Ecosystem service - Knowledge (XXG)

335: 1371: 812: 33: 831:, which articulate the consequences of our choices in comparable units of impact on human well-being. An especially challenging aspect of this process is that interpreting ecological information collected from one spatial-temporal scale does not necessarily mean it can be applied at another; understanding the dynamics of ecological processes relative to ecosystem services is essential in aiding economic decisions. Weighting factors such as a service's irreplaceability or bundled services can also allocate economic value such that goal attainment becomes more efficient. 4302: 4280: 1029:

species may impact or control many ecological processes; so much so that they are included on the list of "ecosystem engineers"—organisms that physically, biologically or chemically modify the environment around them in ways that influence the health of other organisms. Many of the ecological functions and processes performed or affected by shellfish contribute to human well-being by providing a stream of valuable ecosystem services over time by filtering out particulate materials and potentially mitigating water quality issues by controlling

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ecosystem, it is usually assumed that humans benefit from a combination of these services. The services offered by diverse types of ecosystems (forests, seas, coral reefs, mangroves, etc.) differ in nature and in consequence. In fact, some services directly affect the livelihood of neighboring human populations (such as fresh water, food or aesthetic value, etc.) while other services affect general environmental conditions by which humans are indirectly impacted (such as

290: 1343: 5497: 7015: 5891: 5327: 5881: 941:(PES), also known as payments for environmental services (or benefits), are incentives offered to farmers or landowners in exchange for managing their land to provide some sort of ecological service. They have been defined as "a transparent system for the additional provision of environmental services through conditional payments to voluntary providers". These programmes promote the conservation of 200: 5339: 899:, not dependence. Several tools and methodologies can help the private sector value and assess ecosystem services, including Our Ecosystem, the 2008 Corporate Ecosystem Services Review, the Artificial Intelligence for Environment & Sustainability (ARIES) project from 2007, the Natural Value Initiative (2012) and InVEST (Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services & Tradeoffs, 2012) 1357: 1230:(geographic information system) technology and put online that will help for planners to choose the best grassland management solution for concrete grassland. It will look holistically at the processes in the countryside and help to find best grassland management solutions by taking into account both natural and socioeconomic factors of the particular site. 584:

organism to the other and from one ecosystem to the other. Nutrients are recycled through the life cycle of organisms as they die and decompose, releasing the nutrients into the neighboring environment. "The service of nutrient cycling eventually impacts all other ecosystem services as all living things require a constant supply of nutrients to survive".

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wood, charcoal, wood chips and roundwood used in an unprocessed form. Global production and trade of all major wood-based products recorded their highest ever values in 2018. Production, imports and exports of roundwood, sawnwood, wood-based panels, wood pulp, wood charcoal and pellets reached their maximum quantities since 1947 when

484:; most large-scale farmers import non-native honey bees to provide this service. A 2005 study reported that in California's agricultural region, it was found that wild bees alone could provide partial or complete pollination services or enhance the services provided by honey bees through behavioral interactions. However, 583:

Nutrient cycling is the movement of nutrients through an ecosystem by biotic and abiotic processes. The ocean is a vast storage pool for these nutrients, such as carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus. The nutrients are absorbed by the basic organisms of the marine food web and are thus transferred from one

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experience conflict between different forest stakeholders. In addition, concerns for such global transactions include inconsistent compensation for services or resources sacrificed elsewhere and misconceived warrants for irresponsible use. As of 2001, another approach focused on protecting ecosystem

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has been a subject of extensive academic pursuit. From defining the problems to finding solutions that can be applied in practical and sustainable ways, there is much to overcome. Considering options must balance present and future human needs, and decision-makers must frequently work from valid but

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The economic valuation of ecosystem services also involves social communication and information, areas that remain particularly challenging and are the focus of many researchers. In general, the idea is that although individuals make decisions for any variety of reasons, trends reveal the aggregated

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micronutrients. The value of forest foods as a nutritional resource is not limited to low- and middle-income countries; more than 100 million people in the European Union (EU) regularly consume wild food. Some 2.4 billion people – in both urban and rural settings – use wood-based energy for cooking.

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started reporting global forest product statistics. In 2018, growth in production of the main wood-based product groups ranged from 1 percent (woodbased panels) to 5 percent (industrial roundwood). The fastest growth occurred in the Asia-Pacific, Northern American and European regions, likely due to

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Forests also provide non-wood forest products, including fodder, aromatic and medicinal plants, and wild foods. Worldwide, around 1 billion people depend to some extent on wild foods such as wild meat, edible insects, edible plant products, mushrooms and fish, which often contain high levels of key

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Daniel, T. C.; Muhar, A.; Arnberger, A.; Aznar, O.; Boyd, J. W.; Chan, K. M. A.; Costanza, R.; Elmqvist, T.; Flint, C. G.; Gobster, P. H.; Gret-Regamey, A.; Lave, R.; Muhar, S.; Penker, M.; Ribe, R. G.; Schauppenlehner, T.; Sikor, T.; Soloviy, I.; Spierenburg, M.; Taczanowska, K.; Tam, J.; von der

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and Rosa Weigert called attention to "ecological systems" in their environmental science textbook and "the most subtle and dangerous threat to man's existence ... the potential destruction, by man's own activities, of those ecological systems upon which the very existence of the human species

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to reduce the harmful impacts of climate hazards including shifting patterns or levels of rainfall, changes in maximum and minimum temperatures, stronger storms, and increasingly variable climatic conditions. EbA measures can be implemented on their own or in combination with engineered approaches

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production and restoration. A keystone species, low in the food chain, bivalve shellfish such as oysters support a complex community of species by performing a number of functions essential to the diverse array of species that surround them. There is also increasing recognition that some shellfish

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of ecosystem service providers. In some cases, banks for handling such credits have been established and conservation companies have even gone public on stock exchanges, defining an evermore parallel link with economic endeavors and opportunities for tying into social perceptions. However, crucial

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There are questions regarding the environmental and economic values of ecosystem services. Some people may be unaware of the environment in general and humanity's interrelatedness with the natural environment, which may cause misconceptions. Although environmental awareness is rapidly improving in

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Four different types of ecosystem services have been distinguished by the scientific body: regulating services, provisioning services, cultural services and supporting services. An ecosystem does not necessarily offer all four types of services simultaneously; but given the intricate nature of any

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Daily, Gretchen C.; Söderqvist, Tore; Aniyar, Sara; Arrow, Kenneth; Dasgupta, Partha; Ehrlich, Paul R.; Folke, Carl; Jansson, AnnMari; Jansson, Bengt-Owe; Kautsky, Nils; Levin, Simon; Lubchenco, Jane; Mäler, Karl-Göran; Simpson, David; Starrett, David; Tilman, David; Walker, Brian (21 July 2000).

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As of 2012, there was a discussion as to how the concept of cultural ecosystem services could be operationalized, how landscape aesthetics, cultural heritage, outdoor recreation, and spiritual significance to define can fit into the ecosystem services approach. who vote for models that explicitly

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A peer-reviewed study published in 1997 estimated the value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital to be between US$ 16 and $ 54 trillion per year, with an average of US$ 33 trillion per year. However, Salles (2011) indicated 'The total value of biodiversity is infinite, so having

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Sea sports are very popular among coastal populations: surfing, snorkeling, whale watching, kayaking, recreational fishing ... a lot of tourists also travel to resorts close to the sea or rivers or lakes to be able to experience these activities, and relax near the water. The United Nations

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Primary production refers to the production of organic matter, i.e., chemically bound energy, through processes such as photosynthesis and chemosynthesis. The organic matter produced by primary producers forms the basis of all food webs. Further, it generates oxygen (O2), a molecule necessary to

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produce a large type and variety of timber products, including roundwood, sawnwood, panels, and engineered wood, e.g., cross-laminated timber, as well as pulp and paper. Besides the production of timber, forestry activities may also result in products that undergo little processing, such as fire

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An estimated $ 125 trillion to $ 140 trillion is added to the economy each year by all ecosystem services. However, many of these services are at risk due to climate and other anthropogenic impacts. Climate-driven shifts in biome ranges is expected to cause a 9% decline in ecosystem services on

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or resources like water. Another approach that has become increasingly popular during the 1990s is the marketing of ecosystem services protection. Payment and trading of services is an emerging worldwide small-scale solution where one can acquire credits for activities such as sponsoring the

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As of 2012, many companies were not fully aware of the extent of their dependence and impact on ecosystems and the possible ramifications. Likewise, environmental management systems and environmental due diligence tools are more suited to handle "traditional" issues of pollution and natural

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The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment report 2005 defined ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories.

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Supporting services are the services that allow for the other ecosystem services to be present. They have indirect impacts on humans that last over a long period of time. Several services can be considered as being both supporting services and regulating/cultural/provisioning services.

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forests protect coastal shorelines from tidal erosion or erosion by currents; a process that was studied after the 1999 cyclone that hit India. Villages that were surrounded with mangrove forests encountered less damages than other villages that were not protected by mangroves.

