Empathy gap - Knowledge (XXG)

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gyrus), compared to the left anterior insula, which has greater connectivity with regions involved in perspective-taking and cognitive motor control (e.g. dmPFC and superior frontal gyrus). The previously referenced meta-analysis found right lateralization of anterior insula for outgroup compared to ingroup processing. These findings raise the possibility that when thinking about outgroup members, individuals may use their attention to focus on targets' salient outgroup status, as opposed to thinking about the outgroup member as an individual. In contrast, the meta-analysis found left lateralization of anterior insula activity for thinking about ingroup compared to outgroup members. This finding suggests that left anterior insula may help support perspective-taking and mentalizing about ingroup members, and thinking about them in an individuated way. However, these possibilities are speculative and lateralization may vary due to characteristics such as age, gender, and other individual differences, which should be accounted for in future research.

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physical or emotional pain. In one study, Chinese and Causian participants viewed videos of Chinese and Causasian targets, who displayed neutral facial expressions as they received either painful or non-painful stimulation to their cheeks. Witnessing racial ingroup faces receive painful stimulation increased activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and anterior insula (two regions which generally activate during the experience of pain.) However, these responses were diminished toward outgroup members in pain. These results replicated among White-Italian and Black-African participants. Additionally, EEG work has shown reduced neural simulation of movement (in primary motor cortex) for outgroup members, compared to in-group members. This effect was magnified by prejudice and toward disliked groups (i.e. South-Asians, Blacks, and East Asians).

168:, or the experience of pleasure when observing or learning about another's suffering or misfortune. Schadenfreude frequently occurs in intergroup contexts. In fact, the two factors that most strongly predict schadenfreude are identification with one's group and the presence of competition between groups in conflict. Competition may be explicit; for example, one study found that soccer fans were less likely to help an injured stranger wearing a rival team shirt than someone wearing an ingroup team shirt. However, schadenfreude may also be directed toward members of groups associated with high-status, competitive stereotypes. These findings correspond with the 493:, including its role in empathy. Generally speaking, oxytocin is associated with cooperation between individuals (in both humans and non-human animals). However, these effects interact with group membership in intergroup settings: oxytocin is associated with increased bonding with ingroup, but not outgroup, members, and may thereby contribute to ingroup favoritism and intergroup empathy bias. However, in one study of Israelis and Palestinians, intranasal oxytocin administration improved opposing partisans' empathy for outgroup members by increasing the salience of their pain. 309:(SDO; i.e., those who endorse inequality and hierarchy between groups), are more likely to be high in prejudice and have less empathic concern for outgroup members. In addition to predicting greater intergroup empathy bias, high SDO scores correlated with greater counter-empathy (i.e. schadenfreude) toward outgroup targets, including Asian and Black targets (compared to ingroup White targets) when group boundaries were previously made salient, as well as toward competitive outgroup members (compared to ingroup members) in a novel group setting. 188:, particularly among those in the medical profession. Expressing empathy is an important component of patient-centered care, and can be expressed through behaviors such as concern, attentiveness, sharing emotions, vulnerability, understanding, dialogue, reflection, and authenticity. However, expressing empathy can be cognitively and emotionally demanding for providers. Physicians who lack proper support may experience depression and burnout, particularly in the face of the extended or frequent experiences of personal distress. 462:(i.e., the vicarious activation of the neural system for action during the perception of action) allows humans to understand others' actions, intentions, and emotions. According to this theory, when a "subject" individual observes an "object" individual, the object's physical movements and facial expressions activate corresponding neural mechanisms in the subject. That is, by neurally simulating the object's observed states, the subject also experiences these states, the basis of empathy. 518:(dmPFC) during ingroup (vs. outgroup) social cognition. dmPFC has previously been linked to the ability to infer others' mental states, which suggests that individuals may be more likely to engage in mentalizing for ingroup (as compared to outgroup) members. dmPFC activity has also been linked to prosocial behavior; thus, dmPFC's association with cognition about ingroup members suggests a potential neurocognitive mechanism underlying ingroup favoritism. 290:

gender-normative for women than men. In support of this idea, a study found that manipulating the perceived gender normativity of empathy eliminated gender differences in men and women's self-reported empathy. Specifically, assigning male and female participants to read a narrative describing fictitious neurological research evidence which claimed that males score higher on measures of empathy eliminated the gender gap in self-reported empathy.

