321:
715:. This trait is often used as a diagnostic criterion to distinguish autopolyploids from allopolyploids, which commonly display disomic inheritance after they progress past the neopolyploid stage. While most polyploid species are unambiguously characterized as either autopolyploid or allopolyploid, these categories represent the ends of a spectrum of divergence between parental subgenomes. Polyploids that fall between these two extremes, which are often referred to as segmental allopolyploids, may display intermediate levels of polysomic inheritance that vary by locus.
38:
1385:
298:. Each of these species experienced independent autopolyploidy events (within-species polyploidy, described below), which then enabled subsequent interspecies gene flow of adaptive alleles, in this case stabilising each young polyploid lineage. Such polyploidy-enabled adaptive introgression may allow polyploids at act as 'allelic sponges', whereby they accumulate cryptic genomic variation that may be recruited upon encountering later environmental challenges.
8874:
2039:
987:
8898:
1597:
8910:
1133:, the same cannot be said for their karyotypes, which are highly variable between species in chromosome number and in detailed organization despite being constructed out of the same macromolecules. In some cases, there is even significant variation within species. This variation provides the basis for a range of studies in what might be called evolutionary cytology.
8886:
772:
meiotic pairing by providing each homoeologous chromosome with its own homologue. If divergence between homoeologous chromosomes is even across the two subgenomes, this can theoretically result in rapid restoration of bivalent pairing and disomic inheritance following allopolyploidization. However
695:
gametes. Natural or artificial selection for fertility can quickly stabilize meiosis in autopolyploids by restoring bivalent pairing during meiosis. Rapid adaptive evolution of the meiotic machinery, resulting in reduced levels of multivalents (and therefore stable autopolyploid meiosis) has been
1575:
is quite commonly observed in human preimplantation embryos and includes haploid/diploid as well as diploid/tetraploid mixed cell populations. It is unknown whether these embryos fail to implant and are therefore rarely detected in ongoing pregnancies or if there is simply a selective process
1354:(1956) using a cold-shock treatment of the eggs close to the time of fertilization, which produced triploid embryos that successfully matured. Cold or heat shock has also been shown to result in unreduced amphibian gametes, though this occurs more commonly in eggs than in sperm.
289:
On the other hand, polyploidization can also be a mechanism for a kind of 'reverse speciation', whereby gene flow is enabled following the polyploidy event, even between lineages that previously experienced no gene flow as diploids. This has been detailed at the genomic level in
1649:
and eco-niche exploitation. The mechanisms leading to novel variation in newly formed allopolyploids may include gene dosage effects (resulting from more numerous copies of genome content), the reunion of divergent gene regulatory hierarchies, chromosomal rearrangements, and
977:
That has become polyploid in more recent history; it is not as new as a neopolyploid and not as old as a paleopolyploid. It is a middle aged polyploid. Often this refers to whole genome duplication followed by intermediate levels of diploidization.
1463:
and a triploid cell population present. There has been one report of a child surviving to the age of seven months with complete triploidy syndrome. He failed to exhibit normal mental or physical neonatal development, and died from a
76:, meaning they have two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each of two parents; each set contains the same number of chromosomes, and the chromosomes are joined in pairs of homologous chromosomes. However, some organisms are
6713:
Minato T, Yoshida S, Ishiguro T, Shimada E, Mizutani S, Kobayashi O, Yoshimoto H (March 2009). "Expression profiling of the bottom fermenting yeast
Saccharomyces pastorianus orthologous genes using oligonucleotide microarrays".
2046:
As for plants and animals, fungal hybrids and polyploids display structural and functional modifications compared to their progenitors and diploid counterparts. In particular, the structural and functional outcomes of polyploid
1752:
In some situations, polyploid crops are preferred because they are sterile. For example, many seedless fruit varieties are seedless as a result of polyploidy. Such crops are propagated using asexual techniques, such as
905:(from the Greek words meaning "not", "good", and "fold"). Aneuploidy refers to a numerical change in part of the chromosome set, whereas polyploidy refers to a numerical change in the whole set of chromosomes.
150:, either during mitosis, or more commonly from the failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis or from the fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm. In addition, it can be induced in plants and
1020:
and gene translations gradually make one copy of each chromosome unlike the other copy. Over time, it is also common for duplicated copies of genes to accumulate mutations and become inactive pseudogenes.
1749:). It combines sought-after characteristics of the parents, but the initial hybrids are sterile. After polyploidization, the hybrid becomes fertile and can thus be further propagated to become triticale.
748:. In the former case, unreduced gametes from each diploid taxon – or reduced gametes from two autotetraploid taxa – combine to form allopolyploid offspring. In the latter case, one or more diploid
2204:
double-strand breaks. Although chromosomes are shattered into many fragments, complete chromosomes can be regenerated by making use of overlapping fragments. The mechanism employs single-stranded
6511:
Devier B, Aguileta G, Hood ME, Giraud T (2009). "Using phylogenies of pheromone receptor genes in the
Microbotryum violaceum species complex to investigate possible speciation by hybridization".
784:
effects, either in terms of fitness in natural contexts or desirable traits in agricultural contexts. This could partially explain the prevalence of allopolyploidy among crop species. Both bread
6067:"Diploid/polyploid syntenic shuttle mapping and haplotype-specific chromosome walking toward a rust resistance gene (Bru1) in highly polyploid sugarcane (2n approximately 12x approximately 115)"
1376:
showed how mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent, extending the possibilities to non-stem cells. Gurdon and
Yamanaka were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 for this work.
7253:
1481:(the extra haploid set is from the father). Diandry is mostly caused by reduplication of the paternal haploid set from a single sperm, but may also be the consequence of dispermic (two sperm)
3706:
Marburger, Sarah; Monnahan, Patrick; Seear, Paul J.; Martin, Simon H.; Koch, Jordan; Paajanen, Pirita; Bohutínská, Magdalena; Higgins, James D.; Schmickl, Roswitha; Yant, Levi (2019-11-18).
3641:
Marburger, Sarah; Monnahan, Patrick; Seear, Paul J.; Martin, Simon H.; Koch, Jordan; Paajanen, Pirita; Bohutínská, Magdalena; Higgins, James D.; Schmickl, Roswitha; Yant, Levi (2019-11-18).
2604:
Marburger, Sarah; Monnahan, Patrick; Seear, Paul J.; Martin, Simon H.; Koch, Jordan; Paajanen, Pirita; Bohutínská, Magdalena; Higgins, James D.; Schmickl, Roswitha; Yant, Levi (2019-11-18).
320:
1654:
remodeling, all of which affect gene content and/or expression levels. Many of these rapid changes may contribute to reproductive isolation and speciation. However, seed generated from
1557:
Complete tetraploidy is more rarely diagnosed than triploidy, but is observed in 1–2% of early miscarriages. However, some tetraploid cells are commonly found in chromosome analysis at
8532:
41:
This image shows haploid (single), diploid (double), triploid (triple), and tetraploid (quadruple) sets of chromosomes. Triploid and tetraploid chromosomes are examples of polyploidy.
680:
division, which results in the production of polyploid cells. This process can be useful in plant breeding, especially when attempting to introgress germplasm across ploidal levels.
6021:
1631:
species diversity appear to have coincided with the timing of ancient genome duplications shared by many species. It has been established that 15% of angiosperm and 31% of fern
2177:
can contain up to 80 chromosome copies per cell. However this is only observed in fast growing cultures, whereas cultures grown in synthetic minimal media are not polyploid.
1501:, while digyny predominates among triploid zygotes that survive into the fetal period. However, among early miscarriages, digyny is also more common in those cases less than
952:
A monoploid has only one set of chromosomes and the term is usually only applied to cells or organisms that are normally diploid. The more general term for such organisms is
629:), but in some cases they may produce high proportions of unreduced gametes and thus aid the formation of tetraploids. This pathway to tetraploidy is referred to as the
760:
hybrids between taxa often have relatively high rates of unreduced gamete formation – divergence between the genomes of the two taxa result in abnormal pairing between
6344:"Insights into the Dekkera bruxellensis genomic landscape: comparative genomics reveals variations in ploidy and nutrient utilisation potential amongst wine isolates"
1623:
Polyploidy is frequent in plants, some estimates suggesting that 30–80% of living plant species are polyploid, and many lineages show evidence of ancient polyploidy (
773:
multivalent pairing is common in many recently formed allopolyploids, so it is likely that the majority of meiotic stabilization occurs gradually through selection.
756:
produce unreduced gametes that fuse to form allopolyploid progeny. Hybridization followed by genome duplication may be a more common path to allopolyploidy because F
3771:
Seear, Paul J.; France, Martin G.; Gregory, Catherine L.; Heavens, Darren; Schmickl, Roswitha; Yant, Levi; Higgins, James D. (2020-07-15). Grelon, Mathilde (ed.).
7060:
Zahradka K, Slade D, Bailone A, Sommer S, Averbeck D, Petranovic M, et al. (October 2006). "Reassembly of shattered chromosomes in
Deinococcus radiodurans".
