235:; alternatively, the sequence may retain its original identity as an exon or intron, respectively. If an exon that encodes for one or more domains is duplicated, this could directly result in a more complex protein via domain accretion. Eukaryotic genes have undergone frequent internal gene duplication throughout evolutionary history. One example is seen in the dinucleotide-binding regions of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase: the duplicated domain is capable of binding with more molecules than the unduplicated. Another is the ovomucoid gene, which is the product of two internal duplications.
254:, gene fusion, or gene fission. Domain shuffling has been found to be at least partially responsible for some traits in modern vertebrates. Most domains only have a small number of uses, while very few domains are used as Lego blocks over and over again in multidomain proteins. Phenotypic innovation does not arise solely from the creation of new proteins, but also from changing gene expression and
114:
materials are at hand to fashion something functional. While the engineer depends on specific materials and tools precisely suited to their project, the tinkerer makes do with miscellaneous scraps and remnants. The resulting creations of the tinkerer emerge from a series of opportunistic events, enriching their repertoire with each encounter.
27:
each can be employed in multiple ways. According to the tinkering concept, “evolution does not produce novelties from scratch". It comes from previously unseen associations of old materials to modify an existing system to give a new function or combine systems together to enhance the functions. The transformation from
133:
is the key adaptive feature of humans, yet still holds mysteries regarding its precise purpose. The brain has also evolved through natural selection over millions of years, like other body parts, primarily to serve our reproductive needs. However, the human brain's development was more complex unlike
105:
is frequently likened to the work of an engineer, yet this analogy falls short. Unlike the engineer who operates based on meticulous planning and a clear vision of the end product, evolution lacks such deliberate intent. Additionally, while the engineer has access to carefully selected materials and
26:
happens in nature. It explains that evolution works as a tinkerer who experiments with miscellaneous items, unsure of the outcome, and utilizes whatever is available to craft functional objects whose utility may only become evident later. None of the materials serve a defined purpose initially, and
687:
Cupello, Camila; Hirasawa, Tatsuya; Tatsumi, Norifumi; Yabumoto, Yoshitaka; Gueriau, Pierre; Isogai, Sumio; Matsumoto, Ryoko; Saruwatari, Toshiro; King, Andrew; Hoshino, Masato; Uesugi, Kentaro; Okabe, Masataka; Brito, Paulo M (2022-07-26). Kuraku, Shigehiro; Bronner, Marianne E; Graham, Anthony;
146:
activities. These older structures lack the discriminative and symbolic abilities of the neocortex and are primarily associated with emotions. Despite the dominance of the neocortex in intellectual processes, the older structures maintain strong connections with automatic centers, ensuring vital
113:
Moreover, the engineer's creations tend to approach a level of perfection achievable with current technology, whereas evolution does not strive for perfection but rather resembles a tinkerer. This tinkerer, akin to evolution, lacks a precise blueprint of the outcome and instead utilizes whatever
38:
The process of evolutionary tinkering takes quite a long time. As a meticulous tinkerer who continuously refines its creations, making adjustments, trimming and extending here and there, seizing every chance to gradually tailor them to their evolving purposes, this process happens over countless
147:
functions like obtaining food and responding to threats. This evolutionary process, characterized by the emergence of a dominant neocortex alongside the persistence of older systems, resembles a tinkering process, where new elements are added onto existing ones without fully replacing them.
125:
illustrates a process akin to tinkering rather than deliberate engineering. It originated in certain freshwater fish faced with oxygen deficient environments, leading them to ingest air and absorb oxygen through their esophageal walls. Over time, this behavior favored the enlargement of the
308:. Although they are too rare to notably increase the number of proteins in a given lineage, the tinkering model posits that adding just a few Lego blocks to the collection allows for many new possible combinations of domains, i.e., proteins with new shapes and functions.
222:
There are several forms of gene duplication. The product of whole-gene duplication is two copies of the gene, whereas that of diploid-type gene duplication is one gene that has doubled in length. Internal gene duplication results in repeated
78:
first introduced the idea of tinkering to a broad audience of scientists, drawing from diverse fields such as molecular biology, evolutionary biology, and cultural anthropology. The concept of tinkering, or more precisely, the notion of
265:
by joining two genes together) and gene fission or fragmentation, which results in splitting one gene with many domains into multiple smaller genes, are the other two molecular mechanisms by which mosaic proteins can be formed.