530:(AI) have been observed when thinking about both ingroup and outgroup members. For example, greater activity in the anterior insula has been observed when participants view ingroup members on a sports team receiving pain, compared to outgroup members receiving pain. In contrast, the meta-analysis referenced previously found that anterior insula activation was more reliably related to social cognition about outgroup members. 477:, although such claims remain a subject of scientific debate. Although the exact (if any) role of mirror neurons in supporting empathy is unclear, evidence suggests that neural simulation (i.e., recreating neural states associated with a process observed in another) may generally support a variety of psychological processes in humans, including disgust, pain, touch, and facial expressions. 348: 440: 534:

and dorsal AI, which has been associated with exogenous attention processes such as attention orientation, salience detection, and task performance monitoring. Therefore, anterior insula activation may occur more often when thinking about outgroup members because doing is more attentionally demanding than thinking about ingroup members.

49:(the ability to recognize, understand, and share another's thoughts and feelings) where it might otherwise be expected to occur. Empathy gaps may occur due to a failure in the process of empathizing or as a consequence of stable personality characteristics, and may reflect either a lack of ability or motivation to empathize. 574:

Reduced empathy for outgroup members is associated with a reduction in willingness to entertain another's points of view, the likelihood of ignoring a customer's complaints, the likelihood of helping others during a natural disaster, and the chance that one opposes social programs designed to benefit

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These seemingly divergent results may be due in part to functional differences between anatomic subregions of the anterior insula. Meta-analyses have identified two distinct subregions of the anterior insula: ventral AI, which is linked to emotional and visceral experiences (e.g. subjective arousal);

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A number of studies have been conducted to identify the neural regions implicated in intergroup empathy biases. This work has highlighted candidate regions supporting psychological processes such as mentalizing for ingroup members, deindividuation of outgroup members, and the pleasure associated with

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Some studies have found that people from upper-class backgrounds are less likely to experience feelings of compassion or to engage in empathetic behaviors, such as helping others. Education may play a role in this, wealthy and low-income students often attend different schools and do not get a chance

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Neural evidence also supports the key role of mentalizing in supporting empathic responses, particularly in an intergroup context. For example, a meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies of intergroup social cognition found that thinking about ingroup members (in comparison to outgroup members) was more

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People may find it difficult to empathize with others if they struggle (due to a lack of ability or motivation) to episodically simulate others' mental states—i.e. to imagine events from others' lives which occur at a specific time and place. The ability to engage in episodic simulation is predictive

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proposes that the problem is mutual, occurring as well in non-neurodivergent individuals' struggle to understand and relate to neurodivergent people. Failures in cognitive empathy may also result from cognitive biases that impair one's ability to understand another's perspective (for example, see the

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Reduced familial and religious importance also appear to be predictive of reduced empathic responses. In a sample of adults aged 18 to 35 (N = 722), family importance was positively associated with affective empathy and perspective taking, particularly among non-Hispanic whites. Religious importance

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Empathy gaps can be interpersonal (toward others) or intrapersonal (toward the self, e.g. when predicting one's own future preferences). A great deal of social psychological research has focused on intergroup empathy gaps, their underlying psychological and neural mechanisms, and their implications

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of function within the anterior insula may also help account for divergent results, due to differences in connectivity between left and right AI. The right anterior insula has greater connectivity with regions supporting attentional orientation and arousal (e.g. postcentral gyrus and supramarginal

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as compared to observational, measures. In recent decades, a number of studies utilizing self-reported empathy have shown gender differences in empathy. According to the results of a nationally representative survey, men reported less willingness to give money or volunteer time to a poverty relief

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One's ability to perspective-take may be limited by one's current emotional state. For example, behavioral economics research has described a number of failures in empathy that occur due to emotional influences on perspective-taking when people make social predictions. People may either fail to

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and pupil dilation). This finding raises the possibility that self-reported empathy may not be driven by biological differences in responses, but rather gender differences in willingness to report empathy. Specifically, women may be more likely to report experiencing empathy because it is more

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Individuals may be motivated to avoid empathizing with others' emotions due to the emotional costs of doing so. For example, according to C. D. Batson's model of empathy, empathizing with others may either result in empathic concern (i.e. feelings of warmth and concern for another) or personal

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Reduced neural simulation of responses to suffering may account in part for observed empathy gaps, particularly in an intergroup context. This possibility is supported by research demonstrating that people show reduced neural activity when they witness ethnic outgroup (vs. ingroup) members in

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Empathy gaps may contribute to prejudicial attitudes and behavior. However, training people in perspective-taking, for example by providing instructions about how to take an outgroup member's perspective, has been shown to increase intergroup helping and the recognition of group disparities.