1301:) has been reported as an exception to this 'rule'. However, careful analysis using chromosome paints shows that there are only two copies of each chromosome in
1241:
contains many different species with as many as 12 sets of chromosomes (dodecaploid). Polyploid lizards are also quite common. Most are sterile and reproduce by
8033:
3029:
2381:
Manimekalai R, Suresh G, Govinda Kurup H, Athiappan S, Kandalam M (September 2020). "Role of NGS and SNP genotyping methods in sugarcane improvement programs".
1642:) gametes. Both autopolyploids (e.g. potato) and allopolyploids (such as canola, wheat and cotton) can be found among both wild and domesticated plant species.
7722:
7700:, Schemske DW, Hancock JF, Thompson JN, Husband BC, Judd WS (2007). "Autopolyploidy in Angiosperms: Have We Grossly Underestimated the Number of Species?".
4747:
6652:
Scannell DR, Byrne KP, Gordon JL, Wong S, Wolfe KH (March 2006). "Multiple rounds of speciation associated with reciprocal gene loss in polyploid yeasts".
2166:
1008:
Ancient genome duplications probably occurred in the evolutionary history of all life. Duplication events that occurred long ago in the history of various
5607:
Osborn TC, Pires JC, Birchler JA, Auger DL, Chen ZJ, Lee HS, et al. (March 2003). "Understanding mechanisms of novel gene expression in polyploids".
4644:
Bogart JP, Bi K, Fu J, Noble DW, Niedzwiecki J (February 2007). "Unisexual salamanders (genus
Ambystoma) present a new reproductive mode for eukaryotes".
8914:
169:, a high frequency of polyploid cells is found in organs such as the brain, liver, heart, and bone marrow. It also occurs in the somatic cells of other
1658:, such as between polyploids and their parent species, usually have aberrant endosperm development which impairs their viability, thus contributing to
2982:
Aïnouche ML, Fortune PM, Salmon A, Parisod C, Grandbastien MA, Fukunaga K, et al. (2008). "Hybridization, polyploidy and invasion: Lessons from
2431:"Analysis of Three Sugarcane Homo/Homeologous Regions Suggests Independent Polyploidization Events of Saccharum officinarum and Saccharum spontaneum"
8795:
1956:
is dotted by past and recent whole-genome duplication events (see
Albertin and Marullo 2012 for review). Several examples of polyploids are known:
5071:
Winkelmann M, Pfitzer P, Schneider W (December 1987). "Significance of polyploidy in megakaryocytes and other cells in health and tumor disease".
3576:
Yant, Levi; Hollister, Jesse D.; Wright, Kevin M.; Arnold, Brian J.; Higgins, James D.; Franklin, F. Chris H.; Bomblies, Kirsten (November 2013).
1675:
is disturbed, these plants are sterile, with all plants having the same genetic constitution: Among them, the exclusively vegetatively propagated
2055:
chromosomes have been described, as well as more punctual genetic modifications such as gene loss. The homoealleles of the allotetraploid yeast
2042:
Schematic phylogeny of the
Chromalveolata. Red circles indicate polyploidy, blue squares indicate hybridization. From Albertin and Marullo, 2012
1170:. Both diploid ancestors had two sets of 7 chromosomes, which were similar in terms of size and genes contained on them. Durum wheat contains a
691:(particularly in recently formed autopolyploids, also known as neopolyploids) and an associated decrease in fertility due to the production of
8522:
8163:
7376:
5151:
4247:
3087:
2823:
1447:, with 69 chromosomes (sometimes called 69, XXX), and tetraploidy with 92 chromosomes (sometimes called 92, XXXX). Triploidy, usually due to
2482:"Speciation by genome duplication: Repeated origins and genomic composition of the recently formed allopolyploid species Mimulus peregrinus"
8595:
8565:
8527:
5986:
Les DH, Philbrick CT (1993). "Studies of hybridization and chromosome number variation in aquatic angiosperms: Evolutionary implications".
3071:
2669:
Seear, Paul J.; France, Martin G.; Gregory, Catherine L.; Heavens, Darren; Schmickl, Roswitha; Yant, Levi; Higgins, James D. (2020-07-15).
2344:
Ohno S, Muramoto J, Christian L, Atkin NB (1967). "Diploid-tetraploid relationship among old-world members of the fish family
Cyprinidae".
1638:
Polyploid plants can arise spontaneously in nature by several mechanisms, including meiotic or mitotic failures, and fusion of unreduced (2
1235:). Some fish have as many as 400 chromosomes. Polyploidy also occurs commonly in amphibians; for example the biomedically important genus
718:
About half of all polyploids are thought to be the result of autopolyploidy, although many factors make this proportion hard to estimate.
7304:"Extremely radiation-resistant mutants of a halophilic archaeon with increased single-stranded DNA-binding protein (RPA) gene expression"
3391:
Cotter D, O'Donovan V, O'Maoiléidigh N, Rogan G, Roche N, Wilkins NP (June 2000). "An evaluation of the use of triploid
Atlantic salmon (
7598:
Raes J, Vandepoele K, Simillion C, Saeys Y, Van de Peer Y (2003). "Investigating ancient duplication events in the
Arabidopsis genome".
5838:
von Wangenheim KH, Peterson HP (June 2004). "Aberrant endosperm development in interploidy crosses reveals a timer of differentiation".
2087:
have experienced one or more polyploidization events during their evolutionary history (see Albertin and Marullo, 2012 for review). The
6759:"Adaptive response to DNA-damaging agents in natural Saccharomyces cerevisiae populations from "Evolution Canyon", Mt. Carmel, Israel"
2279:
6205:"Evidence for autotetraploidy associated with reproductive isolation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: towards a new domesticated species"
8026:
3920:
3868:
Le Comber SC, Ainouche ML, Kovarik A, Leitch AR (April 2010). "Making a functional diploid: from polysomic to disomic inheritance".
3522:
1729:
The induction of polyploidy is a common technique to overcome the sterility of a hybrid species during plant breeding. For example,
1645:
Most polyploids display novel variation or morphologies relative to their parental species, that may contribute to the processes of
6915:
Chepurnov VA, Mann DG, Vyverman W, Sabbe K, Danielidis DB (2002). "Sexual Reproduction, Mating System, and Protoplast Dynamics of
6818:"Genetic characterization of the natural hybrid species Phytophthora alni as inferred from nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analyses"
2120:
underwent three successive rounds of whole-genome duplication and established itself as a major model for paleopolyploid studies.
1455:; those that do survive to term typically die shortly after birth. In some cases, survival past birth may be extended if there is
2934:"The second highest chromosome count among vertebrates is observed in cultured sturgeon and is associated with genome plasticity"
1368:
hailed the work for its potential medical applications and, in describing the results, became one of the first to use the word "
99:
has only one set of chromosomes, and the term is usually only applied to cells or organisms that are normally diploid. Males of
2091:, which are non-true fungi members, contain several examples of paleopolyploid and polyploid species, such as within the genus
5003:"Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2012 Awarded for Discovery That Mature Cells Can Be Reprogrammed to Become Pluripotent"
3348:
Varoquaux F, Blanvillain R, Delseny M, Gallois P (June 2000). "Less is better: new approaches for seedless fruit production".
2530:
3274:"Gametes with the somatic chromosome number: mechanisms of their formation and role in the evolution of autopolyploid plants"
1451:, occurs in about 2–3% of all human pregnancies and ~15% of miscarriages. The vast majority of triploid conceptions end as a
6025:
1364:(an extension of the work of Briggs and King in 1952) that were able to develop to the tadpole stage. The British scientist
1485:
of the egg. Digyny is most commonly caused by either failure of one meiotic division during oogenesis leading to a diploid
8148:
1561:
and these are generally considered 'harmless'. It is not clear whether these tetraploid cells simply tend to arise during
1263:
from diploid males of related species to trigger egg development but not incorporating the males' DNA into the offspring.
2907:
8019:
1409:
7254:"Physiological responses of the halophilic archaeon Halobacterium sp. strain NRC1 to desiccation and gamma irradiation"
5875:"Co-occurrence of related asexual, but not sexual, lineages suggests that reproductive interference limits coexistence"
2161:
is highly resistant to such exposures. The mechanism by which the genome is accurately restored involves RecA-mediated
846:) derived from hybridization among the diploid species. A similar relationship exists between three diploid species of
8936:
8902:
2051:
genomes strikingly reflect the evolutionary fate of plant polyploid ones. Large chromosomal rearrangements leading to
8842:
5742:"Numerous and rapid nonstochastic modifications of gene products in newly synthesized Brassica napus allotetraploids"
4798:"Molecular cytogenetics and allotetraploidy in the red vizcacha rat, Tympanoctomys barrerae (Rodentia, Octodontidae)"
2889:
3959:
Ramsey J, Schemske DW (January 1998). "Pathways, Mechanisms, and Rates of Polyploid Formation in Flowering Plants".