171:, combination, and reassorting these original sequences. It is well established that gene duplication has produced a great deal of diversity throughout evolutionary history. One example of molecular tinkering can be found in
83:, serves as a theoretical framework for analyzing various phenomena characterized by a common underlying process: the opportunistic rearrangement and recombination of existing elements. Jacob and Monad also won the
201:
to explain: the domains can be taken apart and put together again in unique ways, thus changing the shape and function of the protein. There are many different means by which tinkering can result in molecular and
1134:
Kawashima, Takeshi; Kawashima, Shuichi; Tanaka, Chisaki; Murai, Miho; Yoneda, Masahiko; Putnam, Nicholas H.; Rokhsar, Daniel S.; Kanehisa, Minoru; Satoh, Nori; Wada, Hiroshi (May 14, 2009).
227:
sequences within a gene, and less than 100% of the gene is replicated. Because adding nucleotides to a sequence could impact splicing, this process may result in changing the identity of
206:
novelty, primarily by taking apart the Lego blocks of proteins and putting them together again in unique patterns. Generally, these processes add to the organizational complexity of the
319:
is a very rare phenomenon in which an intron becomes an exon. In pseudoexonization, an exon becomes nonfunctional; this in turn changes the shape and function of the protein.
138:, onto older ones. This rapid evolution led to a division between the neocortex, responsible for intellectual functions, and the older structures, controlling
277:
is another mechanism of molecular tinkering that may be responsible for increasing diversity in the proteome. One special kind of alternative splicing is
281:, which produce intron-encoded proteins. It has been proposed that nested gene structures could be maintained via neutral processes according to the
1698:
960:
855:
282:
84:
126:
esophageal surface area, eventually giving rise to lung-like structures through the emergence and enlargement of esophageal diverticula.
1663:
1236:
1508:
1208:
880:
532:
1251:
1246:
331:
disappear, it is possible for genes to be lost via one of two mechanisms. The first is deleting a single-copy gene. The second is
1465:
255:
343:
anatomical structures, and is uncommon due to its often deleterious nature. In the rare case that gene loss becomes fixed in a
1642:
1717:
1493:
1460:
182:; in this case, the tinkerer used whatever tools were at her disposal, including materials from an entirely different
134:
straightforward evolutionary changes such as a leg into a wing. It involved adding new structures, particularly the
1652:
1518:
1350:
51:
1722:
1345:
50:
is profoundly inefficient, despite the fact that it catalyzes one of the most important reactions on the planet:
1586:
1523:
1498:
1381:
1301:
1571:
1455:
1424:
1325:
32:
1096:
1682:
1576:
1503:
1402:
1340:
1335:
1266:
1201:
1032:"Processes of fungal proteome evolution and gain of function: gene duplication and domain rearrangement"
936:
296:
is very rare. The most probable path from noncoding DNA to a protein-coding gene is to first become a
197:
that has a defined shape, which determines the function of the protein. Some have used the analogy of
1591:
1434:
1429:
1311:
1306:
1293:
1043:
561:
383:
332:
328:
274:
28:
1687:
1376:
897:
462:
407:
293:
1637:
1621:
1417:
1412:
1321:
1173:
1155:
1116:
1077:
1059:
1012:
966:
956:
917:
876:
851:
818:
776:
768:
729:
711:
669:
651:
585:
577:
528:
454:
415:
399:
160:
102:
75:
1647:
1616:
1611:
1566:
1194:
1163:
1147:
1108:
1067:
1051:
1002:
948:
909:
843:
810:
760:
719:
701:
659:
641:
610:
569:
446:
391:
183:
168:
837:
1657:
1561:
1371:
798:
305:
143:
59:
1047:
565:
387:
1168:
1135:
1072:
1055:
1031:
724:
689:
664:
629:
251:
250:(or mosaic genes). These genes result from domain shuffling, which is accomplished via
243:
190:
1007:
990:
952:
748:
1711:
1625:
1539:
1407:
1241:
1218:
764:
247:
175:
172:
1450:
1271:
1261:
630:"Evolutionary tinkering vs. rational engineering in the times of synthetic biology"
340:
167:
of the earliest organisms were very short, and all subsequent genes were formed by
1386:
1366:
316:
278:
262:
155:
Jacob was convinced that although morphological analysis supports his notion of
66:
when the atmospheric conditions were drastically different than they are today.