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accurately predict one's own preferences and decisions (intrapersonal empathy gaps), or to consider how others' preferences might differ from one's own (interpersonal empathy gaps). For example, people not owning a certain good underestimate their attachment to that good were they to own it.

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are due to variance in ability, motivation, or both between men and women. Research to date raises the possibility that gender norms regarding the experience and expression of empathy may decrease men's willingness to empathize with others, and therefore their tendency to engage in empathy.

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distress (i.e. when another's distress causes distress for the self). A trait-level tendency to experience personal distress (vs. empathic concern) may motivate individuals to avoid situations which would require them to empathize with others, and indeed predicts reduced helping behavior.

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A number of studies, primarily utilizing self-report, have found gender differences in men's and women's empathy. A 1977 review of nine studies found women to be more empathic than men on average. A 1983 review found a similar result, although differences in scores were stronger for

152:. For example, a great deal of research has demonstrated that people show reduced responses (e.g. neural activity) when observing outgroup (vs. ingroup) members in pain. These effects may occur for real-world social groups such as members of different races. In one study utilizing a 196:

Within the domain of social psychology, "empathy gaps" typically describe breakdowns in empathy toward others (interpersonal empathy gaps). However, research in behavioral economics has also identified a number of intrapersonal empathy gaps (i.e. toward one's self). For example,

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Perspective-taking interventions are more likely to be effective when a multicultural approach is used (i.e., an approach that appreciates intergroup differences), as opposed to a "colorblind" approach (e.g. an approach that attempts to emphasize a shared group identity).

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In addition to temporary changes in oxytocin levels, the influence of oxytocin on empathic responses may also be influenced by an oxytocin receptor gene polymorphism, such that certain individuals may differ in the extent to which oxytocin promotes ingroup favoritism.

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Affective (i.e. emotional) empathy gaps may describe instances in which an observer and target do not experience similar emotions, or when an observer does not experience anticipated emotional responses toward a target, such as sympathy and compassion.

571:. Specifically, humans are less likely to assist others who are not identifiable on an individual level. A related concept is psychological distance—that is, we are less likely to help those who feel more psychologically distant from us. 549:

A number of fMRI studies have attempted to identify the neural activation patterns underlying the experience of intergroup schadenfreude, particularly toward outgroup members in pain. These studies have found increased activation in the

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People may fail to take another's perspective due to a failure to attribute a mind or agency to that person. Behavioral research has found that individuals are less likely to assign mental states to outgroup compared to ingroup

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Piff, P. K.; Moskowitz, J. P. (2017-10-05). "The Class–Compassion Gap: How Socioeconomic Factors Influence Compassion". In Seppälä, E. M.; Simon-Thomas, E.; Brown, S. L.; Worline, M. C.; Cameron, C. D.; Doty, J. R. (eds.).

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Hein, G., Silani, G., Preuschoff, K., Batson, C. D., & Singer, T. (2010). Neural responses to ingroup and outgroup members' suffering predict individual differences in costly helping. Neuron, 68(1),

70:) may sometimes result from a lack of ability. For example, young children often engage in failures of perspective-taking (e.g., on false belief tasks) due to underdeveloped social cognitive abilities. 156:(in which groups are randomly assigned, ostensibly based on an arbitrary distinction), individuals also judged the perceived pain of ingroup members to be more painful than that of outgroup members. 94:

In other circumstances, failures in cognitive empathy may occur due to a lack of motivation. For example, people are less likely to take the perspective of outgroup members with whom they disagree.

201:" describe a breakdown in empathy for one's future self—specifically, a failure to anticipate how one's future affective states will affect one's preferences. Such failures can negatively impact 141:

members in need, as compared to ingroup members. People are also less likely to value outgroup members' lives as highly as those of ingroup members. These effects are indicative of an

358: 5018: 1206: 3845: 3012: 1400: 326:, researchers found conservatives to have lower levels of empathy as compared to liberals, but only among individuals with low (vs. high) levels of religiosity. 1501:

McDonald, N. M.; Messinger, D. S. (2011). "The Development of Empathy: How, When, and Why". In Juan José Sanguineti; Ariberto Acerbi; José Angel Lombo (eds.).