776:
Because pairing between homoeologous chromosomes is rare in established allopolyploids, they may benefit from fixed
8791:
1662:. Polyploids may also interbreed with diploids and produce polyploid seeds, as observed in the agamic complexes of
146:
Polyploidy is the result of whole-genome duplication during the evolution of species. It may occur due to abnormal
120:
4417:"Little evidence for enhanced phenotypic evolution in early teleosts relative to their living fossil sister group"
2067:
diversification is also observed following polyploidization and/or hybridization in fungi, producing the fuel for
8295:
1985:
1655:
227:(six sets of chromosomes) with the common name of bread wheat. Many agriculturally important plants of the genus
8785:
8585:
3025:"Phytopharmacological potential of different species of Morus alba and their bioactive phytochemicals: A review"
1347:= 112) offspring that were, by virtue of their doubled chromosomes, reproductively isolated from their parents.
901:
Organisms in which a particular chromosome, or chromosome segment, is under- or over-represented are said to be
248: because polyploids are usually unable to interbreed with their diploid ancestors. An example is the plant
37:
8745:
8558:
8349:
8133:
3500:
Dwivedi SL, Upadhyaya HD, Stalker HT, Blair MW, Bertioli DJ, Nielen S, Ortiz R (January 2007). Janick J (ed.).
2209:
2190:
2162:
1966:
1429:
1384:
1034:
1569:. There are, at any rate, very few clinical reports of fetuses/infants diagnosed with tetraploidy mosaicism.
7522:"Genome duplication in the teleost fish Tetraodon nigroviridis reveals the early vertebrate proto-karyotype"
6817:
2226:
2196:
2130:
1171:
1147:
930:
158:, which can result in chromosome doubling, though its use may have other less obvious consequences as well.
8832:
6168:
Emerson R, Wilson CM (1954). "Interspecific Hybrids and the Cytogenetics and Cytotaxonomy of Euallomyces".
8850:
8837:
8806:
8739:
8708:
8626:
8600:
8302:
8285:
8255:
8228:
6866:
Phillips N, Kapraun DF, Gómez Garreta A, Ribera Siguan MA, Rull JL, Salvador Soler N, et al. (2011).
4517:
3773:"A novel allele of ASY3 is associated with greater meiotic stability in autotetraploid Arabidopsis lyrata"
2933:
2671:"A novel allele of ASY3 is associated with greater meiotic stability in autotetraploid Arabidopsis lyrata"
2173:
2031:
865:
652:
Rarely, autopolyploids arise from spontaneous, somatic genome doubling, which has been observed in apple (
544:
195:
8890:
8822:
3465:
Dermen H (May 1951). "Tetraploid and Diploid Adventitious Shoots: From a Giant Sport of McIntosh Apple".
8827:
8731:
8684:
8674:
8670:
8666:
8662:
8646:
8590:
8290:
8188:
8008:
a community-editable project with information, research, education, and a bibliography about polyploidy.
8005:
7896:
Van de Peer Y, Meyer A (2005). "Large-scale gene and ancient genome duplications". In Gregory TR (ed.).
6556:"Reconstruction of the genome origins and evolution of the hybrid lager yeast Saccharomyces pastorianus"
6393:
Ma LJ, Ibrahim AS, Skory C, Grabherr MG, Burger G, Butler M, et al. (July 2009). Madhani HD (ed.).
1551:
1401:
881:). Complex patterns of allopolyploid evolution have also been observed in animals, as in the frog genus
712:
684:
250:
116:
57:
5464:
De Bodt S, Maere S, Van de Peer Y (November 2005). "Genome duplication and the origin of angiosperms".
4079:
Ramsey J (January 1998). "Pathways, Mechanisms, and Rates of Polyploid Formation in Flowering Plants".
3218:"Neutral markers confirm the octoploid origin and reveal spontaneous autopolyploidy in white sturgeon,
4837:
Svartman M, Stone G, Stanyon R (April 2005). "Molecular cytogenetics discards polyploidy in mammals".
2932:
Havelka, Miloš; Bytyutskyy, Dmytro; Symonová, Radka; Ráb, Petr; Flajšhans, Martin (11 February 2016).
8698:
8510:
8435:
8420:
8250:
8198:
8173:
8113:
7918:
7648:
7533:
7403:
7315:
7069:
6975:
6928:
6770:
6661:
6457:
6296:
5995:
5512:
5322:
4885:
4700:
4428:
4325:
3719:
3654:
3589:
3439:
3404:
3233:
3129:
2855:
2786:
2617:
2246:
1991:
1698:
1659:
1466:
1247:
1040:
877:
858:
634:
334:
245:
5693:"Genetic and epigenetic mechanisms for gene expression and phenotypic variation in plant polyploids"
4522:
2429:
Vilela MM, Del Bem LE, Van Sluys MA, de Setta N, Kitajima JP, Cruz GM, et al. (February 2017).
8941:
8878:
8735:
8551:
8178:
7470:"Genomic changes in resynthesized Brassica napus and their effect on gene expression and phenotype"
3830:
Parisod C, Holderegger R, Brochmann C (April 2010). "Evolutionary consequences of autopolyploidy".
2390:
2205:
1294:
1009:
769:
414:
8897:
6065:
Le Cunff L, Garsmeur O, Raboin LM, Pauquet J, Telismart H, Selvi A, et al. (September 2008).
8750:
7981:
7944:
7839:
7742:
7709:
7666:
7623:
7520:
Jaillon O, Aury JM, Brunet F, Petit JL, Stange-Thomann N, Mauceli E, et al. (October 2004).
7341:
7284:
7234:
7093:
7013:"Multiplicity of genome equivalents in the radiation-resistant bacterium Micrococcus radiodurans"
6944:
6848:
6739:
6695:
6536:
6475:
6395:"Genomic analysis of the basal lineage fungus Rhizopus oryzae reveals a whole-genome duplication"
6283:
Libkind D, Hittinger CT, Valério E, Gonçalves C, Dover J, Johnston M, et al. (August 2011).
6265:
6185:
5530:
5397:
5198:
5096:
5002:
4981:
4940:
4901:
4778:
4669:
4595:
4179:
4144:
4096:
3976:
3558:
3373:
3198:
3093:
3003:
2410:
2361:
2052:
1979:
1558:
708:
660:. This is also the most common pathway of artificially induced polyploidy, where methods such as
423:
6285:"Microbe domestication and the identification of the wild genetic stock of lager-brewing yeast"
1321:) number is 102 and so its cells are roughly twice normal size. Its closest living relation is
704:, with specific adaptive alleles of these species shared between only the evolved polyploids.
8801:
8773:
8755:
8721:
8240:
8152:
7973:
7936:
7884:
7831:
7785:
7684:
7615:
7586:
7551:
7499:
7456:
7421:
7372:
7333:
7276:
7226:
7191:
7142:
7085:
7042:
6993:
6897:
6840:
6798:
6731:
6687:
6634:
6585:
6528:
6493:
6426:
6375:
6324:
6226:
6150:
6096:
5945:
5904:
5855:
5820:
5771:
5722:
5673:
5624:
5589:
5548:
5481:
5446:
5389:
5348:
5288:
5247:
5190:
5147:
5088:
5053:
5020:
Velicky P, Meinhardt G, Plessl K, Vondra S, Weiss T, Haslinger P, et al. (October 2018).
4854:
4819:
4770:
4728:
4661:
4587:
4535:
4456:
4394:
4353:
4294:
4243:
4220:
4136:
4058:
4017:
3926:
3916:
3885:
3847:
3812:
3794:
3753:
3735:
3688:
3670:
3623:
3605:
3518:
3501:
3482:
3365:
3330:
3295:
3251:
3157:
3083:
3052:
2871:
2819:
2759:
2751:
2710:
2692:
2651:
2633:
2586:
2578:
2511:
2460:
2402:
2326:
2275:
2236:
2068:
2019:
1685:
1547:
1444:
1423:
991:
854:
842:
814:
673:
587:
474:
312:
6203:
Albertin W, Marullo P, Aigle M, Bourgais A, Bely M, Dillmann C, et al. (November 2009).
5708:
4373:"Gene and genome duplications: the impact of dosage-sensitivity on the fate of nuclear genes"
3554:
2813:
266:
both of which have been introduced and naturalised in the United Kingdom. New populations of
8765:
8726:
8430:
8329:
7965:
7926:
7874:
7864:
7823:
7798:
7775:
7767:
7734:
7697:
7674:
7656:
7607:
7576:
7541:
7489:
7481:
7446:
7411:
7323:
7268:
7218:
7181:
7173:
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7077:
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7024:
6983:
6936:
6887:
6879:
6832:
6788:
6778:
6723:
6677:
6669:
6624:
6616:
6575:
6567:
6520:
6483:
6465:
6416:
6406:
6365:
6355:
6314:
6304:
6257:
6216:
6177:
6140:
6132:
6086:
6078:
6003:
5935:
5894:
5886:
5847:
5810:
5802:
5761:
5753:
5712:
5704:
5663:
5655:
5616:
5579:
5538:
5520:
5473:
5436:
5428:
5379:
5338:
5330:
5278:
5237:
5229:
5180:
5080:
5043:
5033:
4971:
4932:
4893:
4846:
4809:
4762:
4718:
4708:
4653:
4626:
4577:
4569:
4527:
4446:
4436:
4384:
4343:
4333:
4284:
4276:
4210:
4171:
4128:
4088:
4048:
4007:
3968:
3908:
3877:
3839:
3802:
3784:
3743:
3727:
3678:
3662:
3613:
3597:
3550:
3510:
3474:
3447:
3412:
3357:
3322:
3285:
3241:
3190:
3147:
3137:
3075:
3042:
2995:
2955:
2945:
2863:
2794:
2741:
2700:
2682:
2641:
2625:
2568:
2501:
2493:
2450:
2442:
2394:
2353:
2316:
2308:
2018:
and reticulate evolution that appear to be highly prevalent in several fungal taxa. Indeed,
2015:
1778:
1365:
1252:
1151:
1029:
871:
745:
538:
532:
208:
8485:
8480:
6964:"Global trends of whole-genome duplications revealed by the ciliate Paramecium tetraurelia"
6940:
5740:
Albertin W, Balliau T, Brabant P, Chèvre AM, Eber F, Malosse C, Thiellement H (June 2006).