1186:
258:. One example of novelty associated with domain shuffling is multicellularity.
1630:
1330:
1283:
913:
847:
646:
344:
336:
301:
297:
224:
122:
88:
35:
during evolution is such an event which has elaborated the existing function.
1159:
1112:
1063:
836:
Grunberg-Manago, Marianne; Clark, Brian F. C.; Zachau, Hans G., eds. (1989).
822:
772:
715:
655:
581:
458:
435:"Using Old Stuff in New Ways: Innovation as a Case of Evolutionary Tinkering"
403:
189:
To understand molecular tinkering, it is important to grasp the concept of a
1581:
1549:
1316:
1222:
203:
179:
135:
107:
23:
1177:
1120:
1081:
1016:
970:
921:
780:
733:
673:
604:
589:
395:
1151:
814:
614:
549:
1544:
1513:
1097:"Common exon duplication in animals and its role in alternative splicing"
419:
211:
43:
706:
1276:
466:
434:
411:
371:
194:
139:
63:
47:
991:"The Impact of Comparative Genomics on Our Understanding of Evolution"
1256:
228:
207:
55:
573:
450:
989:
Koonin, Eugene V; Aravind, L; Kondrashov, Alexey S (June 9, 2000).
42:
Most of the time, traits in nature are barely favorable enough for
523:
Graur, Dan (2016). "Chapter 8: Evolution by
Molecular Tinkering".
130:
1554:
1030:
Cohen-Gihon, Inbar; Sharan, Roded; Nussinov, Ruth (2011-06-01).
690:"Lung evolution in vertebrates and the water-to-land transition"
232:
198:
164:
118:
1190:
871:
Graur, Dan (2016). "Chapter 7: Evolution by DNA Duplication".
875:. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc. pp. 273–338.
527:. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc. pp. 339–390.
289:
De novo evolution of protein-coding genes from non-coding DNA
347:, it is difficult to definitively say what was the cause.
110:
relies on the resources available in its surroundings.
898:"Evolutionary tinkering with mitochondrial nucleoids"
339:, which has no functional paralogs, is comparable to
312:
Exonization of introns and pseudoexonization of exons
896:
Kucej, Martin; Butow, Ronald A. (December 1, 2007).
1675:
1604:
1532:
1486:
1479:
1443:
1395:
1359:
1292:
1229:
1136:"Domain shuffling and the evolution of vertebrates"
159:, one would find more evidence of tinkering at the
74:In his seminal article 'Evolution and Tinkering',
749:"Psychosomatic Disease and the "Visceral Brain""
106:specialized equipment tailored for their tasks,
335:of a single-copy gene; this produces a unitary
300:, similar to how functional genes first become
1202:
935:Das, Sudeshna; Smith, Temple F (2000-01-01),
433:Sanger, Mary Bryna; Levin, Martin A. (1992).
163:level. The tinkering model suggests that the
8:
799:"François Jacob: Bricolage and the Possible"
1483:
1209:
1195:
1187:
1167:
1071:
1006:
839:Evolutionary Tinkering in Gene Expression
723:
705:
663:
645:
439:Journal of Policy Analysis and Management
937:"Identifying nature's protein lego set"
355:
1699:Index of evolutionary biology articles
609:. New York, Boston: H.M. Caldwell Co.
518:
516:
514:
512:
510:
508:
506:
504:
502:
500:
498:
496:
7:
943:, Analysis of Amino Acid Sequences,
792:
790:
628:de Lorenzo, VĂctor (December 2018).
494:
492:
490:
488:
486:
484:
482:
480:
478:
476:
365:
363:
361:
359:
1509:Evolutionary developmental biology
747:MACLEAN, PAUL D. (November 1949).
606:Origin of species / Charles Darwin
193:, which is a distinct region of a
14:
634:Life Sciences, Society and Policy
323:Gene loss and unitary pseudogenes
1466:Evolution of sexual reproduction
765:10.1097/00006842-194911000-00003
151:Evolution by molecular tinkering
261:Gene fusion (the creation of a
178:, some of which originate from
1237:Genotype–phenotype distinction
873:Molecular and Genome Evolution
548:Morange, Michel (2013-05-23).