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Raudsepp-Hearne, Ciara; Peterson, Garry D.; Tengö, Maria; Bennett, Elena M.; Holland, Tim; Benessaiah, Karina; MacDonald, Graham K.; Pfeifer, Laura (September 2010). "Untangling the Environmentalist's Paradox: Why Is Human Well-being Increasing as Ecosystem Services Degrade?".

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and to assist collecting and fusing the input from stakeholders. This study was about siting wave energy devices off the Oregon Coast, but presents a general method for managing uncertain spatial science and stakeholder information in a decision making environment.

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The Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) is a classification scheme developed to accounting systems (like National counts etc.), in order to avoid double-counting of Supporting Services with others Provisioning and Regulating Services.

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Coastal and estuarine ecosystems act as buffer zones against natural hazards and environmental disturbances, such as floods, cyclones, tidal surges and storms. The role they play is to " a portion of the impact and thus its effect on the land".

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Costanza, Robert; d'Arge, Ralph; de Groot, Rudolf; Farber, Stephen; Grasso, Monica; Hannon, Bruce; Limburg, Karin; Naeem, Shahid; O'Neill, Robert V.; Paruelo, Jose; Raskin, Robert G.; Sutton, Paul; van den Belt, Marjan (May 1997).

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data and analyses can be used to assess the health and extent of land cover classes that provide ecosystem services, which aids in planning, management, monitoring of stakeholders' actions, and communication between stakeholders.

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Pivotal cultural values attaching to the natural/cultivated environment rely on an area's unique character that cannot be addressed by methods that use universal scientific parameters to determine ecological structures and

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to support water resource management decisions in the Middle Rio Grande basin of New Mexico. This study focused on modeling the stakeholder inputs across a spatial decision, but ignored uncertainty. Another study used

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Balvanera, Patricia; Daily, Gretchen C.; Ehrlich, Paul R.; Ricketts, Taylor H.; Bailey, Sallie-Anne; Kark, Salit; Kremen, Claire; Pereira, Henrique (16 March 2001). "Conserving Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services".

527:, ...) and the vegetation it supports – trees, root mats, etc. – retain large amounts of water (surface water, snowmelt, rain, groundwater) and then slowly releases them back, decreasing the likeliness of floods. 642:

If a natural/cultivated environment has symbolic meanings and cultural values the object of these values are not ecosystems but shaped phenomena like mountains, lakes, forests, and, mainly, symbolic landscapes.

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CBD (2009). Connecting Biodiversity and Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Report of the Second Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on Biodiversity and Climate Change. Montreal, Technical Series No. 41, 126

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Cultural services relate to the non-material world, as they benefit the benefit recreational, aesthetic, cognitive and spiritual activities, which are not easily quantifiable in monetary terms. They include:

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In Baltic countries scientists, nature conservationists and local authorities are implementing integrated planning approach for grassland ecosystems. They are developing an integrated planning tool based on

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link ecological structures and functions with cultural values and benefits. Likewise, there has been a fundamental critique of the concept of cultural ecosystem services that builds on three arguments:

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Although monetary pricing continues with respect to the valuation of ecosystem services, the challenges in policy implementation and management are significant and considerable. The administration of

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Contingent valuation: Service demand may be elicited by posing hypothetical scenarios that involve some valuation of alternatives (e.g. visitors willing to pay for increased access to national parks)

2902: 161:(MA), ecosystem services are "the benefits people obtain from ecosystems". The MA also delineated the four categories of ecosystem services into provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural. 6045: 971:

incomplete information. Existing legal policies are often considered insufficient since they typically pertain to human health-based standards that are mismatched with necessary means to protect

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and the drying of springs. Modern ideas of ecosystem services probably began when Marsh challenged in 1864 the idea that Earth's natural resources are unbounded by pointing out changes in

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creates a high level of biological activity, which has attracted human activity for thousands of years. Coasts also create essential material for organisms to live by, including estuaries,

2662: 1192:, and based on uncertain data, models, and estimates. Often it is the combination of the best science combined with the stakeholder values, estimates and opinions that drive the process. 3169: 2830:

Górriz-Mifsud, Elena; Varela, Elsa; Piqué, Míriam; Prokofieva, Irina (February 2016). "Demand and supply of ecosystem services in a Mediterranean forest: Computing payment boundaries".

1017:) has led to the suggested merging of objectives for maximizing their mutual success. This may be particularly strategic when employing networks that permit the flow of services across 3472: 488:

can quickly erode pollination services through the loss of species. The remaining species are unable to compensate this. The results of this study also indicate that the proportion of

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By 2010, there had evolved various working definitions and descriptions of ecosystem services in the literature. To prevent double-counting in ecosystem services audits, for instance,

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Walter V. Reid, H. A. (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-Being - A Report of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Washington DC: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Board. Retrieved from

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ornamental resources (including fashion, handicrafts, jewelry, pets, worship, decoration, and souvenirs like furs, feathers, ivory, orchids, butterflies, aquarium fish, shells, etc.)

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Cultural values do result not from properties produced by ecosystems but are the product of a specific way of seeing within the given cultural framework of symbolic experience.

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preferences of a society, from which the economic value of services can be inferred and assigned. The six major methods for valuing ecosystem services in monetary terms are:

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Badola, Ruchi; Hussain, S. A. (March 2005). "Valuing ecosystem functions: an empirical study on the storm protection function of Bhitarkanika mangrove ecosystem, India".

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dimensions of protecting the environment and is designed to guide institutions through multidisciplinary information and jargon, helping to direct strategic choices.

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Quoc Vo, Tuan; Kuenzer, C.; Oppelt, N. (August 2015). "How remote sensing supports mangrove ecosystem service valuation: A case study in Ca Mau province, Vietnam".

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Siirola, John; Tidwell, Vincent; Benz, Zachary; Stansbury, Melanie; Richards, Elizabeth; Turnley, Jessica; Warrender, Christina; Morrow, James (1 February 2012).

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can stabilize and enhance the provision of pollination services. The presence of such ecosystem elements functions almost like an insurance policy for farmers.

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sustain animals and humans. On average, a human consumes about 550 liter of oxygen per day, whereas plants produce 1,5 liter of oxygen per 10 grams of growth.

4347:– Gulf of Mexico Ecosystem Services Valuation Database (includes studies from all over the world, but only coastal ecosystems relevant to the Gulf of Mexico) 1601: 879:

Hedonic pricing: Service demand may be reflected in the prices people will pay for associated goods (e.g. coastal housing prices exceed that of inland homes)

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provision. These services make it possible for the ecosystems to continue providing services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.

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Heikkila, Tanya (2004). "Institutional boundaries and common-pool resource management: A comparative analysis of water management programs in California".

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Campos C., Adolfo; Hernández, María E.; Moreno-Casasola, Patricia; Cejudo Espinosa, Eduardo; Robledo R., Alezandra; Infante Mata, Dulce (December 2011).

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Kistenkas, Frederik H.; Bouwma, Irene M. (February 2018). "Barriers for the ecosystem services concept in European water and nature conservation law".

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Gorriz-Misfud, Elena; Secco, L; Pisani, E (2016). "Exploring the interlinkages between governance and social capital: A dynamic model for forestry".

827:'. Many efforts to inform decision-makers of current versus future costs and benefits now involve organizing and translating scientific knowledge to 5919: 4375: 5914: 3800:

Bastien-Olvera, B. A.; Conte, M. N.; Dong, X.; Briceno, T.; Batker, D.; Emmerling, J.; Tavoni, M.; Granella, F.; Moore, F. C. (18 December 2023).

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our contemporary world, ecosystem capital and its flow are still poorly understood, threats continue to impose, and we suffer from the so-called '

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control. In following years, variations of the term were used, but eventually 'ecosystem services' became the standard in scientific literature.

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in the water. As of 2018, the concept of ecosystem services had not been properly implemented into international and regional legislation yet.

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Avoided cost: Services allow society to avoid costs that would have been incurred in the absence of those services (e.g. waste treatment by

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positive economic growth in these areas. Over 40% of the territory in the European Union is covered by forests. This region has grown via

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Farber, Stephen C.; Costanza, Robert; Wilson, Matthew A. (June 2002). "Economic and ecological concepts for valuing ecosystem services".

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is said to provide substantial ecosystem services to local communities, including benefits to carbon storage, resiliency to climate, and

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DeFries, Ruth S.; Foley, Jonathan A.; Asner, Gregory P. (June 2004). "Land-use choices: balancing human needs and ecosystem function".

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Kremen, Claire (May 2005). "Managing ecosystem services: what do we need to know about their ecology?: Ecology of ecosystem services".

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that had previously provided the city with the ecosystem service of water purification. Once the input of sewage and pesticides to the

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near housing in Scotland. The filtering and cleaning of surface and waste water by natural vegetation is a form of ecosystem service.