8846:
8688:
8620:
8322:
8143:
8091:
6046:
Emshwiller E (2006). "Origins of polyploid crops: The example of the octaploid tuber crop
5022:"Genome amplification and cellular senescence are hallmarks of human placenta development"
4162:
Ownbey M (January 1950). "Natural Hybridization and Amphiploidy in the Genus Tragopogon".
3478:
2000:
1909:
1624:
1515:
weeks gestational age or those in which an embryo is present. There are also two distinct
1373:
1358:(1958) transplanted intact nuclei from somatic cells to produce diploid eggs in the frog,
1242:
1092:
probably have experienced a polyploidy event at some point in their evolutionary history.
1085:
1003:
995:
835:
49:
31:
6603:
Nakao Y, Kanamori T, Itoh T, Kodama Y, Rainieri S, Nakamura N, et al. (April 2009).
5499:
Wood TE, Takebayashi N, Barker MS, Mayrose I, Greenspoon PB, Rieseberg LH (August 2009).
4573:
2777:
Bertolani R (2001). "Evolution of the reproductive mechanisms in Tardigrades: a review".
1158:, and whose relationship was completely homologous in an ancestral species. For example,
641:
mating systems. In agricultural systems, autotriploidy can result in seedlessness, as in
7922:
7811:
7652:
7537:
7407:
7319:
7073:
6979:
6932:
6774:
6665:
6461:
6300:
5999:
5516:
5326:
4889:
4704:
4432:
4329:
3723:
3658:
3593:
3443:
3408:
3237:
3133:
2859:
2790:
2621:
8854:
8678:
8213:
8137:
7494:
7469:
7365:
6892:
6867:
6793:
6758:
6629:
6604:
6580:
6555:
6421:
6394:
6370:
6343:
6319:
6284:
6145:
6120:
6091:
6066:
5899:
5874:
5815:
5790:
5789:
Pennington PD, Costa LM, Gutierrez-Marcos JF, Greenland AJ, Dickinson HG (April 2008).
5766:
5741:
5717:
5692:
5668:
5643:
5543:
5500:
5441:
5416:
5343:
5310:
5283:
5266:
5242:
5217:
5048:
5021:
4582:
4557:
4451:
4416:
4348:
4313:
4289:
4264:
3807:
3772:
3748:
3707:
3683:
3642:
3618:
3577:
3326:
3290:
3273:
3152:
3113:
2960:
2705:
2670:
2646:
2605:
2506:
2481:
2455:
2430:
2321:
2296:
2221:
1810:
1790:
1760:
Polyploidy in crop plants is most commonly induced by treating seeds with the chemical
1676:
1405:
1155:
1025:
1013:
913:
Polyploidy occurs in some tissues of animals that are otherwise diploid, such as human
825:
777:
765:
661:
657:
626:
593:
438:
390:
275:
7879:
7852:
7780:
7755:
7679:
7636:
7186:
7161:
7137:
7112:
7037:
7012:
6962:
Aury JM, Jaillon O, Duret L, Noel B, Jubin C, Porcel BM, et al. (November 2006).
6488:
6445:
5644:"Mechanisms of genomic rearrangements and gene expression changes in plant polyploids"
5620:
4723:
4689:"Cell size, nuclear content, and the development of polyploidy in the Mammalian liver"
4688:
3912:
3416:
3361:
8930:
8858:
8193:
7581:
7564:
7177:
6221:
6204:
6007:
5791:"When genomes collide: aberrant seed development following maize interploidy crosses"
4976:
4959:
4782:
4092:
3972:
3881:
3843:
3451:
3246:
3217:
2414:
2060:
2027:
2006:
1870:
1786:
1718:
1482:
1323:
1260:
1256:
1119:
1055:
818:
809:
394:
364:
147:
81:
7985:
7843:
7345:
7238:
7128:
6948:
6852:
6743:
5401:
5202:
5114:
5100:
4985:
4944:
4673:
4599:
4100:
3980:
3562:
3377:
3097:
3066:
Al-Khayri JM, Jain SM, Johnson DV (2018). Al-Khayri JM, Jain SM, Johnson DV (eds.).
3007:
1028:. Examples of unexpected but recently confirmed ancient genome duplications include
8692:
8641:
8636:
8168:
8042:
7948:
7635:
Simillion C, Vandepoele K, Van Montagu MC, Zabeau M, Van de Peer Y (October 2002).
7627:
7288:
7097:
6540:
6181:
5967:(D. Don) Endl.) and Relationship of Coast Redwood to other Genera of Taxodiaceae".
4905:
4531:
4148:
2365:
2200:, is highly resistant to X-ray irradiation and desiccation, conditions that induce
2093:
2038:
1279:
1220:
1123:
1050:
1016:(such that a polyploid starts to behave cytogenetically as a diploid over time) as
986:
805:
780:
of homoeologous alleles. In certain cases, such heterozygosity can have beneficial
761:
345:
151:
65:
8000:
5140:
2398:
2312:
1428:
True polyploidy rarely occurs in humans, although polyploid cells occur in highly
311:"Triploid" redirects here. For the human chromosomal disorder (69 XXX, etc.), see
27:
Condition where cells of an organism have more than two paired sets of chromosomes
7956:
Wolfe KH (May 2001). "Yesterday's polyploids and the mystery of diploidization".
7302:
DeVeaux LC, Müller JA, Smith J, Petrisko J, Wells DP, DasSarma S (October 2007).
6783:
6699:
6411:
6360:
5038:
3789:
3142:
2687:
8387:
8382:
8245:
8223:
8218:
8086:
7028:
6082:
5851:
5757:
4850:
4814:
4797:
4746:
Donne R, Saroul-Aïnama M, Cordier P, Celton-Morizur S, Desdouets C (July 2020).
4476:
4119:
Comai L (November 2005). "The advantages and disadvantages of being polyploid".
3430:
Lincoln RF, Scott AP (1983). "Production of all-female triploid rainbow trout".
3047:
3024:
2150:
1864:
1498:
1452:
1355:
1066:
922:
559:
124:
104:
7853:"Tetraodon genome confirms Takifugu findings: most fish are ancient polyploids"
7641:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6450:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6289:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5505:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5477:
5384:
5367:
4693:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4421:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4318:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3731:
3666:
2846:
Adams KL, Wendel JF (April 2005). "Polyploidy and genome evolution in plants".
2629:
1596:
625:) offspring. Triploid offspring are typically sterile (as in the phenomenon of
8716:
8631:
8574:
8407:
8397:
8392:
8377:
8307:
8208:
8183:
8157:
8108:
8098:
8046:
7827:
7611:
7272:
6836:
5432:
4872:
Swarup H (1956). "Production of Heteroploidy in the Three-Spined Stickleback,
4766:
4630:
4389:
4372:
3601:
3514:
3079:
2999:
2950:
2911:
2867:
2138:
2115:
2072:
2064:
2023:
1917:
1904:
1892:
1806:
1761:
1651:
1646:
1632:
1628:
1600:
1572:
1539:
1490:
1456:
1448:
1437:
1433:
1351:
1314:
1310:
1267:
1162:
is the result of the inter-species hybridization of two diploid grass species
1142:
1130:
1081:
947:
902:
896:
848:
740:
As in autopolyploidy, this primarily occurs through the fusion of unreduced (2
692:
665:
649:. Triploidy is also utilized in salmon and trout farming to induce sterility.
642:
418:
401:
182:
155:
132:
69:
61:
17:
7869:
7392:"Analysis of the genome sequence of the flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana"
3798:
3739:
3708:"Interspecific introgression mediates adaptation to whole genome duplication"
3674:
3643:"Interspecific introgression mediates adaptation to whole genome duplication"
3609:
3486:
3334:
3255:
3056:
2755:
2696:
2637:
2606:"Interspecific introgression mediates adaptation to whole genome duplication"
2582:
8359:
8103:
8081:
8062:
8011:
6883:
6868:"Estimates of nuclear DNA content in 98 species of brown algae (Phaeophyta)"
6620:
6309:
6050:". In Zeder MA, Decker-Walters D, Emshwiller E, Bradley D, Smith BD (eds.).
5525:
5334:
5185:
5168:
4441:
4338:
4280:
3395:
L.) in minimising the impact of escaped farmed salmon on wild populations".
3313:
Müntzing A (March 1936). "The Evolutionary Significance of Autopolyploidy".