525:Molecular and Genome Evolution
1:
1494:Regulation of gene expression
1008:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80867-3
953:10.1016/S0065-3233(00)54006-6
941:Advances in Protein Chemistry
797:Marks, John (December 2020).
1664:Endless Forms Most Beautiful
1444:Evolution of genetic systems
1252:Gene–environment correlation
1247:Gene–environment interaction
1056:10.1088/1478-3975/8/3/035009
550:"François Jacob (1920–2013)"
256:protein-protein interactions
98:Engineering versus tinkering
87:in 1965 for his work on the
54:. This is likely due to the
1643:Christiane NĂĽsslein-Volhard
947:, Academic Press: 159–183,
304:before becoming completely
283:neutral theory of evolution
1739:
1519:Hedgehog signaling pathway
1396:Developmental architecture
1095:Letunic, I. (2002-06-15).
46:to survive. For instance,
1696:
1346:Transgressive segregation
914:10.1016/j.tcb.2007.08.007
848:10.1007/978-1-4684-5664-6
803:Nottingham French Studies
647:10.1186/s40504-018-0086-x
372:"Evolution and Tinkering"
218:Internal gene duplication
22:is an explanation of how
1101:Human Molecular Genetics
603:Darwin, Charles (1900).
370:Jacob, François (1977).
1524:Notch signaling pathway
1499:Gene regulatory network
1382:Dual inheritance theory
1572:cis-regulatory element
1480:Control of development
1360:Non-genetic influences
1326:evolutionary landscape
1113:10.1093/hmg/11.13.1561
902:Trends in Cell Biology
753:Psychosomatic Medicine
396:10.1126/science.860134
20:Evolutionary tinkering
1683:Nature versus nurture
1587:Cell surface receptor
1504:Evo-devo gene toolkit
1403:Developmental biology
1341:Polygenic inheritance
1267:Quantitative genetics
1152:10.1101/gr.087072.108
815:10.3366/nfs.2020.0294
688:Long, John A (eds.).
615:10.5962/bhl.title.959
329:selective constraints
1718:Biological evolution
1592:Transcription factor
1307:Genetic assimilation
1294:Genetic architecture
333:nonfunctionalization
275:Alternative splicing
270:Alternative splicing
1688:Morphogenetic field
1605:Influential figures
1048:2011PhBio...8c5009C
707:10.7554/eLife.77156
566:2013Natur.497..440M
388:1977Sci...196.1161J
382:(4295): 1161–1166.
117:The development of
58:originating in the
1377:Genomic imprinting
294:De novo gene birth
16:Concept in biology
1705:
1704:
1638:Eric F. Wieschaus
1600:
1599:
1418:Pattern formation
1322:Fitness landscape
1107:(13): 1561–1567.
962:978-0-12-034254-9
857:978-1-4684-5666-0
103:Natural selection
1730:
1723:Biology theories
1648:William McGinnis
1617:Richard Lewontin
1612:C. H. Waddington
1484:
1461:Neutral networks
1211:
1204:
1197:
1188:
1182:
1181:
1171:
1146:(8): 1393–1403.
1131:
1125:
1124:
1092:
1086:
1085:
1075:
1036:Physical Biology
1027:
1021:
1020:
1010:
986:
980:
979:
978:
977:
932:
926:
925:
893:
887:
886:
868:
862:
861:
833:
827:
826:
794:
785:
784:
744:
738:
737:
727:
709:
684:
678:
677:
667:
649:
625:
619:
618:
600:
594:
593:
545:
539:
538:
520:
471:
470:
430:
424:
423:
367:
184:taxonomic domain
1738:
1737:
1733:
1732:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1727:
1708:
1707:
1706:
1701:
1692:
1671:
1658:Sean B. Carroll
1596:
1528:
1475:
1439:
1391:
1372:Maternal effect
1355:
1288:
1225:
1215:
1185:
1140:Genome Research
1133:
1132:
1128:
1094:
1093:
1089:
1029:
1028:
1024:
988:
987:
983:
975:
973:
963:
934:
933:
929:
908:(12): 586–592.