6868: 4824: 1499: 1459: 815: 310: 2390: 2360: 1615: 3598: 3036: 95:, such as spiritual and recreational benefits. Evaluations of ecosystem services may include assigning an economic value to them. 6492: 5203: 5160: 4400: 811: 7039: 5945: 5663: 5198: 4880: 4809: 4748: 4541: 4433: 2756:"The Tragedy of the Commons: The population problem has no technical solution; it requires a fundamental extension in morality" 1037: 660: 158: 142: 4005: 1593: 5784: 5120: 5018: 4553: 3483: 2967: 938: 924: 664: 4254:

Study of Critical Environmental Problems (SCEP). 1970. Man's Impact on the Global Environment. MIT Press, Cambridge. 319pp.

3009: 2013: 1172:. The process of making ecosystem services decisions must consider the interaction of many types of information, honor all 737:

Coasts and their adjacent areas on and offshore are an important part of a local ecosystem. The mixture of fresh water and

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Barbier, Edward B.; Hacker, Sally D.; Kennedy, Chris; Koch, Evamaria W.; Stier, Adrian C.; Silliman, Brian R. (May 2011).

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Travel cost: Service demand may require travel, whose costs can reflect the implied value of the service (e.g. value of

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was estimated at $ 1–1.5 billion, which contrasted dramatically with the estimated $ 6–8 billion cost of constructing a

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Provisioning services consist of all "the products obtained from ecosystems". The following services are also known as

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is said to provide about $ 110 million in ecosystem services per year, $ 40 million more than if no base was present.

1021:, and might also facilitate securing the financial means to protect services through a diversification of investors. 1013:. Recognition that the conservation of many ecosystem services aligns with more traditional conservation goals (i.e. 106:

that perform the four categories of ecosystem services in several ways. Firstly, their provisioning services include

3592:"Valuation of Ecosystem Services from Shellfish Restoration, Enhancement and Management: A Review of the Literature" 3066: 3030:

Hanson, C, J Ranganathan, C Iceland, and J Finisdore. (2008) The Corporate Ecosystem Services Review (Version 1.0).

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cultural (including use of nature as motif in books, film, painting, folklore, national symbols, advertising, etc.)

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Daily, G. C. 1997. Nature's Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems. Island Press, Washington. 392pp.

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Chan, Kai M. A.; Shaw, M. Rebecca; Cameron, David R.; Underwood, Emma C.; Daily, Gretchen C. (31 October 2006).

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Ehrlich, P. R., and A. Ehrlich. 1981. Extinction: The Causes and Consequences of the Disappearance of Species.

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As of 2005 Local to regional collective management efforts were considered appropriate for services like crop

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Gibson, Clark C.; Williams, John T.; Ostrom, Elinor (February 2005). "Local Enforcement and Better Forests".

3170:"RC18-1605 Project Overview. Value and Resiliency of Ecosystem Services on Department of Defense (DoD) Lands" 7054: 6593: 6482: 5574: 5466: 5441: 5421: 5331: 5105: 4948: 4758: 4730: 4453: 4443: 4361: 4212: 1980: 1292:

drew attention to the critical role of the ecosystem in processing wastes and recycling nutrients. In 1970,

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Regulating services are the "benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes". These include:

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and colleagues' later work and that of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment lumped all of these together as

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Dietz, Thomas; Ostrom, Elinor; Stern, Paul C. (12 December 2003). "The Struggle to Govern the Commons".

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debate about what is the total value of nature is actually pointless because we can't live without it'.

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also has targets aimed at enhancing the use of ecosystem services for sustainable tourism especially in

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Daily, Gretchen C. (December 2000). "Management objectives for the protection of ecosystem services".

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For example, as of 2013, there had been interest in the valuation of ecosystem services provided by

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Ehrlich, P. R., and A. Ehrlich. 1970. Population, Resources, Environment: Issues in Human Ecology.

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has a target to ensure the conservation, restoration, and sustainable use of ecosystem services.

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Pretty, Jules (12 December 2003). "Social Capital and the Collective Management of Resources".

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Chichilnisky, Graciela; Heal, Geoffrey (February 1998). "Economic returns from the biosphere".

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spiritual and historical (including use of nature for religious or heritage value or natural)

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methods to exercise econometric models of landowner decisions in a study of the effects of

59:. These ecosystems, when functioning well, offer such things as provision of food, natural 6931: 6897: 6783: 6763: 6673: 6322: 6288: 6222: 6019: 6004: 5703: 5690: 5668: 5653: 5564: 5476: 5058: 4968: 4953: 4819: 4784: 4593: 4294:

The State of the World’s Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief

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help to turn animal wastes into organic material that can be reused by primary producers.

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raw materials (including lumber, skins, fuelwood, organic matter, fodder, and fertilizer)

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Costa Rica sustainable resource management: Successfully tackling tropical deforestation

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Classifying Ecosystem Services for Economic Valuation: The case of forest water services

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and services. In 2000, to improve the information available, the implementation of an

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Ecosystem services or eco-services are defined as the goods and services provided by

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While the notion of human dependence on Earth's ecosystems reaches to the start of

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Ecosystem services decisions require making complex choices at the intersection of

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science and education (including use of natural systems for school excursions, and

347: 71:. Ecosystem services are grouped into four broad categories of services. There are 3509: 2937: 2780: 2755: 2582:

What is landscape ecology? An analysis and evaluation of six different conceptions

1890:

The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief

1866: 199: 17: 4228:: W. L. Thomas, editor. Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (Volume 2). 4043: 3914: 3679: 3557: 2968:"Valuing biodiversity and ecosystem services: Why put economic values on Nature?" 2851: 2309: 2193: 2168: 1666: 1088:

as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse

460:

improved to levels that met government standards. The cost of this investment in

428:, where the quality of drinking water had fallen below standards required by the 6834: 6778: 6600: 6578: 6573: 6440: 6317: 6283: 6271: 6159: 6082: 5616: 5511: 4844: 4839: 4804: 4667: 3975: 3005: 1411:

Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

1385: 997: 987: 946: 746: 691: 629:

therapeutic (including eco-therapy, social forestry and animal assisted therapy)

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Molnar, Michelle; Clarke-Murray, Cathryn; Whitworth, John; Tam, Jordan (2009).

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Factor income: Services provide for the enhancement of incomes (e.g. improved

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in the Mediterranean. It was not until the late 1940s that three key authors—

6824: 6706: 6514: 6509: 6487: 6376: 6369: 6188: 6183: 6090: 6067: 5272: 5218: 4672: 3322: 3271: 3063:"ARIES :: ARtificial Intelligence for Environment & Sustainability" 2732: 2540: 2481: 1730: 1309: 1128: 1111: 1025: 828: 754: 489: 424:

An example for water purification as an ecosystem service is as follows: In

393: 154: 56: 41: 3845: 3576: 3517: 3340: 3279: 2991: 2789: 2559: 2500: 2117: 1674: 1072:

and their services to reduce the vulnerability of human communities to the

846:

Replacement cost: Services could be replaced with human-made systems (e.g.

300:, providing fuel, soil protection, shade, and even well-being to travelers. 4211:

Leopold, A. 1949. A Sand County Almanac and Sketches from Here and There.

4124:"Deforestation, Erosion, and Forest Management in Ancient Greece and Rome" 3227:

Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action

268:(including pharmaceuticals, chemical models, and test and assay organisms) 6951: 6519: 6445: 6386: 6381: 6329: 6239: 6210: 6203: 6193: 6124: 6098: 6094: 6086: 5633: 5065: 4057: 3088: 3062: 1119: 774: 738: 528: 6819: 6615: 6610: 6556: 6462: 6391: 6234: 6035: 5038: 4155: 3644: 3615:

Jones; Lawton, and Shachak (1994). "Organisms as Ecosystem Engineers".

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also support a diversity of plants, animals and insects crucial to the

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of chemicals, together with biotic recycling via root systems and soil

441: 404: 279: 241: 213: 135: 99: 45: 4328: 3375: 1721: 6668: 6633: 6457: 6413: 6261: 6059: 4702: 3195:

Tacconi, L (2012). "Redefining payments for environmental services".

2929: 2457:"Contributions of cultural services to the ecosystem services agenda" 1897: 1827: 1787: 1107: 876:

experience is at least what a visitor is willing to pay to get there)

271: 257:

genetic resources (including crop improvement genes, and health care)

88: 5930: 4139: 3938: 3775:"How much is nature worth? $ 125 trillion, according to this report" 3636: 1561:

Ojea, Elena; Chiabai, Aline; Martin-Ortega, Julia (September 2010).

1323:

The ecosystem services concept has continued to expand and includes

4314: 4292: 4224:

Sears, P. B. 1956. "The processes of environmental change by man."

