-22
1679:2019-02-22
1635:2019-02-22
1608:2019-02-22
1578:2019-02-22
1543:BC Studies
1521:2019-02-21
1468:2019-02-22
1354:31 October
1329:2022-01-05
1293:2022-01-05
1184:2019-02-18
1143:2019-02-21
1118:2019-02-22
1082:2019-02-21
1048:2019-02-21
793:References
737:Delgamuukw
722:Delgamuukw
641:Delgamuukw
609:fee simple
395:anglicized
351:Delgamuukw
290:Delgamuukw
267:Background
255:Delgamuukw
230:section 35
225:plaintiffs
196:Delgamuukw
179:3 SCR 1010
119:Peter Cory
71:Docket No.
66:3 SCR 1010
2143:Treaty 45
2094:(1850–54)
1264:R v Adams
854:APTN News
429:Vancouver
417:alienated
410:The claim
344:R v Adams
62:Citations
2332:Case law
2112:treaties
984:CBC News
859:March 7,
828:March 7,
751:See also
537:joined;
315:—
142:Majority
2655:Gitxsan
2571:Miꞌkmaq
2487:R v Jim
2064:(1670s)
1899:(1998)
1801:3552327
1487:Gitxsan
1403:7663303
491:to the
387:Gitxsan
385:of the
377:in the
371:Gitxsan
273:Gitxsan
232:of the
213:Gitxsan
2291:(2002)
2283:(1998)
2277:(1995)
2271:(1993)
2265:(1975)
2259:(1969)
2151:(1836)
2145:(1836)
2139:(1827)
2133:(1815)
2127:(1798)
2121:(1787)
2076:(1701)
2070:(1701)
1923:CanLII
1897:et al.
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1658:,
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1268:,
1248:,
1230:,
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788:(2014)
782:(2014)
776:(1990)
770:(1984)
764:(1971)
445:kungax
441:adaawḵ
349:Until
228:under
223:. The
211:. The
209:Canada
79:Ruling
74:23799
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2593:Inuit
1919:LexUM
1797:JSTOR
1777:(PDF)
1720:(PDF)
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1564:(PDF)
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1399:S2CID
1112:(PDF)
1105:(PDF)
626:land.
535:Major
2275:RCAP
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