895:
894:
890:
883:
870:
869:
865:
858:
835:
834:
830:
796:
795:
788:
746:
745:
741:
686:
685:
681:
627:
626:
622:
602:
601:
597:
574:10.1038/497440a
547:
546:
542:
535:
522:
521:
474:
451:10.2307/3325134
432:
431:
427:
369:
368:
357:
353:
325:
314:
291:
272:
246:are encoded by
244:Mosaic proteins
241:
239:Mosaic proteins
220:
153:
121:in terrestrial
100:
72:
60:common ancestor
52:carbon fixation
17:
12:
11:
5:
1736:
1734:
1726:
1725:
1720:
1710:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1697:
1694:
1693:
1691:
1690:
1685:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1668:
1667:
1655:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1634:
1633:
1622:François Jacob
1619:
1614:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1601:
1598:
1597:
1595:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1558:
1557:
1547:
1542:
1536:
1534:
1530:
1529:
1527:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1490:
1488:
1481:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1447:
1445:
1441:
1440:
1438:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1421:
1420:
1415:
1405:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1392:
1390:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1353:
1351:Sequence space
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1298:
1296:
1290:
1289:
1287:
1286:
1281:
1280:
1279:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1226:
1216:
1214:
1213:
1206:
1199:
1191:
1184:
1183:
1126:
1087:
1022:
1001:(6): 573–576.
981:
961:
927:
888:
881:
863:
856:
828:
809:(3): 333–349.
786:
759:(6): 338–353.
739:
679:
620:
595:
540:
533:
472:
425:
354:
352:
349:
324:
321:
313:
310:
290:
287:
271:
268:
252:exon shuffling
248:chimeric genes
240:
237:
219:
216:
191:protein domain
176:nucleoproteins
152:
149:
99:
96:
76:François Jacob
71:
70:François Jacob
68:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1735:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1715:
1713:
1700:
1695:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1666:
1665:
1661:
1660:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1627:
1626:Jacques Monod
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1556:
1553:
1552:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1540:Homeotic gene
1538:
1537:
1535:
1531:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1491:
1489:
1485:
1482:
1478:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1409:
1408:Morphogenesis
1406:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1358:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1291:
1285:
1282:
1278:
1275:
1274:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1242:Reaction norm
1240:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1212:
1207:
1205:
1200:
1198:
1193:
1192:
1189:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1130:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1091:
1088:
1083:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1042:(3): 035009.
1041:
1037:
1033:
1026:
1023:
1018:
1014:
1009:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
985:
982:
972:
968:
964:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
931:
928:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
892:
889:
884:
882:9781605354699
878:
874:
867:
864:
859:
853:
849:
845:
841:
840:
832:
829:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
793:
791:
787:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
743:
740:
735:
731:
726:
721:
717:
713:
708:
703:
699:
695:
691:
683:
680:
675:
671:
666:
661:
657:
653:
648:
643:
639:
635:
631:
624:
621:
616:
612:
608:
607:
599:
596:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
560:(7450): 440.
559:
555:
551:
544:
541:
536:
534:9781605354699
530:
526:
519:
517:
515:
513:
511:
509:
507:
505:
503:
501:
499:
497:
495:
493:
491:
489:
487:
485:
483:
481:
479:
477:
473:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
445:(1): 88–115.
444:
440:
436:
429:
426:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
366:
364:
362:
360:
356:
350:
348:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
322:
320:
318:
311:
309:
307:
303:
299:
295:
288:
286:
284:
280:
276:
269:
267:
264:
259:
257:
253:
249:
245:
238:
236:
234:
230:
226:
217:
215:
213:
209:
205:
200:
196:
192:
187:
185:
181:
177:
174:
173:mitochondrial
170:
166:
162:
158:
150:
148:
145:
141:
137:
132:
127:
124:
120:
115:
111:
109:
104:
97:
95:
93:
91:
86:
82:
77:
69:
67:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
40:
36:
34:
33:multicellular
30:
25:
21:
1662:
1555:eyeless gene
1470:
1451:Evolvability
1425:Segmentation
1302:Canalisation
1272:Heterochrony
1262:Heritability
1230:Key concepts
1143:
1139:
1129:
1104:
1100:
1090:
1039:
1035:
1025:
998:
994:
984:
974:, retrieved
944:
940:
930:
905:
901:
891:
872:
866:
838:
831:
806:
802:
756:
752:
742:
697:
693:
682:
637:
633:
623:
605:
598:
557:
553:
543:
524:
442:
438:
428:
379:
375:
326:
315:
292:
279:nested genes
273:
260:
242:
221:
188:
156:
154:
128:
116:
112:
101:
89:
80:
73:
41:
37:
19:
18:
1653:Mike Levine
1562:Distal-less
1387:Polyphenism
1367:Epigenetics
1219:development
317:Exonization
302:pseudogenes
263:fusion gene
214:, or both.