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http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.356.aspx.pdf

6701: 6541: 6467: 6254: 3145:"Assessing Ecosystem Service Benefits from Military Installations" 2071: 1317: 1258: 957: 930: 810: 758: 567: 477: 355: 343: 333: 297: 288: 249: 198: 31: 4353: 4333: 2903:"The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital" 1004:. In particular, many forest-rich developing countries suffering 6646: 6502: 6497: 6477: 6351: 6302: 6146: 4202:

Vogt, W. 1948. Road to Survival. William Sloan: New York. 335pp.

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risk, and supply cleaned water better than degraded habitats do.

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has been suggested (ESF), which integrates the biophysical and

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Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 – Key findings

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Small is Beautiful: A Study of Economics As If People Mattered

1616:"Defining, valuing and providing ecosystem goods and services" 1285:—promoted recognition of human dependence on the environment. 1227: 339: 145:(MA) in the early 2000s has made this concept better known. 3802:"Unequal climate impacts on global values of natural capital" 130:) and flood control. Lastly, their cultural services include 3037:"Ecosystem Services Review | World Resources Institute" 1614:

Brown, Thomas C.; John C. Bergstrom; John B. Loomis (2007).

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to both model the uncertainty in the scientific information

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To provide an example of a cost comparison: The land of the

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10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0249:LCBHNA]2.0.CO;2

1247:

existence, the term 'natural capital' was first coined by

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www.serdp-estcp.org Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

55:

are the various benefits that humans derive from healthy

2580:. New York; Kirchhoff, T./Trepl, L./Vicenzotti, V. 2012: 5243:

UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)

2434:

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

1698:"The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services" 1820:

Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 – Key findings

1308:, which listed services including insect pollination, 1064:(EBA or EbA) encompasses a broad set of approaches to 3006:"Our Ecosystem – Mapping & Data Sharing Software" 2626:

Westcott, Morgan; Wendy Anderson, Eds (4 June 2021).

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Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 – Main report

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of coastal ecosystems include inspirational aspects,