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Blair, R. J. R.; Meffert, H.; Hwang, S.; White, S. F. (2018). "Psychopathy and brain function: Insights from neuroimaging research". In Patrick, C. J. (ed.).

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Todd, A. R.; Galinsky, A. D. (2014-07-02). "Perspective-taking as a strategy for improving intergroup relations: Evidence, mechanisms, and qualifications".

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Gutsell, J. N.; Inzlicht, M. (2010). "Empathy constrained: Prejudice predicts reduced mental simulation of actions during observation of outgroups".

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to interact with one another. There is growing evidence to suggest that greater economic inequality is linked with lower empathy among the wealthy.

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Gender differences in the experience of empathy have been a subject of debate. In particular, scientists have sought to determine whether observed

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Karniol, R.; Gabay, R.; Ochion, Y.; Harari, Y. (July 1998). "Is gender or gender-role orientation a better predictor of empathy in adolescence?".

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However, more recent work has found little evidence that gender differences in self-reported empathy are related to neurophysiological measures (

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Psychological research has identified a number of trait differences associated with reduced empathic responses, including but not limited to:

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Batson, C. D. (2009-03-20). "These Things Called Empathy: Eight Related but Distinct Phenomena". In Decety, J.; Ickes, William (eds.).

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organization as compared to women, a finding mediated by men's lower self-reported feelings of empathic concern toward others.

2575:"Association of Personal Distress With Burnout, Compassion Fatigue, and Compassion Satisfaction Among Clinical Social Workers" 3194:"Age-related sex differences in explicit measures of empathy do not predict brain responses across childhood and adolescence" 4020:

Shamay-Tsoory, S. G.; Abu-Akel, A.; Palgi, S.; Sulieman, R.; Fischer-Shofty, M.; Levkovitz, Y.; Decety, J. (December 2013).

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Vorauer, J. D.; Sasaki, S. J. (2009). "Helpful only in the abstract? Ironic effects of empathy in intergroup interaction".

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Keysers, Christian; Wicker, Bruno; Gazzola, Valeria; Anton, Jean-Luc; Fogassi, Leonardo; Gallese, Vittorio (April 2004).

665: 4555: 2139:"Behavioral Investigation of the Influence of Social Categorization on Empathy for Pain: A Minimal Group Paradigm Study" 1341:

Epley, N.; Keysar, B.; Van Boven, L.; Gilovich, T. (2004). "Perspective Taking as Egocentric Anchoring and Adjustment".

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Perhaps the most well-known "counter-empathic" emotion—i.e., an emotion that reflects an empathy gap for the target—is

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Eisenberg, N.; Strayer, J. (1987). "Critical issues in the study of empathy". In Eisenberg, N.; Strayer, J. (eds.).

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Ross, L.; Ward, A. (1996). "Naive Realism in Everyday Life: Implications for Social Conflict and Misunderstanding".

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De Dreu, C. K. W.; Shalvi, S.; Greer, L. L.; Van Kleef, G. A.; Handgraaf, M. J. J. (2012-11-07). Denson, T. (ed.).

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A great deal of social neuroscience research has been conducted to investigate the social functions of the hormone

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Batson, C. D.; Ahmad, N.; Lishner, D. A.; Tsang, J.; Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, S. J. (2002). "Empathy and altruism".

3288: 1254: 978: 778: 205:, particularly in regards to health outcomes. Hot-cold empathy gaps are related to the psychological concepts of 4028: 2200: 1283: 1278: 1191: 1073: 838: 818: 714: 169: 4465:"Neural Responses to Ingroup and Outgroup Members' Suffering Predict Individual Differences in Costly Helping" 4023:"Giving peace a chance: Oxytocin increases empathy to pain in the context of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict" 2421:"Their pain gives us pleasure: How intergroup dynamics shape empathic failures and counter-empathic responses" 405: 148:

Intergroup empathy gaps are often affective or cognitive in nature, but also extend to other domains such as

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Certain affective empathy gaps may be driven by a limited ability to share another's emotions. For example,

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was significantly related to affective empathy, especially among Black, Indigenous, and/or People of Color.