2798:
2110:
2088:
1933:
1886:
1878:
1730:
1516:
1415:
1397:
1389:
1305:, not the four expected if it were truly a tetraploid. This rodent is not a
1286:
1228:
1224:
1129:
Although the replication and transcription of DNA is highly standardized in
1112:
1106:
1089:
1059:
926:
789:
781:
749:
492:
457:
234:
7977:
7888:
7835:
7789:
7688:
7661:
7619:
7590:
7555:
7511:
Gregory TR, Mable BK (2005). "Polyploidy in animals". In Gregory TR (ed.).
7503:
7485:
7460:
7425:
7337:
7280:
7230:
7089:
6997:
6901:
6844:
6802:
6735:
6691:
6638:
6589:
6532:
6497:
6470:
6430:
6379:
6328:
6230:
6154:
6136:
6100:
5949:
5908:
5890:
5859:
5824:
5775:
5726:
5677:
5628:
5593:
5552:
5485:
5450:
5393:
5352:
5292:
5251:
5233:
5194:
5057:
4858:
4823:
4774:
4732:
4665:
4591:
4539:
4460:
4398:
4357:
4298:
4224:
4140:
4062:
4021:
3930:
3889:
3851:
3816:
3757:
3692:
3627:
3369:
3299:
3161:
2875:
2763:
2714:
2655:
2590:
2515:
2464:
2406:
2330:
7940:
7907:"Molecular evidence for an ancient duplication of the entire yeast genome"
7195:
7146:
6571:
5092:
4713:
768:
during meiosis. In this case, allopolyploidy can actually restore normal,
80:. Polyploidy is especially common in plants. Most eukaryotes have diploid
8345:
8129:
7046:
5806:
5417:"One thousand plant transcriptomes and the phylogenomics of green plants"
2446:
2251:
2241:
2134:
1844:
1825:
1782:
1754:
1693:
1543:
1520:
1275:
1212:
1062:
1017:
831:
669:
638:
597:. Most instances of autopolyploidy result from the fusion of unreduced (2
514:
497:
271:
229:
174:
159:
53:
7756:"Genome duplication, a trait shared by 22000 species of ray-finned fish"
7746:
7713:
7546:
7521:
7081:
6988:
6963:
6673:
5584:
5567:
5534:
812:
describes the relationships between the three common diploid Brassicas (
737:
are polyploids with chromosomes derived from two or more diverged taxa.
8781:
8616:
8515:
8369:
8280:
8275:
7738:
7670:
7451:
7434:
7222:
6479:
6269:
6189:
5659:
5084:
4936:
4183:
3202:
3038:
2357:
2186:
2106:
2102:
1900:
1852:
1672:
1608:
1604:
1585:
1536:
1528:
1478:
1460:
1393:
1369:
1360:
1271:
1237:
1115:
1074:
953:
883:
688:
677:
200:
140:
128:
92:
88:
85:
73:
7771:
7754:
Taylor JS, Braasch I, Frickey T, Meyer A, Van de Peer Y (March 2003).
7468:
Gaeta RT, Pires JC, Iniguez-Luy F, Leon E, Osborn TC (November 2007).
6682:
5940:
5923:
4897:
4215:
4198:
4053:
4036:
4012:
3995:
2746:
2730:"Adaptive introgression: how polyploidy reshapes gene flow landscapes"
2729:
2573:
2557:"Adaptive introgression: how polyploidy reshapes gene flow landscapes"
2556:
2497:
8425:
8312:
8076:
8072:
8067:
7969:
7416:
7391:
7328:
7303:
6727:
2231:
2154:
1953:
1941:
1940:
cultivars) are available as either diploid or tetraploid; apples and
1896:
1860:
1856:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1664:
1616:
1612:
1494:
1486:
1474:
1290:
1282:
1077:
935:
914:
801:
797:
793:
646:
501:
398:
178:
170:
166:
136:
108:
96:
7252:
Kottemann M, Kish A, Iloanusi C, Bjork S, DiRuggiero J (June 2005).
6605:"Genome sequence of the lager brewing yeast, an interspecies hybrid"
6261:
5963:
Ahuja MR, Neale DB (2002). "Origins of Polyploidy in Coast Redwood (
5566:
Xu X, Pan S, Cheng S, Zhang B, Mu D, Ni P, et al. (July 2011).
4657:
4175:
4132:
3194:
344:
types are labeled according to the number of chromosome sets in the
6524:
6446:"Gene order evolution and paleopolyploidy in hemiascomycete yeasts"
6052:
Documenting Domestication: New Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms
1024:
In many cases, these events can be inferred only through comparing
637:. In fact, stable autotriploidy in plants is often associated with
578:
are polyploids with multiple chromosome sets derived from a single
8490:
8475:
8470:
8465:
8460:
8455:
8450:
8445:
8440:
8415:
8353:
7931:
7906:
7563:
Paterson AH, Bowers JE, Van de Peer Y, Vandepoele K (March 2005).
7162:"Changes of ploidy during the Azotobacter vinelandii growth cycle"
4960:"Genome duplication in amphibians and fish: an extended synthesis"
2146:
2098:
2084:
2037:
1971:
1925:
1874:
1828:
1821:
1817:
1774:
1734:
1595:
1532:
1524:
1383:
1328:
1216:
1159:
1070:
985:
785:
579:
453:
377:
319:
220:
204:
190:
112:
36:
7209:
Soppa J (January 2011). "Ploidy and gene conversion in Archaea".
5218:"Second-trimester diagnosis of triploidy: a series of four cases"
3578:"Meiotic Adaptation to Genome Duplication in Arabidopsis arenosa"
1565:
cell culture or whether they are also present in placental cells
687:
sets, which can lead to high rates of multivalent pairing during
4508:
Otto SP, Whitton J (2000). "Polyploid incidence and evolution".
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3112:
Zeng Q, Chen H, Zhang C, Han M, Li T, Qi X, et al. (2015).
2026:
number) has been evidenced for some fungal species (such as the
1952:
Besides plants and animals, the evolutionary history of various
1929:
1848:
1550:
develops. These parent-of-origin effects reflect the effects of
1232:
1223:. Within vertebrates, examples of stable polyploidy include the
1045:
994:
shows the relationship between the best-documented instances of
585:
Two examples of natural autopolyploids are the piggyback plant,
352:
is used to represent the number of chromosomes in a single set:
186:
8547:
8015:
6757:
Lidzbarsky GA, Shkolnik T, Nevo E (June 2009). Idnurm A (ed.).
6342:
Borneman AR, Zeppel R, Chambers PJ, Curtin CD (February 2014).
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Examples in animals are more common in non-vertebrates such as
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3541:
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2815:
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2201:
1882:
1742:
1531:
set. In digyny, there is typically an asymmetric poorly grown
1306:
711:
among duplicated chromosomes causes autopolyploids to display
100:
8543:
5415:
One Thousand Plant Transcriptomes Initiative (October 2019).
1111:
A karyotype is the characteristic chromosome complement of a
7371:(4th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
2480:
Vallejo-Marín M, Buggs RJ, Cooley AM, Puzey JR (June 2015).
792:
are examples of an allopolyploids with six chromosome sets.
1584:
A polyploidy event occurred within the stem lineage of the
5501:"The frequency of polyploid speciation in vascular plants"
5167:
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4748:"Polyploidy in liver development, homeostasis and disease"
3905:
Types of Polyploids: Their Classification and Significance
3023:
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4312:
Mendell JE, Clements KD, Choat JH, Angert ER (May 2008).
254:. Sequencing confirmed that this species originated from
4037:"Double trouble: taxonomy and definitions of polyploidy"
1270:
liver cells, are polyploid, rare instances of polyploid
8533:
International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature
5568:"Genome sequence and analysis of the tuber crop potato"
4482:(6th ed.). London: Chapman & Hall. p. 28.
3907:. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 1. pp. 403–429.
2157:
into hundred of short random fragments. Nevertheless,
2014:
In addition, polyploidy is frequently associated with
7801:(2005). "Polyploidy in plants". In Gregory TR (ed.).
7637:"The hidden duplication past of Arabidopsis thaliana"
5271:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
2486:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
1404:, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the
1118:. The preparation and study of karyotypes is part of
7900:. San Diego, California: Elsevier. pp. 329–368.
7805:. San Diego, California: Elsevier. pp. 371–426.
7515:. San Diego, California: Elsevier. pp. 427–517.
5267:"On the abundance of polyploids in flowering plants"
5216:
Wick JB, Johnson KJ, O'Brien J, Wick MJ (May 2013).
4551:
4549:
2890:"Triticum - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
8815:
8764:
8707:
8655:
8609:
8503:
8406:
8368:
8338:
8266:
8122:
8053:
6816:Ioos R, Andrieux A, Marçais B, Frey P (July 2006).
4796:Gallardo MH, González CA, Cebrián I (August 2006).
3267:
3265:
3114:"Definition of Eight Mulberry Species in the Genus
1255:(mostly triploids) are all female and reproduce by
1194:parent, though each chromosome pair unto itself is
1054:), and two rounds of whole genome duplication (the
921:. Species whose cells do not have nuclei, that is,
219:(four sets of chromosomes) with the common name of
7364:
5873:Whitton J, Sears CJ, Maddison WP (December 2017).