322:, just 60% of the yearly forest growth is harvested. 3930:"Decision insight into stakeholder conflict for ERN" 2614: 1647: 1645: 1643: 694:, raw materials, biochemical and genetic resources. 6950: 6808: 6689: 6549: 6540: 6350: 6145: 6058: 6028: 5977: 5968: 5724: 5504: 5414: 5232: 5169: 4941: 4868: 4777: 4729: 4701: 4658: 4612: 4579: 4452: 4409: 4122:Hughes, J. Donald; Thirgood, J. V. (1 April 1982). 1524:"Estimating Ecosystem Services in Southern Ontario" 1180:, proposal proponents, decision makers, residents, 468:plant plus the $ 300 million annual running costs. 4341:for modeling impacts on aquatic ecosystem services 2129: 2127: 991:protection of carbon sequestration sources or the 1195:One analytical study modeled the stakeholders as 1488:Ecosystems and human well-being : synthesis 1448:Ecosystems and human well-being : synthesis 785:, sea turtles, marine mammals, and coral reefs. 496:available for wild bees within 1–2 km of a 3997:Ullman D. G.; K. Halsey; C. Goldfinger (2013). 2520:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2461:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1653:"The Value of Nature and the Nature of Value". 318:by roughly 0.4% year in recent decades. In the 5267:Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 3541:"Conservation Planning for Ecosystem Services" 3220: 3218: 3143:James Kagan, Mark Borsuk (18 September 2019). 2391:"BBC – GCSE Bitesize: Inhaled and exhaled air" 2091: 2089: 114:. Secondly, their supporting services include 79:, such as the control of climate and disease. 5946: 5392: 4369: 2601:. New York; Backhaus, G./Murungi, J. (eds.): 1868:Global forest products facts and figures 2018 781:, and mangroves. Coasts provide habitats for 415:Disturbance regulation, i.e. flood protection 175:'s original definition distinguished between 122:. Thirdly, their regulating services include 8: 4305: This article incorporates text from a 4283: This article incorporates text from a 4108: 4106: 3597:. Prepared for Pacific Shellfish Institute. 2628:"5.2 Recreation and Adventure Tourism in BC" 807:The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity 432:, authorities opted to restore the polluted 166:The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity 75:, such as the production of food and water. 4339:Water Evaluation And Planning (WEAP) system 4193:. Little, Brown and Company: Boston. 217pp. 1139:of individuals and institutions to address 962:Ecosystem services in urban and rural areas 745:) in estuaries provides many nutrients for 6812: 6546: 5974: 5953: 5939: 5931: 5399: 5385: 5377: 5338: 4376: 4362: 4354: 4176:Marsh, G. P. 1864 (1965). Man and Nature. 4058:"About the project | LIFE Viva Grass" 690:include forest products, marine products, 430:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 5278:Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) 3937: 3835: 3817: 3566: 3556: 3445: 3364:Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 3330: 2779: 2549: 2539: 2490: 2480: 2192: 1981:"Over 40% of the EU covered with forests" 1729: 1575: 710:and disease regulation and buffer zones. 5306:UN Conference on Sustainable Development 4309:work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO ( 4287:work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO ( 3999:"Managing Eco-System Services Decisions" 2805:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 1485:Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). 1445:Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). 1306:Study of Critical Environmental Problems 671:Estuarine and coastal ecosystem services 544:Supporting services include for example 3467: 3465: 3138: 3136: 2595:Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape 2574:Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape 2136:"Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services" 1437: 1406:Ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction 1304:was introduced in a 1970 report of the 996:for implementation are clearly defined 480:by bees is required for 15–30% of U.S. 4876:Corporate environmental responsibility 3956: 3945: 3725:"Climate Change Impacts on Ecosystems" 2644: 2633: 2514:Kirchhoff, Thomas (13 November 2012). 1591:The Ecological and Economic Foundation 1543: 1532: 36:An example of an ecosystem service is 27:Benefits provided by intact ecosystems 7070:Environmental social science concepts 4297:, FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP. 3604:from the original on 3 December 2013. 2341:from the original on 28 December 2017 2016:from the original on 24 February 2018 1884: 1882: 1880: 1878: 1861: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1754:"Tunza Eco-generation Eco-generation" 1480: 1478: 935:Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) 854:cost less than the construction of a 718:, biologically mediated habitats and 346:, forming the official source of the 203:Four categories of ecosystem services 7: 5249:Brundtlandt Commission Report (1983) 2754:Hardin, Garrett (13 December 1968). 2401:from the original on 26 October 2017 2371:from the original on 22 October 2017 1131:or dykes), hybrid measures (such as 1036:Notwithstanding, the United Nations 4245:, San Francisco. 383pp. – see p.157 3149:Nicholas Institute, Duke University 904:United States Department of Defense 869:and improves the income of fishers) 865:increases the commercial take of a 803:Economic analysis of climate change 354:, hold back water thereby reducing 4891:Environmental full-cost accounting 3974:Lewis, David; Alig, Ralph (2009). 3471:Jessica Brown and Neil Bird 2010. 3426:Environmental Science & Policy 3065:. aries.integratedmodelling.org/. 1078:Convention on Biological Diversity 1000:, which are often lacking in many 486:intensified agricultural practices 91:production. And finally there are 25: 4825:Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity 4011:from the original on 6 June 2013. 3121:from the original on 28 June 2012 3012:from the original on 17 June 2013 2006:"Millennium Ecosystem Assessment" 1080:(CBD) defines EBA as "the use of 619:, outdoor sports, and recreation) 7014: 7013: 5890: 5889: 5879: 5495: 5337: 5326: 5325: 5295:UN Millennium Declaration (2000) 4300: 4278: 3095:from the original on 16 May 2016 3069:from the original on 7 June 2012 2966:Salles, Jean-Michel (May 2011). 2310:"ISBN1118506243 – Google zoeken" 2110:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00751.x 1494:. Washington, DC: Island Press. 1454:. Washington, DC: Island Press. 1369: 1355: 1341: 1261:(c. 400 BC) who understood that 1053:This section is an excerpt from 1048:Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) 1044:average at global scale by 2100 923:This section is an excerpt from 5664:Science, technology and society 4881:Corporate social responsibility 4810:Ocean thermal energy conversion 4749:Community-supported agriculture 4434:Human impact on the environment 4329:Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 3750:"What is an ecosystem service?" 3723:US EPA, OAR (18 October 2022). 2692:US EPA, ORD (2 November 2017). 2361:"Oxygen and Human Requirements" 1930:"What is an ecosystem service?" 1038:Sustainable Development Goal 15 939:Payments for ecosystem services 816:Sustainable urban drainage pond 661:Sustainable Development Goal 14 159:Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 143:Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 63:of crops, clean air and water, 5121:Socially responsible marketing 3484:Overseas Development Institute 3403:10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.07.013 3229:. Cambridge University Press. 3209:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.09.028 1892:. Rome: FAO & UNEP. 2020. 925:Payment for ecosystem services 714:of coastal ecosystems include 665:Small Island Developing States 1: 7075:Ecological economics concepts 5312:Sustainable Development Goals 5116:Socially responsible business 3510:10.1126/science.291.5511.2047 3456:10.1016/S1462-9011(00)00102-7 2887:10.1016/S0921-8009(02)00088-5 2781:10.1126/science.162.3859.1243 2365:www.geography.hunter.cuny.edu 2173:Hydrological Sciences Journal 1401:Ecological goods and services 1143:(such as the introduction of 1127:(such as the construction of 843:habitats avoids health costs) 7065:Forestry and the environment 5979:Pollution / quality 5408:Environmental social science 4311:license statement/permission 4289:license statement/permission 4044:10.1016/j.ecoser.2015.04.007 3915:10.1016/j.forpol.2016.01.006 3680:10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.02.013 3558:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040379 3091:. Natural Value Initiative. 2852:10.1016/j.ecoser.2015.11.006 2584:. Landscape Research iFirst. 2264:National Wildlife Federation 2194:10.1080/02626667.2011.629786 2010:www.millenniumassessment.org 1667:10.1126/science.289.5478.395 1629:(2): 329–376. Archived from 977:Ecosystem Services Framework 5447:Environmental communication 5141:Sustainability organization 4926:Standards and certification 4517:Social return on investment 4230:University of Chicago Press 3903:Forest Policy and Economics 3117:. Natural Capital Project. 2597:, London; Schama, S. 1995: 2576:, London; Schama, S. 1995: 102:and coastal ecosystems are 7091: 5432:Environmental anthropology 4566:Systemic change resistance 4096:Schumacher, E. F. (1973). 3819:10.1038/s41586-023-06769-z 2984:10.1016/j.crvi.2011.03.008 2218:Environmental Conservation 1275:Henry Fairfield Osborn, Jr 1062:Ecosystem-based adaptation 1055:Ecosystem-based adaptation 1052: 922: 792: 734:, science and education. 507: 440:area was reduced, natural 396:regulates prey populations 248:), crops, wild foods, and 7009: 6815: 6550:Types / location 5875: 5493: 5321: 4744:Climate-smart agriculture 4391: 4128:Journal of Forest History 3032:World Resources Institute 2593:Cf. Cosgrove, D.E. 1984: 2572:Cf. Cosgrove, D.E. 1984: 2238:10.1017/S0376892905001967 1623:Natural Resources Journal 1391:Diversity-function debate 1152:Land use change decisions 1137:strengthen the capacities 1104:restoration of ecosystems 1090:effects of climate change 1074:impacts of climate change 910:habitat. As of 2020, the 704:climate change mitigation 680:marine coastal ecosystems 381:climate change mitigation 157:to humans. Per the 2006 128:climate change mitigation 5462:Environmental psychology 4886:Environmental accounting 4635:Sustainable architecture 4625:Environmental technology 3754:European Investment Bank 3590:Northern Economics Inc. 2972:Comptes Rendus Biologies 2455:Dunk, A. (5 June 2012). 2419:New Scientist, June 2019 1934:European Investment Bank 1070:management of ecosystems 5467:Environmental sociology 5442:Environmental economics 5422:Ecological anthropology 4759:Sustainable agriculture 4213:Oxford University Press 4178:Charles Scribner's Sons 3980:Western Economics Forum 3323:10.1126/science.1090847 3272:10.1126/science.1091015 3225:Ostrom, Elinor (1990). 