3331: 3063: 2969: 2926: 1658: 1437: 1316: 1264: 948: 928: 709: 687: 153: 138: 79: 3283:"Bridging the gap: the effect of gender normativity on differences in empathy and emotional intelligence" 3152:"What drives the gender gap in charitable giving? Lower empathy leads men to give less to poverty relief" 5012: 4991: 4108: 3916: 3596: 2515:"Stereotypes and Schadenfreude: Affective and Physiological Markers of Pleasure at Outgroup Misfortunes" 2363: 1736: 1043: 958: 933: 878: 387: 323: 206: 514:

A meta-analysis of 50 fMRI studies of intergroup social cognition found more consistent activation in

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Merritt, C. C.; MacCormack, J. K.; Stein, A. G.; Lindquist, K. A.; Muscatell, K. A. (October 2021).

4464: 3841:"Neural mechanisms of empathy in humans: A relay from neural systems for imitation to limbic areas" 3245: 2815: 2060: 1998: 1151: 1068: 968: 903: 843: 833: 828: 692: 3953:"Oxytocin Motivates Non-Cooperation in Intergroup Conflict to Protect Vulnerable In-Group Members" 2574: 4758: 4715: 4341:

Telzer, E. H.; Masten, C. L.; Berkman, E. T.; Lieberman, M. D.; Fuligni, A. J. (September 2011).

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Sidanius, J.; Kteily, N.; Sheehy-Skeffington, J.; Ho, A. K.; Sibley, C.; Duriez, B. (June 2013).

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Wicker, B.; Keysers, C.; Plailly, J.; Royet, J. P.; Gallese, V.; Rizzolatti, G. (October 2003).

3405:"Correlates of affective empathy, perspective taking, and generativity among a sample of adults" 2054:

Azevedo, R. T.; Macaluso, E.; Avenanti, A.; Santangelo, V.; Cazzato, V.; Aglioti, S. M. (2013).

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others' states. For example, breakdowns in mentalizing may include but are not limited to:

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Both affective and cognitive empathy gaps can occur due to a breakdown in the process of

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2828: 1695: 1473: 1395: 1380: 172:, which proposes that such groups elicit envy, thereby precipitating schadenfreude. 5004: 4412: 4041: 3929: 1994:"Racial identification modulates default network activity for same and other races" 1949: 1828: 1487: 1136: 898: 883: 567:

Breakdowns in empathy may reduce helping behavior, a phenomenon illustrated by the

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Mehrabian, A.; Epstein, N. (December 1972). "A measure of emotional empathy".

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Moral Behavior and Free Will: A Neurobiological and Philosophical Approach