5139:
4493:Stebbins GL (1950). "Chapter XII: The Karyotype".
4475:
2531:"Make Room for a New Bloom: New Flower Discovered"
162:will also double the existing chromosome content.
7721:Soltis DE, Buggs RJ, Doyle JJ, Soltis PS (2010).
7160:Maldonado R, Jiménez J, Casadesús J (July 1994).
7111:Nagpal P, Jafri S, Reddy MA, Das HK (June 1989).
5304:
5302:
4755:Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology
3863:
3861:
2297:"The origins and functions of hepatic polyploidy"
1932:are commonly found as both diploid and triploid;
1470:infection, which indicates a weak immune system.
1190:to the opposite chromosome pair derived from the
1012:can be difficult to detect because of subsequent
324:Organ-specific patterns of endopolyploidy (from 2
278:via genome duplication from local populations of
211:and modification by humans, has strains that are
30:Not to be confused with "polypoid", resembling a
7113:"Multiple chromosomes of Azotobacter vinelandii"
4415:Clarke JT, Lloyd GT, Friedman M (October 2016).
744:) gametes, which can take place before or after
6244:Lu BC (1964). "Polyploidy in the Basidiomycete
6054:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
5133:
5131:
3118:by Internal Transcribed Spacer-Based Phylogeny"
1924:Some crops are found in a variety of ploidies:
1615:, which self-fertilize to produce a tetraploid
127:generation is haploid, and produces gametes by
4558:"A suggestion to the medical librarians. 1920"
4410:
4408:
4074:
4072:
3536:
3534:
2295:Zhang S, Lin YH, Tarlow B, Zhu H (June 2019).
1527:that are dependent on the origin of the extra
1477:(the extra haploid set is from the mother) or
1088:) have paleopolyploidy in their ancestry. All
804:are allotetraploids with multiple origins. In
107:, for example, are monoploid. Unlike animals,
8559:
8027:
7816:Journal of Structural and Functional Genomics
7600:Journal of Structural and Functional Genomics
6114:
6112:
6110:
5368:"The evolutionary consequences of polyploidy"
4919:Swarup H (1959). "Production of triploidy in
4114:
4112:
4110:
3068:Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Fruits
3030:Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine
2728:Schmickl, Roswitha; Yant, Levi (April 2021).
2555:Schmickl, Roswitha; Yant, Levi (April 2021).
2109:) contain apparent polyploid genomes. In the
1497:. Diandry appears to predominate among early
1436:, heart muscle, placenta and in bone marrow.
601:) gametes, which results in either triploid (
8:
4035:Doyle JJ, Sherman-Broyles S (January 2017).
2901:
2899:
1692:There are few naturally occurring polyploid
1683:). Also, the extremely rare Tasmanian shrub
1073:lineage) and another near the origin of the
244:Polyploidization can be a mechanism of
7723:"What we still don't know about polyploidy"
5922:Halabi K, Shafir A, Mayrose I (June 2023).
4958:Mable BK, Alexandrou MA, Taylor MI (2011).
3509:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 179–230.
3272:Bretagnolle F, Thompson JD (January 1995).
3177:Soltis DE (1984-01-01). "Autopolyploidy in
2167:synthesis-dependent strand annealing (SDSA)
1635:events are accompanied by ploidy increase.
1443:Polyploidy occurs in humans in the form of
1339:-like ancestor produced tetraploid (i.e., 2
8566:
8552:
8544:
8365:
8034:
8020:
8012:
7810:Van de Peer Y, Taylor JS, Meyer A (2003).
5117:. National Organization for Rare Disorders
4562:Journal of the Medical Library Association
4497:. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
1960:autopolyploid: the aquatic fungi of genus
1251:, maintain sexual reproduction. Polyploid
1174:with two sets of chromosomes derived from
7930:
7878:
7868:
7779:
7678:
7660:
7580:
7545:
7493:
7450:
7415:
7327:
7185:
7136:
7036:
6987:
6891:
6792:
6782:
6681:
6628:
6579:
6487:
6469:
6420:
6410:
6369:
6359:
6318:
6308:
6220:
6144:
6090:
5939:
5898:
5814:
5765:
5716:
5667:
5583:
5542:
5524:
5440:
5383:
5342:
5282:
5241:
5184:
5047:
5037:
4997:
4995:
4975:
4813:
4722:
4712:
4581:
4521:
4450:
4440:
4388:
4347:
4337:
4314:"Extreme polyploidy in a large bacterium"
4288:
4214:
4052:
4011:
3806:
3788:
3747:
3682:
3617:
3289:
3245:
3151:
3141:
3046:
2959:
2949:
2812:Stouder DJ, Bisson PA, Naiman RJ (1997).
2745:
2704:
2686:
2645:
2572:
2505:
2454:
2320:
1944:can be diploid, triploid, or tetraploid.
1372:" in reference to animals. Later work by
1178:and two sets of chromosomes derived from
925:, may be polyploid, as seen in the large
7433:Eakin GS, Behringer RR (December 2003).
6444:Wong S, Butler G, Wolfe KH (July 2002).
5709:10.1146/annurev.arplant.58.032806.103835
5169:"Recurrent triploidy of maternal origin"
4081:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
3961:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
3555:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150437
3543:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
3106:This review and book cite this research.
1721:, include a large number of polyploids.
1335:= 56. It was therefore surmised that an
1331:Viscacha-Rat of the same family, whose 2
1182:. Each chromosome pair derived from the
7565:"Ancient duplication of cereal genomes"
5309:Rieseberg LH, Willis JH (August 2007).
2906:Crowhurst RN, Whittaker D, Gardner RC.
2262:
2022:(hybrid speciation without a change in
1989:, the allotriploid wine spoilage yeast
1714:= 66), although the origin is unclear.
1627:) in their genomes. Huge explosions in
1266:While some tissues of mammals, such as
6941:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2002.t01-1-01233.x
6022:"Seedless Fruits Make Others Needless"
4197:Schmid M, Evans BJ, Bogart JP (2015).
2165:and a process referred to as extended
1473:Triploidy may be the result of either
683:Autopolyploids possess at least three
282:. Because of a rare genetic mutation,
199:), including both wild and cultivated
8523:List of organisms by chromosome count
8001:Polyploidy on Kimball's Biology Pages
7435:"Tetraploid development in the mouse"
4263:Parmacek MS, Epstein JA (July 2009).
3479:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a106189
1150:are those brought together following
633:. Triploids may also persist through
154:by some chemicals: the best known is
121:alternating multicellular generations
7:
8885:
7812:"Are all fishes ancient polyploids?"
3072:Springer International Publishing AG
1274:are known, but most often result in
258:, a sterile triploid hybrid between
8909:
7390:Genome Initiative (December 2000).
6554:Dunn B, Sherlock G (October 2008).
6119:Albertin W, Marullo P (July 2012).
5924:"PloiDB: The plant ploidy database"
4269:The New England Journal of Medicine
4242:. San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman.
4240:An Introduction to genetic analysis
2272:Solomon/Martin/Martin/Berg, Biology
1998:paleopolyploid: the human pathogen
1696:. One example is the Coast Redwood
938:is defined with respect to a cell.
237:can have ploidy levels higher than
135:generation is diploid and produces
56:have more than two paired sets of (
7905:Wolfe KH, Shields DC (June 1997).
5284:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2006.tb01198.x
5173:European Journal of Human Genetics
5138:Baker P, Monga A, Baker P (2006).
4574:10.1023/B:RFBF.0000033049.00668.fe
3327:10.1111/j.1601-5223.1936.tb03204.x
3291:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1995.tb03005.x
1350:Polyploidy was induced in fish by
969:A polyploid that is newly formed.
869:) and two allotetraploid species (
207:, for example, after millennia of
25:
5466:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
5265:Meyers LA, Levin DA (June 2006).
4613:Cannatella DC, De Sa RO (1993). "
4495:Variation and Evolution in Plants
3946:Variation and Evolution in Plants
2908:"The genetic origin of kiwifruit"
2383:Critical Reviews in Biotechnology
2274:. Cengage Learning. p. 344.
2059:show unequal contribution to the
1983:, the allotetraploid lager yeast
8908:
8896:
8884:
8873:
8872:
7582:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01347.x
7211:Biochemical Society Transactions
7178:10.1128/jb.176.13.3911-3919.1994
6222:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2009.01828.x
6125:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
5879:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
4977:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00829.x
4619:Society of Systematic Biologists
4093:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.29.1.467
3973:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.29.1.467
3882:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.03117.x
3844:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.03142.x
3247:10.1111/j.1439-0426.2011.01873.x
2848:Current Opinion in Plant Biology
64:. Most species whose cells have
8144:Macrochromosome/Microchromosome
7363:Snustad DP, Simmons MJ (2006).
7129:10.1128/jb.171.6.3133-3138.1989
6209:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
4203:Cytogenetic and Genome Research
1717:Aquatic plants, especially the
1689:is a triploid sterile species.