2733:10.1525/bio.2010.60.8.4 2541:10.1073/pnas.1212409109 2482:10.1073/pnas.1114773109 1596:3 December 2013 at the 1210:decision support system 1068:. They all involve the 1066:adapt to climate change 795:Environmental economics 615:experiences (including 444:processes such as soil 7040:Ecological restoration 5457:Environmental politics 5302:(Rio+10, Johannesburg) 5171:Sustainable management 5156:Urban drainage systems 4896:Environmental planning 4860:Water recycling shower 4850:Tidal stream generator 4645:Sustainable industries 4604:Sustainable population 4589:Demographic transition 4571:Tragedy of the commons 3955:Cite journal requires 2643:Cite journal requires 2035:Basic Biology (2016). 1959:www.europarl.europa.eu 1542:Cite journal requires 1426:Nature Based Solutions 1302:environmental services 1176:viewpoints, including 1135:) and approaches that 1100:sustainable management 963: 936: 825:tragedy of the commons 819: 654:Recreation and tourism 580: 359: 301: 204: 49: 5552:Ecological humanities 5452:Environmental history 5194:Humanistic capitalism 5009:Environmental finance 4650:Sustainable packaging 1702:Ecological Monographs 1570:. BIOCON Conference. 1522:Austin, Troy (2009). 1377:Earth sciences portal 1145:early warning systems 1011:biodiversity hotspots 968:common pool resources 961: 954:Management and policy 934: 897:environmental impacts 814: 793:Further information: 688:provisioning services 571: 379:(this contributes to 337: 292: 228:Provisioning services 202: 73:provisioning services 35: 7045:Ecological economics 6925:remnant natural area 6562:storage and recovery 6228:habitat conservation 6046:Deforestation (REDD) 5644:Integrated geography 5522:Behavioral geography 5427:Ecological economics 5161:Urban infrastructure 4855:Water heat recycling 4678:Conservation biology 4522:Steady-state economy 4497:Micro-sustainability 4482:Ecological footprint 4439:Planetary boundaries 4191:Our Plundered Planet 3779:World Economic Forum 3197:Ecological Economics 2947:on 22 September 2017 2867:Ecological Economics 2673:on 30 September 2020 2599:Landscape and memory 2578:Landscape and memory 2331:"Ecosystem Services" 2260:"Ecosystem Services" 1251:in 1973 in his book 1002:developing countries 912:Eglin Air Force Base 893:resource consumption 799:Ecological economics 765:. The high level of 700:carbon sequestration 624:scientific discovery 494:oak-woodland habitat 377:Carbon sequestration 124:carbon sequestration 6879:Earth Overshoot Day 6453:Marine conservation 6434:non-timber products 5915:Research institutes 5437:Environmental crime 5262:Earth Summit (1992) 4916:Metrics and indices 4769:Sustainable fishery 4688:Holocene extinction 4507:Product stewardship 4477:Earth Overshoot Day 4313:). Text taken from 4291:). 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Rome: FAO. 2020. 1714:2011EcoM...81..169B 1600:, chapter 1, p.19, 1265:could lead to soil 1178:regulatory agencies 712:Supporting services 696:Regulating services 536:Supporting services 399:Biological control 330:Regulating services 296:in Andhra Pradesh, 266:medicinal resources 220:regulation, etc.). 81:Supporting services 77:Regulating services 6864:Ecosystem services 5987:Ambient standards 5885:Environment portal 5639:Industrial ecology 4721:Sustainable energy 4683:Endangered species 4640:Sustainable design 4554:Consumer behaviour 4267:, New York. 305pp. 4232:, Chicago. 1193pp. 4215:, New York. 226pp. 4180:, New York. 472pp. 4078:. 8 September 2020 4024:Ecosystem Services 3660:Ecosystem Services 2832:Ecosystem Services 1349:Environment portal 1254:Small is Beautiful 1086:ecosystem services 964: 937: 908:endangered species 856:water purification 852:Catskill Watershed 820: 720:primary production 588:Primary production 581: 550:primary production 510:Coastal management 434:Catskill Watershed 420:Water purification 390:and detoxification 360: 302: 205: 189:ecosystem services 181:ecosystem services 126:(which helps with 120:primary production 53:Ecosystem services 50: 18:Ecosystem Services 7027: 7026: 7005: 7004: 6804: 6803: 6483:genetic resources 6419:genetic resources 6054: 6053: 5962:Natural resources 5928: 5927: 5767:Green criminology 5527:Community studies 5482:Political ecology 5374: 5373: 5300:Earth Summit 2002 5283:Lisbon Principles 5255:Our Common Future 4933:Sustainable yield 4739:Civic agriculture 4492:Green consumption 4429:Global governance 4189:Osborn, F. 1948. 3870:"ebaflagship.org" 3812:(7996): 722–727. 3781:. 30 October 2018 3694:"Goal 15 targets" 3391:World Development 3376:10.1002/pam.10181 3236:978-0-521-40599-7 2916:(6630): 253–260. 2663:"Goal 14 targets" 2615:https://cices.eu/ 2605:. Dordrecht 2009. 2467:(23): 8812–8819. 2058:(6668): 629–630. 1907:978-92-5-132707-4 1837:978-92-5-132581-0 1797:978-92-5-132974-0 1722:10.1890/10-1510.1 1661:(5478): 395–396. 1094:EbA involves the 943:natural resources 724:Cultural services 702:(contributing to 684:marine ecosystems 597:Cultural services 306:forest management 261:biogenic minerals 112:genetic resources 104:marine ecosystems 93:cultural services 16:(Redirected from 7082: 7017: 7016: 6968: 6915:Natural heritage 6874:overexploitation 6813: 6547: 6493:herbal medicines 6473:FAO Plant Treaty 6013: 5990: 5975: 5955: 5948: 5941: 5932: 5893: 5892: 5883: 5815:natural resource 5499: 5487:Regional science 5401: 5394: 5387: 5378: 5341: 5340: 5329: 5328: 5273:Agenda 21 (1992) 5244: 5209:Natural resource 5096:Organic movement 5071:Impact investing 4790:Hydroelectricity 4764:Sustainable diet 4716:Renewable energy 4711:Carbon footprint 4693:Invasive species 4630:Natural building 4581:World population 4542:Marketing myopia 4502:Over-consumption 4472:Circular economy 4467:Anti-consumerism 4424:Environmentalism 4378: 4371: 4364: 4355: 4304: 4282: 4268: 4261: 4255: 4252: 4246: 4239: 4233: 4222: 4216: 4209: 4203: 4200: 4194: 4187: 4181: 4174: 4168: 4167: 4119: 4113: 4110: 4101: 4094: 4088: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4068: 4062: 4061: 4054: 4048: 4047: 4019: 4013: 4012: 4010: 4003: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3971: 3965: 3964: 3958: 3953: 3951: 3943: 3941: 3925: 3919: 3918: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3889: 3887: 3881: 3875:. Archived from 3874: 3866: 3860: 3856: 3850: 3849: 3839: 3821: 3797: 3791: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3771: 3765: 3764: 3762: 3760: 3746: 3740: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3720: 3714: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3700:. Archived from 3690: 3684: 3683: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3612: 3606: 3605: 3603: 3596: 3587: 3581: 3580: 3570: 3560: 3536: 3530: 3529: 3492: 3486: 3469: 3460: 3459: 3449: 3421: 3415: 3414: 3386: 3380: 3379: 3359: 3353: 3352: 3334: 3298: 3292: 3291: 3247: 3241: 3240: 3222: 3213: 3212: 3192: 3186: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3166: 3160: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3140: 3131: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3111: 3105: 3104: 3102: 3100: 3085: 3079: 3078: 3076: 3074: 3059: 3053: 3052: 3050: 3048: 3039:. Archived from 3028: 3022: 3021: 3019: 3017: 3002: 2996: 2995: 2978:(5–6): 469–482. 2963: 2957: 2956: 2954: 2952: 2946: 2940:. Archived from 2930:10.1038/387253a0 2907: 2897: 2891: 2890: 2862: 2856: 2855: 2827: 2821: 2820: 2800: 2794: 2793: 2783: 2751: 2745: 2744: 2715: 2709: 2708: 2706: 2704: 2694:"Coastal Waters" 2689: 2683: 2682: 2680: 2678: 2669:. Archived from 2659: 2653: 2652: 2646: 2641: 2639: 2631: 2623: 2617: 2612: 2606: 2591: 2585: 2570: 2564: 2563: 2553: 2543: 2511: 2505: 2504: 2494: 2484: 2451: 2445: 2444: 2442: 2440: 2426: 2420: 2417: 2411: 2410: 2408: 2406: 2387: 2381: 2380: 2378: 2376: 2357: 2351: 2350: 2348: 2346: 2327: 2321: 2320: 2318: 2316: 2306: 2300: 2299: 2297: 2295: 2281: 2275: 2274: 2272: 2270: 2256: 2250: 2249: 2213: 2207: 2206: 2196: 2179:(8): 1388–1406. 2164: 2158: 2157: 2155: 2153: 2147: 2141:. Archived from 2140: 2131: 2122: 2121: 2093: 2084: 2083: 2047: 2041: 2040: 2032: 2026: 2025: 2023: 2021: 2002: 1996: 1995: 1993: 1991: 1977: 1971: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1951: 1945: 1944: 1942: 1940: 1926: 1920: 1919: 1898:10.4060/ca8985en 1886: 1873: 1872: 1863: 1850: 1849: 1828:10.4060/ca8753en 1816: 1810: 1809: 1788:10.4060/ca9825en 1776: 1770: 1764: 1758: 1757: 1750: 1744: 1743: 1733: 1731:20.500.11919/920 1693: 1687: 1686: 1649: 1638: 1637: 1635: 1620: 1611: 1605: 1588: 1582: 1581: 1579: 1569: 1558: 1552: 1551: 1545: 1540: 1538: 1530: 1528: 1519: 1513: 1512: 1510: 1508: 1493: 1482: 1473: 1472: 1470: 1468: 1453: 1442: 1379: 1374: 1373: 1372: 1365: 1360: 1359: 1358: 1351: 1346: 1345: 1249:E. F. Schumacher 1246: 1133:artificial reefs 1129:water reservoirs 1031:excess nutrients 973:ecosystem health 895:. Most focus on 716:nutrient cycling 564:Nutrient cycling 546:nutrient cycling 521:saltwater swamps 466:water filtration 366:Purification of 352:sequester carbon 240:food (including 116:nutrient cycling 108:marine resources 21: 7090: 7089: 7085: 7084: 7083: 7081: 7080: 7079: 7050:Systems ecology 7030: 7029: 7028: 7023: 7001: 6966: 6946: 6932:Systems ecology 6898:Natural capital 6800: 6685: 6674:reclaimed water 6536: 6498:UPOV Convention 6346: 6141: 6050: 6024: 6020:Ozone depletion 6011: 5988: 5964: 5959: 5929: 5924: 5871: 5720: 5691:Systems ecology 5675:Sustainability 5669:science studies 5654:Rural sociology 5500: 5491: 5477:Human geography 5410: 5405: 5375: 5370: 5317: 5242: 5234: 5233:Agreements and 5228: 5165: 4969:Climate finance 4937: 4864: 4820:Reclaimed water 4773: 4725: 4697: 4654: 4608: 4594:Family planning 4575: 4448: 4405: 4387: 4382: 4351: 4334:Earth Economics 4325: 4319:, FAO, FAO. 4276: 4271: 4262: 4258: 4253: 4249: 4240: 4236: 4223: 4219: 4210: 4206: 4201: 4197: 4188: 4184: 4175: 4171: 4140:10.2307/4004530 4121: 4120: 4116: 4111: 4104: 4095: 4091: 4081: 4079: 4076:www.go-grass.eu 4070: 4069: 4065: 4056: 4055: 4051: 4021: 4020: 4016: 4008: 4001: 3996: 3995: 3991: 3973: 3972: 3968: 3954: 3944: 3939:10.2172/1035334 3927: 3926: 3922: 3900: 3899: 3895: 3885: 3883: 3879: 3872: 3868: 3867: 3863: 3857: 3853: 3799: 3798: 3794: 3784: 3782: 3773: 3772: 3768: 3758: 3756: 3748: 3747: 3743: 3733: 3731: 3722: 3721: 3717: 3707: 3705: 3692: 3691: 3687: 3657: 3656: 3652: 3637:10.2307/3545850 3614: 3613: 3609: 3601: 3594: 3589: 3588: 3584: 3538: 3537: 3533: 3494: 3493: 3489: 3480:Wayback Machine 3470: 3463: 3423: 3422: 3418: 3388: 3387: 3383: 3361: 3360: 3356: 3300: 3299: 3295: 3249: 3248: 3244: 3237: 3224: 3223: 3216: 3194: 3193: 3189: 3179: 3177: 3168: 3167: 3163: 3153: 3151: 3142: 3141: 3134: 3124: 3122: 3113: 3112: 3108: 3098: 3096: 3087: 3086: 3082: 3072: 3070: 3061: 3060: 3056: 3046: 3044: 3043:on 1 April 2009 3035: 3029: 3025: 3015: 3013: 3004: 3003: 2999: 2965: 2964: 2960: 2950: 2948: 2944: 2905: 2899: 2898: 2894: 2864: 2863: 2859: 2829: 2828: 2824: 2802: 2801: 2797: 2753: 2752: 2748: 2717: 2716: 2712: 2702: 2700: 2691: 2690: 2686: 2676: 2674: 2661: 2660: 2656: 2642: 2632: 2625: 2624: 2620: 2613: 2609: 2592: 2588: 2571: 2567: 2513: 2512: 2508: 2453: 2452: 2448: 2438: 2436: 2428: 2427: 2423: 2418: 2414: 2404: 2402: 2389: 2388: 2384: 2374: 2372: 2359: 2358: 2354: 2344: 2342: 2329: 2328: 2324: 2314: 2312: 2308: 2307: 2303: 2293: 2291: 2283: 2282: 2278: 2268: 2266: 2258: 2257: 2253: 2215: 2214: 2210: 2166: 2165: 2161: 2151: 2149: 2148:on 3 March 2016 2145: 2138: 2133: 2132: 2125: 2098:Ecology Letters 2095: 2094: 2087: 2049: 2048: 2044: 2034: 2033: 2029: 2019: 2017: 2004: 2003: 1999: 1989: 1987: 1979: 1978: 1974: 1964: 1962: 1961:. 