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L.; 1807:978-0-262-01297-3 1514:978-88-95565-64-4 1486:(85) – via 1292: 1291: 929:Social comparison 710:Choice-supportive 454:According to the 450:Neural simulation 447: 446: 423: 338:Neural mechanisms 294:Trait differences 235:Mind attribution: 76:face difficulties 16:(Redirected from 5087: 5059: 5058: 5038: 5029: 5023: 5022: 5016: 5008: 4986: 4980: 4979: 4959: 4950: 4949: 4921: 4912: 4906: 4905: 4897: 4891: 4890: 4866:Social Influence 4862: 4854: 4848: 4847: 4811: 4803: 4797: 4796: 4788: 4782: 4781: 4761: 4753: 4747: 4746: 4718: 4710: 4704: 4703: 4693: 4683: 4659: 4650: 4649: 4639: 4622:(4): 1947–1958. 4605: 4599: 4598: 4588: 4563:(5–6): 655–667. 4546: 4540: 4539: 4509: 4500: 4499: 4489: 4469: 4460: 4454: 4450: 4444: 4443: 4433: 4415: 4389: 4383: 4382: 4372: 4338: 4332: 4331: 4297: 4291: 4290: 4262: 4254: 4248: 4247: 4211: 4203: 4197: 4196: 4154: 4148: 4147: 4111: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4068: 4060: 4054: 4053: 4025: 4017: 4011: 4010: 4000: 3982: 3948: 3942: 3941: 3913: 3905: 3899: 3898: 3888: 3870: 3853:(9): 5497–5502. 3836: 3830: 3829: 3819: 3795: 3789: 3788: 3770: 3728: 3722: 3721: 3687: 3681: 3680: 3644: 3636: 3630: 3629: 3587: 3581: 3580: 3546: 3540: 3539: 3537: 3536: 3521: 3515: 3514: 3491: 3485: 3484: 3456: 3448: 3442: 3441: 3416:(8): 2474–2490. 3407: 3399: 3390: 3389: 3363: 3357: 3356: 3328: 3320: 3314: 3313: 3285: 3277: 3271: 3270: 3240: 3234: 3233: 3223: 3189: 3183: 3182: 3154: 3146: 3140: 3139: 3111: 3103: 3097: 3096: 3060: 3052: 3046: 3045: 3009: 3001: 2995: 2994: 2966: 2958: 2952: 2951: 2923: 2915: 2909: 2908: 2898: 2856: 2841: 2840: 2806: 2800: 2799: 2771: 2762: 2753: 2752: 2716: 2708: 2702: 2701: 2691: 2673: 2647: 2641: 2640: 2610: 2604: 2603: 2577: 2569: 2563: 2562: 2552: 2510: 2504: 2503: 2475: 2467: 2461: 2460: 2450: 2416: 2407: 2406: 2396: 2354: 2348: 2347: 2329: 2295: 2289: 2288: 2244: 2236: 2230: 2229: 2203: 2195: 2189: 2188: 2178: 2160: 2134: 2128: 2127: 2105: 2096: 2095: 2085: 2051: 2042: 2041: 2031: 2006:(8): 1883–1893. 1989: 1980: 1979: 1969: 1927: 1916: 1915: 1896:10.1037/a0012636 1890:(6): 1411–1428. 1879: 1871: 1865: 1864: 1836: 1824: 1818: 1817: 1815: 1814: 1783: 1777: 1776: 1768: 1762: 1761: 1733: 1725: 1719: 1718: 1706: 1700: 1699: 1672:10.1037/a0037679 1666:(6): 1608–1647. 1653: 1647: 1646: 1614: 1606: 1600: 1599: 1591: 1585: 1584: 1576: 1570: 1569: 1544:(8): 1901–1903. 1533: 1525: 1519: 1518: 1498: 1492: 1491: 1469: 1463: 1462: 1432: 1426: 1425: 1414:10.1037/h0027580 1391: 1385: 1384: 1338: 1089:Systematic error 1044:Omitted-variable 959:Trait ascription 799:Frog pond effect 627:Cognitive biases 611: 604: 597: 588: 563:Helping behavior 552:ventral striatum 442: 441: 433: 430: 424: 422: 381: 350: 349: 342: 128:Notable examples 21: 5095: 5094: 5090: 5089: 5088: 5086: 5085: 5084: 5065: 5064: 5063: 5062: 5036: 5031: 5030: 5026: 5009: 4988: 4987: 4983: 4961: 4960: 4953: 4919: 4914: 4913: 4909: 4899: 4898: 4894: 4856: 4855: 4851: 4805: 4804: 4800: 4790: 4789: 4785: 4755: 4754: 4750: 4712: 4711: 4707: 4661: 4660: 4653: 4607: 4606: 4602: 4548: 4547: 4543: 4511: 4510: 4503: 4467: 4462: 4461: 4457: 4451: 4447: 4391: 4390: 4386: 4340: 4339: 4335: 4299: 4298: 4294: 4256: 4255: 4251: 4228:10.1038/nrn1884 4205: 4204: 4200: 4156: 4155: 4151: 4105: 4104: 4100: 4062: 4061: 4057: 4019: 4018: 4014: 3950: 3949: 3945: 3907: 3906: 3902: 3838: 3837: 3833: 3797: 3796: 3792: 3730: 3729: 3725: 3689: 3688: 3684: 3638: 3637: 3633: 3589: 3588: 3584: 3548: 3547: 3543: 3534: 3532: 3523: 3522: 3518: 3501:. 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F. 1819: 1806: 1778: 1763: 1744:(2): 107–122. 1720: 1701: 1648: 1601: 1586: 1571: 1520: 1513: 1493: 1464: 1445:(4): 525–543. 1427: 1408:(3): 307–316. 1386: 1351:(3): 327–339. 