1408:(bottom right), as well as the
1392:of a human, showing the normal
452:), for example some species of
6182:10.1080/00275514.1954.12024382
5697:Annual Review of Plant Biology
4532:10.1146/annurev.genet.34.1.401
3226:Journal of Applied Ichthyology
2113:group, the remarkable species
1977:allopolyploid: the widespread
1:
5621:10.1016/S0168-9525(03)00015-5
3913:10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60490-3
3417:10.1016/S0044-8486(99)00367-1
3362:10.1016/s0167-7799(00)01448-7
2423:This review cites this study:
2399:10.1080/07388551.2020.1765730
2313:10.1080/15384101.2019.1618123
1671:Some plants are triploid. As
1038:), mustard weed/thale cress (
829:) and three allotetraploids (
473:), for example some cultured
6784:10.1371/journal.pone.0005914
6412:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000549
6361:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004161
6008:10.1016/0304-3770(93)90071-4
5642:Chen ZJ, Ni Z (March 2006).
5039:10.1371/journal.pgen.1007698
4687:Epstein CJ (February 1967).
3790:10.1371/journal.pgen.1008900
3452:10.1016/0044-8486(83)90179-5
3143:10.1371/journal.pone.0135411
2938:Genetics Selection Evolution
2818:. Springer. pp. 30–31.
2688:10.1371/journal.pgen.1008900
2435:Genome Biology and Evolution
1576:favoring the diploid cells.
436:), for example Kenai Birch (
48:is a condition in which the
8903:Evolutionary biology Portal
7898:The Evolution of the Genome
7803:The Evolution of the Genome
7513:The Evolution of the Genome
7029:10.1128/JB.134.1.71-75.1978
6825:Fungal Genetics and Biology
6083:10.1534/genetics.108.091355
5852:10.1016/j.ydbio.2004.03.014
5758:10.1534/genetics.106.057554
5142:Gynaecology by Ten Teachers
4851:10.1016/j.ygeno.2004.12.004
4815:10.1016/j.ygeno.2006.02.010
4371:Edger PP, Pires JC (2009).
3048:10.1016/j.apjtb.2017.09.015
2137:contains 4-8 copies of its
1816:Tetraploid crops: very few
1152:inter-species hybridization
676:are used to disrupt normal
215:(two sets of chromosomes),
8958:
8184:Dinoflagellate chromosomes
6250:American Journal of Botany
5478:10.1016/j.tree.2005.07.008
5385:10.1016/j.cell.2007.10.022
4164:American Journal of Botany
3948:. Oxford University Press.
3732:10.1038/s41467-019-13159-5
3667:10.1038/s41467-019-13159-5
3183:American Journal of Botany
2630:10.1038/s41467-019-13159-5
2210:homologous recombinational
1489:or failure to extrude one
1421:
1413:
1412:(to scale at bottom left).
1140:
1104:
1001:
945:
917:tissues. This is known as
894:
530:), for example the plants
310:
29:
8868:
8581:
8528:List of sequenced genomes
8296:Chromosomal translocation
8169:A chromosome/B chromosome
8160:(or accessory chromosome)
7273:10.1007/s00792-005-0437-4
6837:10.1016/j.fgb.2006.02.006
5433:10.1038/s41586-019-1693-2
5366:Otto SP (November 2007).
4767:10.1038/s41575-020-0284-x
4556:Smith LE (October 2012).
4510:Annual Review of Genetics
4390:10.1007/s10577-009-9055-9
3602:10.1016/j.cub.2013.08.059
3515:10.1002/9780470380130.ch3
3080:10.1007/978-3-319-91944-7
3000:10.1007/s10530-008-9383-2
2951:10.1186/s12711-016-0194-0
2868:10.1016/j.pbi.2005.01.001
1986:Saccharomyces pastorianus
1702:, which is a hexaploid (6
1396:(that is, non-polyploid)
542: or the amphibian
8746:Nonecological speciation
8350:Telomere-binding protein
8164:Supernumerary chromosome
7958:Nature Reviews. Genetics
7870:10.1186/gb-2004-5-12-250
7011:Hansen MT (April 1978).
4199:"Polyploidy in Amphibia"
4121:Nature Reviews. Genetics
2191:Halobacterium salinarium
2163:homologous recombination
2097:. Some species of brown
1967:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1916:Dodecaploid crops: some
1706:) with 66 chromosomes (2
1546:. In diandry, a partial
1148:Homoeologous chromosomes
1137:Homoeologous chromosomes
1122:and, more specifically,
1035:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
591:and the white sturgeon,
7828:10.1023/A:1022652814749
7612:10.1023/A:1022666020026
7166:Journal of Bacteriology
7117:Journal of Bacteriology
7017:Journal of Bacteriology
6310:10.1073/pnas.1105430108
5526:10.1073/pnas.0811575106
5335:10.1126/science.1137729
5186:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201076
5073:Klinische Wochenschrift
4631:10.1093/sysbio/42.4.476
4442:10.1073/pnas.1607237113
4339:10.1073/pnas.0707522105
4281:10.1056/NEJMcibr0903347
4265:"Cardiomyocyte renewal"
3350:Trends in Biotechnology
3220:Acipenser transmontanus
2799:10.1078/0044-5231-00032
2227:Eukaryote hybrid genome
2197:Deinococcus radiodurans
2194:is polyploid and, like
2131:Deinococcus radiodurans
1813:, white pulp of coconut
931:Epulopiscium fishelsoni
594:Acipenser transmontanum
513:), for example certain
389:), for example sterile
223:or macaroni wheat, and
8851:Punctuated equilibrium
8807:Character displacement
8627:Reproductive isolation
8596:Laboratory experiments
8286:Structural alterations
7851:Van de Peer Y (2004).
7662:10.1073/pnas.212522399
7486:10.1105/tpc.107.054346
7439:Developmental Dynamics
7367:Principles of Genetics
6919:(Bacillariophyceae)".
6471:10.1073/pnas.142101099
6137:10.1098/rspb.2012.0434
5891:10.1098/rspb.2017.1579
5234:10.1055/s-0032-1331378
4921:Gasterosteus aculeatus
4874:Gasterosteus aculeatus
4617:as a Model Organism".
3503:Plant Breeding Reviews
2174:Azotobacter vinelandii
2043:
2032:Microbotryum violaceum
1620:
1607:cell undergoes failed
1432:tissue, such as liver
1419:
1402:homologous chromosomes
1317:. Its "new" diploid (2
1299:Tympanoctomys barrerae
1293:regions, known as the
999:
545:Xenopus ruwenzoriensis
338:
233:are also tetraploids.
196:Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
42:
8732:Ecological speciation
8647:Evidence of evolution
8303:Numerical alterations
8291:Chromosomal inversion
8189:Homologous chromosome
8006:The polyploidy portal
6884:10.1093/aobpla/plr001
6621:10.1093/dnares/dsp003
6572:10.1101/gr.076075.108
5840:Developmental Biology
4714:10.1073/pnas.57.2.327
4238:Griffiths AJ (1999).
3712:Nature Communications
3647:Nature Communications
2944:12. Springer Nature.
2779:Zoologischer Anzeiger
2610:Nature Communications
2041:
1773:Triploid crops: some
1599:
1422:Further information:
1414:Further information:
1387:
1010:evolutionary lineages
989:
713:polysomic inheritance
685:homologous chromosome
397:, also common in the
323:
272:the Scottish mainland
251:Erythranthe peregrina
185:. It is common among
40:
8511:Extrachromosomal DNA
8199:Satellite chromosome
8174:Lampbrush chromosome
8114:Nuclear organization
7797:Tate JA, Soltis DE,
6921:Journal of Phycology
5965:Sequoia sempervirens
3944:Stebbins GL (1950).
3903:Stebbins GL (1947).
2988:Biological Invasions
2393:(T&F): 865–880.
2391:Taylor & Francis
2247:Reciprocal silencing
2020:homoploid speciation
1992:Dekkera bruxellensis
1699:Sequoia sempervirens
1660:polyploid speciation
1611:, producing diploid
1467:Pneumocystis carinii
1410:mitochondrial genome
1248:Liolaemus chiliensis
1156:allopolyploidization
1069:(which includes the
1041:Arabidopsis thaliana
635:asexual reproduction
554:(forty-four sets; 44
552:tetratetracontaploid
395:seedless watermelons
363:), for example male
335:Dinoponera australis
246:sympatric speciation
91:(eggs and sperm) by
8736:Parallel speciation
8204:Centromere position
8179:Polytene chromosome
8149:Circular chromosome
7923:1997Natur.387..708W
7653:2002PNAS...9913627S
7647:(21): 13627–13632.
7569:The New Phytologist
7547:10.1038/nature03025
7538:2004Natur.431..946J
7408:2000Natur.408..796T
7320:2007RadR..168..507D
7082:10.1038/nature05160
7074:2006Natur.443..569Z
6989:10.1038/nature05230
6980:2006Natur.444..171A
6933:2002JPcgy..38.1004C
6775:2009PLoSO...4.5914L
6674:10.1038/nature04562
6666:2006Natur.440..341S
6462:2002PNAS...99.9272W
6301:2011PNAS..10814539L
6295:(35): 14539–14544.
6131:(1738): 2497–2509.
6000:1993AqBot..44..181L
5928:The New Phytologist
5585:10.1038/nature10158
5517:2009PNAS..10613875W
5511:(33): 13875–13879.