31 March 2023 1953: 1952: 1948: 1938: 1936: 1928: 1927: 1923: 1908: 1888: 1887: 1876: 1865: 1864: 1853: 1838: 1818: 1817: 1813: 1798: 1778: 1777: 1773: 1765: 1761: 1752: 1751: 1747: 1695: 1694: 1690: 1651: 1650: 1641: 1636:on 25 May 2013. 1633: 1618: 1613: 1612: 1608: 1598:Wayback Machine 1589: 1585: 1567: 1560: 1559: 1555: 1541: 1531: 1526: 1521: 1520: 1516: 1506: 1504: 1502: 1491: 1484: 1483: 1476: 1466: 1464: 1462: 1451: 1444: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1430: 1416:Natural capital 1396:Earth Economics 1375: 1370: 1368: 1361: 1356: 1354: 1347: 1340: 1337: 1316:regulation and 1244: 1236: 1206:land-use change 1190:multi-objective 1154: 1149: 1148: 1058: 1050: 956: 951: 950: 928: 920: 809: 791: 783:migratory birds 708:waste treatment 673: 656: 599: 590: 566: 538: 519:(which include 512: 506: 482:food production 476:Pollination of 474: 462:natural capital 422: 350:. Healthy bogs 332: 294:Social forestry 234:ecosystem goods 230: 197: 185:Robert Costanza 177:ecosystem goods 151: 85:nutrient cycles 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7088: 7086: 7078: 7077: 7072: 7067: 7062: 7057: 7055:Social ecology 7052: 7047: 7042: 7032: 7031: 7025: 7024: 7022: 7021: 7010: 7007: 7006: 7003: 7002: 7000: 6999: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6967:(perpetuation) 6962: 6956: 6954: 6948: 6947: 6945: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6928: 6927: 6920:Nature reserve 6917: 6912: 6911: 6910: 6905: 6895: 6894: 6893: 6883: 6882: 6881: 6876: 6866: 6861: 6860: 6859: 6854: 6844: 6843: 6842: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6816: 6810: 6806: 6805: 6802: 6801: 6799: 6798: 6797: 6796: 6791: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6726: 6725: 6724: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6693: 6691: 6687: 6686: 6684: 6683: 6678: 6677: 6676: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6655: 6654: 6644: 6639: 6638: 6637: 6625: 6624: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6603: 6598: 6597: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6565: 6564: 6553: 6551: 6544: 6538: 6537: 6535: 6534: 6533: 6532: 6527: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6506: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6465: 6460: 6455: 6450: 6449: 6448: 6438: 6437: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6411: 6410: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6397:climate change 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6373: 6372: 6365:Bioprospecting 6362: 6356: 6354: 6348: 6347: 6345: 6344: 6343: 6342: 6337: 6327: 6326: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6300: 6299: 6298: 6293: 6292: 6291: 6286: 6276: 6275: 6274: 6269: 6259: 6258: 6257: 6247: 6242: 6232: 6231: 6230: 6220: 6219: 6218: 6208: 6207: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6170: 6169: 6168: 6167: 6151: 6149: 6143: 6142: 6140: 6139: 6134: 6133: 6132: 6127: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6080: 6075: 6070: 6064: 6062: 6056: 6055: 6052: 6051: 6049: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6032: 6030: 6026: 6025: 6023: 6022: 6017: 6016: 6015: 6010:Clean Air Act 6002: 5997: 5992: 5983: 5981: 5972: 5966: 5965: 5960: 5958: 5957: 5950: 5943: 5935: 5926: 5925: 5923: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5887: 5876: 5873: 5872: 5870: 5869: 5868: 5867: 5862: 5854: 5853: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5824: 5823: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5794: 5793: 5792: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5769: 5764: 5763: 5762: 5757: 5749: 5744: 5743: 5742: 5737: 5728: 5726: 5722: 5721: 5719: 5718: 5717: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5693: 5688: 5687: 5686: 5681: 5673: 5672: 5671: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5630: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5609: 5608: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5571:Environmental 5569: 5568: 5567: 5562: 5554: 5549: 5548: 5547: 5542: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5514: 5508: 5506: 5502: 5501: 5494: 5492: 5490: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5418: 5416: 5412: 5411: 5406: 5404: 5403: 5396: 5389: 5381: 5372: 5371: 5369: 5368: 5361: 5354: 5347: 5335: 5322: 5319: 5318: 5316: 5315: 5309: 5308:(Rio+20, 2012) 5303: 5297: 5292: 5286: 5280: 5275: 5270: 5264: 5259: 5251: 5246: 5238: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5186: 5181: 5175: 5173: 5167: 5166: 5164: 5163: 5158: 5153: 5148: 5143: 5138: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5062: 5061: 5056: 5054:Infrastructure 5051: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4991: 4986: 4984:Eco-capitalism 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4945: 4943: 4939: 4938: 4936: 4935: 4930: 4929: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4901:Sustainability 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4872: 4870: 4869:Accountability 4866: 4865: 4863: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4781: 4779: 4775: 4774: 4772: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4735: 4733: 4727: 4726: 4724: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4707: 4705: 4699: 4698: 4696: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4664: 4662: 4656: 4655: 4653: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4616: 4614: 4610: 4609: 4607: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4585: 4583: 4577: 4576: 4574: 4573: 4568: 4563: 4562: 4561: 4556: 4546: 4545: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4527:Sustainability 4524: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4494: 4489: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4462:Anthropization 4458: 4456: 4450: 4449: 4447: 4446: 4441: 4436: 4431: 4426: 4421: 4415: 4413: 4407: 4406: 4404: 4403: 4398: 4392: 4389: 4388: 4385:Sustainability 4383: 4381: 4380: 4373: 4366: 4358: 4349: 4348: 4342: 4336: 4331: 4324: 4323:External links 4321: 4275: 4272: 4270: 4269: 4256: 4247: 4234: 4217: 4204: 4195: 4182: 4169: 4114: 4102: 4089: 4063: 4049: 4014: 3989: 3966: 3957:|journal= 3920: 3893: 3861: 3851: 3792: 3766: 3741: 3715: 3685: 3650: 3623:(3): 373–386. 3607: 3582: 3531: 3504:(5511): 2047. 3487: 3461: 3447:10.1.1.463.824 3432:(6): 333–339. 3416: 3397:(2): 273–284. 3381: 3354: 3293: 3242: 3235: 3214: 3187: 3161: 3132: 3106: 3080: 3054: 3023: 3008:. Ecometrica. 2997: 2958: 2892: 2873:(3): 375–392. 2857: 2822: 2811:(5): 249–257. 2795: 2746: 2727:(8): 576–589. 2710: 2684: 2654: 2645:|journal= 2618: 2607: 2586: 2565: 2506: 2446: 2421: 2412: 2382: 2352: 2322: 2301: 2276: 2251: 2208: 2159: 2123: 2104:(5): 468–479. 2085: 2042: 2027: 1997: 1972: 1946: 1921: 1906: 1874: 1851: 1836: 1811: 1796: 1771: 1759: 1745: 1708:(2): 169–193. 1688: 1639: 1606: 1583: 1553: 1544:|journal= 1514: 1500: 1474: 1460: 1436: 1434: 1431: 1429: 1428: 1423: 1421:Soil functions 1418: 1413: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1382: 1381: 1380: 1366: 1363:Ecology portal 1352: 1336: 1333: 1325:socio-economic 1271:soil fertility 1235: 1232: 1219:Remote sensing 1153: 1150: 1059: 1051: 1049: 1046: 981:socio-economic 955: 952: 929: 921: 919: 916: 884: 883: 880: 877: 870: 859: 844: 790: 787: 743:brackish water 672: 669: 655: 652: 647: 646: 643: 640: 631: 630: 627: 620: 610: 607: 598: 595: 589: 586: 565: 562: 554:soil formation 537: 534: 508:Main article: 505: 502: 473: 470: 454:microorganisms 421: 418: 417: 416: 413: 408: 397: 391: 384: 374: 331: 328: 320:European Union 287: 286: 283: 269: 263: 258: 255: 252: 229: 226: 218:natural hazard 216:regulation or 210:climate change 196: 193: 173:Gretchen Daily 150: 147: 67:of wastes, or 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7087: 7076: 7073: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7060:Human ecology 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7037: 7035: 7020: 7012: 7011: 7008: 6998: 6997:Non-renewable 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6957: 6955: 6953: 6949: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6937:Urban ecology 6935: 6933: 6930: 6926: 6923: 6922: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6900: 6899: 6896: 6892: 6889: 6888: 6887: 6884: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6871: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6849: 6848: 6845: 6841: 6838: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6822: 6821: 6818: 6817: 6814: 6811: 6807: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6786: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6769:Privatization 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6723: 6720: 6719: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6694: 6692: 6688: 6682: 6679: 6675: 6672: 6671: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6664:Surface water 6662: 6660: 6657: 6653: 6650: 6649: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6640: 6636: 6635: 6631: 6630: 6629: 6626: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6608: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6581: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6563: 6560: 6559: 6558: 6555: 6554: 6552: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6539: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6522: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6470: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6447: 6444: 6443: 6442: 6439: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6416: 6415: 6412: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6394: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6371: 6368: 6367: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6357: 6355: 6353: 6349: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6332: 6331: 6328: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6305: 6304: 6301: 6297: 6294: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6281: 6280: 6277: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6264: 6263: 6260: 6256: 6253: 6252: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6237: 6236: 6233: 6229: 