199:Lego blocks
169:duplication
123:vertebrates
85:Nobel Prize
29:unicellular
1712:Categories
1631:Lac operon
1456:Robustness
1435:Modularity
1430:Metamerism
1336:Plasticity
1331:Pleiotropy
1284:Heterotopy
976:2024-05-08
700:: e77156.
351:References
345:population
337:pseudogene
225:nucleotide
204:phenotypic
180:eukaryotes
1582:Morphogen
1567:Engrailed
1550:Pax genes
1471:Tinkering
1317:Epistasis
1312:Dominance
1223:phenotype
1160:1088-9051
1064:1478-3975
823:0029-4586
773:0033-3174
716:2050-084X
656:2195-7819
640:(1): 18.
582:0028-0836
459:0276-8739
404:0036-8075
341:vestigial
298:protogene
161:molecular
157:bricolage
140:emotional
136:neocortex
108:evolution
81:bricolage
44:organisms
24:evolution
1545:Hox gene
1533:Elements
1514:Homeobox
1178:19443856
1121:12045209
1082:21572172
1017:10892642
971:10829228
922:17981466
781:15410445
734:35880746
674:30099657
590:23698437
306:nongenic
212:proteome
144:visceral
64:plastids
1676:Debates
1487:Systems
1413:Eyespot
1277:Neoteny
1169:2720177
1073:3140765
1044:Bibcode
725:9323002
665:6087506
562:Bibcode
467:3325134
412:1744610
384:Bibcode
376:Science
229:introns
195:protein
62:of all
48:RuBisCO
1577:Ligand
1257:Operon
1176:
1166:
1158:
1119:
1080:
1070:
1062:
1015:
969:
959:
920:
879:
854:
821:
779:
771:
732:
722:
714:
672:
662:
654:
588:
580:
554:Nature
531:
465:
457:
420:860134
418:
410:
402:
210:, the
208:genome
92:operon
56:enzyme
39:eons.
694:eLife
463:JSTOR
408:JSTOR
327:When
233:exons
165:genes
131:brain
119:lungs
1217:The
1174:PMID
1156:ISSN
1117:PMID
1078:PMID
1060:ISSN
1013:PMID
995:Cell
967:PMID
957:ISBN
918:PMID
877:ISBN
852:ISBN
819:ISSN
777:PMID
769:ISSN
730:PMID
712:ISSN
670:PMID
652:ISSN
586:PMID
578:ISSN
529:ISBN
455:ISSN
416:PMID
400:ISSN
231:and
142:and
129:The
1221:of
1164:PMC
1148:doi
1109:doi
1068:PMC
1052:doi
1003:doi
999:101
949:doi
910:doi
844:doi
811:doi
761:doi
720:PMC
702:doi
660:PMC
642:doi
611:doi
570:doi
558:497
447:doi
392:doi
380:196
90:lac
31:to
1714::
1624:+
1172:.
1162:.
1154:.
1144:19
1142:.
1138:.
1115:.
1105:11
1103:.
1099:.
1076:.
1066:.
1058:.
1050:.
1038:.
1034:.
1011:.
997:.
993:.
965:,
955:,
945:54
939:,
916:.
906:17
904:.
900:.
850:.
842:.
817:.
807:59
805:.
801:.
789:^
775:.
767:.
757:11
755:.
751:.
728:.
718:.
710:.
698:11
696:.
692:.
668:.
658:.
650:.
638:14
636:.
632:.
584:.
576:.
568:.
556:.
552:.
475:^
461:.
453:.
443:11
441:.
437:.
414:.
406:.
398:.
390:.
378:.
374:.
358:^
285:.
186:.
94:.
1324:/
1210:e
1203:t
1196:v
1180:.
1150::
1123:.
1111::
1084:.
1054::
1046::
1040:8
1019:.
1005::
951::
924:.
912::
885:.
860:.
846::
825:.
813::
783:.
763::
736:.
704::
676:.
644::
617:.
613::
592:.
572::
564::
537:.
469:.
449::
422:.
394::
386::
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.