1332: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1325: 1324: 1319: 1314: 1309: 1304: 1297: 1294: 1290: 1289: 1287: 1286: 1281: 1274: 1271: 1270: 1268: 1267: 1262: 1257: 1251: 1249: 1248:Bias reduction 1245: 1244: 1242: 1241: 1236: 1231: 1226: 1224:Political bias 1221: 1216: 1215: 1214: 1209: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1152:Infrastructure 1149: 1144: 1139: 1134: 1127: 1122: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1109: 1107: 1106: 1101: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1069:Self-selection 1066: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1046: 1041: 1036: 1031: 1026: 1021: 1020: 1019: 1009: 1004: 999: 993: 991: 985: 984: 982: 981: 976: 971: 966: 961: 956: 951: 946: 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 916: 911: 906: 904:Pro-innovation 901: 896: 891: 889:Overton window 886: 881: 876: 871: 866: 861: 856: 851: 846: 841: 836: 831: 826: 821: 816: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 770: 769: 759: 757:Dunning–Kruger 754: 749: 744: 739: 734: 729: 728: 727: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 696: 695: 685: 680: 675: 674: 673: 671:Correspondence 668: 666:Actor–observer 658: 653: 648: 643: 638: 632: 630: 625: 622: 621: 616: 614: 613: 606: 599: 591: 580: 577: 564: 561: 559: 556: 546: 543: 538:Lateralization 523: 520: 511: 508: 502: 499: 486: 483: 451: 448: 445: 444: 437: 435: 354: 352: 345: 339: 336: 335: 334: 327: 317: 310: 295: 292: 259: 256: 251: 250: 239: 223: 220: 218: 215: 193: 190: 177: 174: 161: 158: 134: 131: 129: 126: 99: 96: 63: 60: 58: 57:Classification 55: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5092: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5072: 5070: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5043: 5035: 5028: 5025: 5020: 5014: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4993: 4985: 4982: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4958: 4956: 4952: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4926: 4918: 4911: 4908: 4903: 4896: 4893: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4867: 4861: 4853: 4850: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4829: 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1295: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1276: 1275: 1272: 1266: 1263: 1261: 1258: 1256: 1253: 1252: 1250: 1246: 1240: 1237: 1235: 1232: 1230: 1227: 1225: 1222: 1220: 1217: 1213: 1210: 1208: 1205: 1203: 1202:United States 1200: 1198: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1177:False balance 1175: 1174: 1173: 1170: 1168: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1133: 1132: 1128: 1126: 1123: 1121: 1118: 1117: 1115: 1111: 1105: 1102: 1100: 1097: 1095: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1070: 1067: 1065: 1062: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1050: 1049:Participation 1047: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1037: 1035: 1032: 1030: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1018: 1017:Psychological 1015: 1014: 1013: 1010: 1008: 1005: 1003: 1000: 998: 995: 994: 992: 990: 986: 980: 977: 975: 972: 970: 967: 965: 962: 960: 957: 955: 952: 950: 947: 945: 942: 940: 937: 935: 932: 930: 927: 925: 922: 920: 917: 915: 912: 910: 907: 905: 902: 900: 897: 895: 892: 890: 887: 885: 882: 880: 877: 875: 872: 870: 867: 865: 862: 860: 857: 855: 852: 850: 847: 845: 842: 840: 837: 835: 832: 830: 827: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 790: 787: 785: 784:Fading affect 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 768: 765: 764: 763: 760: 758: 755: 753: 750: 748: 745: 743: 740: 738: 735: 733: 730: 726: 723: 722: 721: 718: 716: 713: 711: 708: 706: 703: 701: 698: 694: 691: 690: 689: 686: 684: 681: 679: 676: 672: 669: 667: 664: 663: 662: 659: 657: 654: 652: 649: 647: 644: 642: 639: 637: 634: 633: 631: 628: 623: 619: 612: 607: 605: 600: 598: 593: 592: 589: 585: 578: 576: 572: 570: 562: 557: 555: 553: 544: 542: 539: 535: 531: 529: 521: 519: 517: 510:Role of dmPFC 509: 507: 500: 498: 494: 492: 484: 482: 478: 476: 472: 468: 463: 461: 457: 449: 436: 432: 421: 418: 414: 411: 407: 404: 400: 397: 393: 390: – 389: 388:"Empathy gap" 385: 384:Find sources: 379: 375: 369: 368: 364: 360: 355:This article 353: 344: 343: 337: 331: 328: 325: 321: 318: 314: 311: 308: 304: 301: 300: 299: 293: 291: 288: 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