6226: 6225: 6224: 6221: 6217: 6214: 6213: 6212: 6209: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6186: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6166: 6165:peak farmland 6163: 6162: 6161: 6158: 6157: 6156: 6153: 6152: 6150: 6148: 6144: 6138: 6135: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6122: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6069: 6066: 6065: 6063: 6061: 6057: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6033: 6031: 6027: 6021: 6018: 6014: 6008: 6007: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5985: 5984: 5982: 5980: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5956: 5951: 5949: 5944: 5942: 5937: 5936: 5933: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5888: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5877: 5874: 5866: 5865:environmental 5863: 5861: 5858: 5857: 5855: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5830:environmental 5828: 5827: 5825: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5800:environmental 5798: 5797: 5795: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5775:environmental 5773: 5772: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5761: 5760:environmental 5758: 5756: 5753: 5752: 5750: 5748: 5747:Ecopsychology 5745: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5732: 5731:Architecture 5730: 5729: 5727: 5723: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5696: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5676: 5674: 5670: 5667: 5666: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5614: 5613: 5610: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5572: 5570: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5557: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5546: 5545:environmental 5543: 5541: 5538: 5537: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5517:Anthrozoology 5515: 5513: 5510: 5509: 5507: 5503: 5498: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5472:Human ecology 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5419: 5417: 5413: 5409: 5402: 5397: 5395: 5390: 5388: 5383: 5382: 5379: 5367: 5366: 5362: 5360: 5359: 5355: 5353: 5352: 5348: 5346: 5345: 5336: 5334: 5333: 5324: 5323: 5320: 5313: 5310: 5307: 5304: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5290: 5289:Earth Charter 5287: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5271: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5256: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5240: 5239: 5237: 5231: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5179:Environmental 5177: 5176: 5174: 5172: 5168: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5111:Refurbishment 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5101:Organizations 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5046: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5014:Green economy 5012: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4999:Eco-socialism 4997: 4995: 4994:Eco-investing 4992: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4979:Disinvestment 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4946: 4944: 4940: 4934: 4931: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4903: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4873: 4871: 4867: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4800:Marine energy 4798: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4782: 4780: 4776: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4754:Cultured meat 4752: 4750: 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4296: 4295: 4290: 4286: 4281: 4273: 4266: 4260: 4257: 4251: 4248: 4244: 4243:W. H. Freeman 4238: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4221: 4218: 4214: 4208: 4205: 4199: 4196: 4192: 4186: 4183: 4179: 4173: 4170: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4118: 4115: 4109: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4093: 4090: 4077: 4073: 4067: 4064: 4059: 4053: 4050: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4018: 4015: 4007: 4000: 3993: 3990: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3970: 3967: 3962: 3949: 3940: 3935: 3931: 3924: 3921: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3897: 3894: 3878: 3871: 3865: 3862: 3855: 3852: 3847: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3796: 3793: 3780: 3776: 3770: 3767: 3755: 3751: 3745: 3742: 3730: 3726: 3719: 3716: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3689: 3686: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3654: 3651: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3611: 3608: 3600: 3593: 3586: 3583: 3578: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3535: 3532: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3491: 3488: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3474: 3468: 3466: 3462: 3457: 3453: 3448: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3420: 3417: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3385: 3382: 3377: 3373: 3370:(1): 97–117. 3369: 3365: 3358: 3355: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3297: 3294: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3246: 3243: 3238: 3232: 3228: 3221: 3219: 3215: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3191: 3188: 3176:. 19 May 2020 3175: 3171: 3165: 3162: 3150: 3146: 3139: 3137: 3133: 3120: 3116: 3110: 3107: 3094: 3090: 3084: 3081: 3068: 3064: 3058: 3055: 3042: 3038: 3033: 3027: 3024: 3011: 3007: 3001: 2998: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2962: 2959: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2904: 2896: 2893: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2861: 2858: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2826: 2823: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2799: 2796: 2791: 2787: 2782: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2750: 2747: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2714: 2711: 2699: 2695: 2688: 2685: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2658: 2655: 2650: 2637: 2629: 2622: 2619: 2616: 2611: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2590: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2569: 2566: 2561: 2557: 2552: 2547: 2542: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2526:(46): E3146. 2525: 2521: 2517: 2510: 2507: 2502: 2498: 2493: 2488: 2483: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2450: 2447: 2435: 2431: 2425: 2422: 2416: 2413: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2386: 2383: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2356: 2353: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2326: 2323: 2311: 2305: 2302: 2290: 2286: 2280: 2277: 2265: 2261: 2255: 2252: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2212: 2209: 2204: 2200: 2195: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2163: 2160: 2144: 2137: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2092: 2090: 2086: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2072:10.1038/35481 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2046: 2043: 2038: 2031: 2028: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2001: 1998: 1986: 1982: 1976: 1973: 1960: 1956: 1950: 1947: 1935: 1931: 1925: 1922: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1885: 1883: 1881: 1879: 1875: 1870: 1869: 1862: 1860: 1858: 1856: 1852: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1822:. FAO. 2020. 1821: 1815: 1812: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1775: 1772: 1769: 1763: 1760: 1755: 1749: 1746: 1741: 1737: 1732: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1692: 1689: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1648: 1646: 1644: 1640: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1617: 1610: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1592: 1587: 1584: 1578: 1573: 1566: 1565: 1557: 1554: 1549: 1536: 1525: 1518: 1515: 1503: 1501:1-59726-040-1 1497: 1490: 1489: 1481: 1479: 1475: 1463: 1461:1-59726-040-1 1457: 1450: 1449: 1441: 1438: 1432: 1427: 1424: 1422: 1419: 1417: 1414: 1412: 1409: 1407: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1387: 1384: 1383: 1378: 1367: 1364: 1353: 1350: 1344: 1339: 1334: 1332: 1331:objectives. 1330: 1326: 1321: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1298: 1295: 1291: 1286: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1263:deforestation 1260: 1256: 1255: 1250: 1243: 1242: 1233: 1231: 1229: 1223: 1220: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1151: 1146: 1142: 1141:climate risks 1138: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1056: 1047: 1045: 1041: 1039: 1034: 1032: 1027: 1022: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1007: 1006:deforestation 1003: 999: 994: 989: 984: 982: 978: 974: 969: 960: 953: 948: 944: 940: 933: 926: 917: 915: 913: 909: 905: 900: 898: 894: 888: 881: 878: 875: 871: 868: 864: 863:water quality 860: 857: 853: 849: 845: 842: 838: 837: 836: 832: 830: 826: 817: 813: 808: 804: 800: 796: 788: 786: 784: 780: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 748: 744: 740: 735: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 706:) as well as 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 670: 668: 666: 662: 653: 651: 644: 641: 637: 636: 635: 628: 625: 621: 618: 614: 611: 608: 605: 604: 603: 596: 594: 587: 585: 578: 574: 570: 563: 561: 559: 555: 551: 547: 542: 535: 533: 530: 526: 522: 518: 511: 503: 501: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 471: 469: 467: 463: 459: 458:water quality 455: 451: 447: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 426:New York City 419: 414: 412: 409: 406: 402: 398: 395: 392: 389: 388:decomposition 385: 382: 378: 375: 373: 369: 365: 364: 363: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 336: 329: 327: 323: 321: 317: 316:afforestation 312: 307: 299: 295: 291: 284: 281: 280:biomass fuels 277: 273: 270: 267: 264: 262: 259: 256: 253: 251: 247: 243: 239: 238: 237: 235: 227: 225: 221: 219: 215: 211: 201: 194: 192: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 169: 167: 162: 160: 156: 148: 146: 144: 139: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 98:For example, 96: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 69:flood control 66: 65:decomposition 62: 58: 54: 47: 43: 39: 34: 30: 19: 6995: / 6869:Exploitation 6754:Conservation 6697:Desalination 6632: 6525:conservation 6360:Biodiversity 6308:conservation 6155:Agricultural 6083:Fossil fuels 5785:occupational 5780:epidemiology 5751:Engineering 5649:Permaculture 5612:Ethnobiology 5363: 5356: 5349: 5342: 5330: 5254: 5019:Construction 4942:Applications 4660:Biodiversity 4419:Anthropocene 4350: 4315: 4307:free content 4299: 4293: 4285:free content 4277: 4265:Random House 4259: 4250: 4237: 4225: 4220: 4207: 4198: 4185: 4172: 4134:(2): 60–75. 4131: 4127: 4117: 4097: 4092: 4080:. 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