5327:2007Sci...317..910R
4925:Journal of Genetics
4890:1956Natur.178.1124S
4884:(4542): 1124–1125.
4705:1967PNAS...57..327E
4433:2016PNAS..11311531C
4427:(41): 11531–11536.
4377:Chromosome Research
4330:2008PNAS..105.6730M
4041:The New Phytologist
4000:The New Phytologist
3870:The New Phytologist
3832:The New Phytologist
3724:2019NatCo..10.5218M
3659:2019NatCo..10.5218M
3594:2013CBio...23.2151Y
3467:Journal of Heredity
3444:1983Aquac..30..375L
3409:2000Aquac.186...61C
3278:The New Phytologist
3238:2011JApIc..27...24D
3134:2015PLoSO..1035411Z
3074:. pp. 89–130.
2860:2005COPB....8..135A
2791:2001ZooAn.240..247B
2622:2019NatCo..10.5218M
2535:Scientific American
2206:DNA binding protein
2105:, Laminariales and
1777:varieties (such as
1656:interploidy crosses
1295:plains viscacha rat
1192:Aegilops speltoides
1180:Aegilops speltoides
1168:Aegilops speltoides
1096:Other similar terms
707:The high degree of
698:Arabidopsis arenosa
415:Plains viscacha rat
332:) in the giant ant
292:Arabidopsis arenosa
8937:Classical genetics
8816:Speciation in taxa
8751:Assortative mating
7739:10.1002/tax.595006
7452:10.1002/dvdy.10363
7308:Radiation Research
7223:10.1042/BST0390150
6246:Cyathus stercoreus
5885:(1868): 20171579.
5807:10.1093/aob/mcn017
5660:10.1002/bies.20374
5609:Trends in Genetics
5311:"Plant speciation"
5146:. London: Arnold.
5085:10.1007/BF01734832
4964:Journal of Zoology
4937:10.1007/BF02984740
3181:(Saxifragaceae)".
2447:10.1093/gbe/evw293
2358:10.1007/BF00293307
2270:Solomon E (2014).
2044:
1980:Cyathus stercoreus
1621:
1603:via polyploidy: A
1559:prenatal diagnosis
1552:genomic imprinting
1420:
1000:
702:Arabidopsis lyrata
674:mitotic inhibitors
664:or treatment with
613:) or tetraploid (2
424:Gossypium hirsutum
365:European fire ants
339:
296:Arabidopsis lyrata
111:and multicellular
43:
8924:
8923:
8802:Secondary contact
8774:Hybrid speciation
8722:Natural selection
8709:Isolating factors
8541:
8540:
8499:
8498:
8236:Centromere number
8153:Linear chromosome
7917:(6634): 708–713.
7772:10.1101/gr.640303
7532:(7011): 946–957.
7480:(11): 3403–3417.
7402:(6814): 796–815.
7378:978-0-471-69939-2
7172:(13): 3911–3919.
7068:(7111): 569–573.
6974:(7116): 171–178.
6660:(7082): 341–345.
6566:(10): 1610–1623.
6456:(14): 9272–9277.
6215:(11): 2157–2170.
5941:10.1111/nph.19057
5578:(7355): 189–195.
5427:(7780): 679–685.
5321:(5840): 910–914.
5153:978-0-340-81662-2
5079:(23): 1115–1131.
4898:10.1038/1781124a0
4474:White MJ (1973).
4324:(18): 6730–6734.
4249:978-0-7167-3520-5
4216:10.1159/000431388
4054:10.1111/nph.14276
4013:10.1111/nph.13698
3588:(21): 2151–2156.
3179:Tolmiea menziesii
3089:978-3-319-91943-0
2825:978-0-412-98691-8
2747:10.1111/nph.17204
2574:10.1111/nph.17204
2498:10.1111/evo.12678
2307:(12): 1302–1315.
2237:Polyploid complex
2083:Other eukaryotic
2069:natural selection
1891:Octaploid crops:
1869:Hexaploid crops:
1739:Triticum turgidum
1733:is the hybrid of
1686:Lomatia tasmanica
1548:hydatidiform mole
1542:and a very small
1424:Triploid syndrome
1026:sequenced genomes
992:phylogenetic tree
662:protoplast fusion
475:Siberian sturgeon
421:fish, the cotton
313:Triploid syndrome
286:is not sterile.
16:(Redirected from
8949:
8912:
8911:
8900:
8888:
8887:
8876:
8875:
8727:Sexual selection
8656:Geographic modes
8568:
8561:
8554:
8545:
8366:
8330:Polyploidization
8158:Extra chromosome
8073:Genetic material
8036:
8029:
8022:
8013:
7989:
7970:10.1038/35072009
7952:
7934:
7901:
7892:
7882:
7872:
7847:
7806:
7793:
7783:
7750:
7733:(5): 1387–1403.
7717:
7692:
7682:
7664:
7631:
7606:(1–4): 117–129.
7594:
7584:
7559:
7549:
7516:
7507:
7497:
7464:
7454:
7429:
7419:
7417:10.1038/35048692
7382:
7370:
7350:
7349:
7331:
7329:10.1667/RR0935.1
7299:
7293:
7292:
7258:
7249:
7243:
7242:
7206:
7200:
7199:
7189:
7157:
7151:
7150:
7140:
7123:(6): 3133–3138.
7108:
7102:
7101:
7057:
7051:
7050:
7040:
7008:
7002:
7001:
6991:
6959:
6953:
6952:
6927:(5): 1004–1019.
6912:
6906:
6905:
6895:
6863:
6857:
6856:
6822:
6813:
6807:
6806:
6796:
6786:
6754:
6748:
6747:
6728:10.1002/yea.1654
6710:
6704:
6703:
6685:
6649:
6643:
6642:
6632:
6600:
6594:
6593:
6583:
6551:
6545:
6544:
6508:
6502:
6501:
6491:
6473:
6441:
6435:
6434:
6424:
6414:
6390:
6384:
6383:
6373:
6363:
6339:
6333:
6332:
6322:
6312:
6280:
6274:
6273:
6241:
6235:
6234:
6224:
6200:
6194:
6193:
6165:
6159:
6158:
6148:
6116:
6105:
6104:
6094:
6062:
6056:
6055:
6043:
6037:
6036:
6034:
6033:
6024:. Archived from
6018:
6012:
6011:
5994:(2–3): 181–228.
5983:
5977:
5976:
5960:
5954:
5953:
5943:
5919:
5913:
5912:
5902:
5870:
5864:
5863:
5835:
5829:
5828:
5818:
5795:Annals of Botany
5786:
5780:
5779:
5769:
5752:(2): 1101–1113.
5737:
5731:
5730:
5720:
5691:Chen ZJ (2007).
5688:
5682:
5681:
5671:
5639:
5633:
5632:
5604:
5598:
5597:
5587:
5563:
5557:
5556:
5546:
5528:
5496:
5490:
5489:
5461:
5455:
5454:
5444:
5412:
5406:
5405:
5387:
5363:
5357:
5356:
5346:
5306:
5297:
5296:
5286:
5277:(6): 1198–1206.
5262:
5256:
5255:
5245:
5213:
5207:
5206:
5188:
5164:
5158:
5157:
5145:
5135:
5126:
5125:
5123:
5122:
5111:
5105:
5104:
5068:
5062:
5061:
5051:
5041:
5032:(10): e1007698.
5017:
5011:
5010:
4999:
4990:
4989:
4979:
4955:
4949:
4948:
4916:
4910:
4909:
4869:
4863:
4862:
4834:
4828:
4827:
4817:
4793:
4787:
4786:
4752:
4743:
4737:
4736:
4726:
4716:
4684:
4678:
4677:
4641:
4635:
4634:
4610:
4604:
4603:
4585:
4553:
4544:
4543:
4525:
4505:
4499:
4498:
4490:
4484:
4483:
4481:
4471:
4465:
4464:
4454:
4444:
4412:
4403:
4402:
4392:
4368:
4362:
4361:
4351:
4341:
4309:
4303:
4302:
4292:
4260:
4254:
4253:
4235:
4229:
4228:
4218:
4209:(3–4): 315–330.
4194:
4188:
4187:
4159:
4153:
4152:
4116:
4105:
4104:
4076:
4067:
4066:
4056:
4032:
4026:
4025:
4015:
3991:
3985:
3984:
3956:
3950:
3949:
3941:
3935:
3934:
3900:
3894:
3893:
3865:
3856:
3855:
3827:
3821:
3820:
3810:
3792:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3751:
3703:
3697:
3696:
3686:
3638:
3632:
3631:
3621:
3573:
3567:
3566:
3538:
3529:
3528:
3508:
3497:
3491:
3490:
3462:
3456:
3455:
3438:(1–4): 375–380.
3427:
3421:
3420:
3388:
3382:
3381:
3345:
3339:
3338:
3321:(2–3): 363–378.
3310:
3304:
3303:
3293:
3269:
3260:
3259:
3249:
3213:
3207:
3206:
3189:(9): 1171–1174.
3174:
3168:
3165:
3155:
3145:
3101:
3060:
3050:
3018:
3012:
3011:
2994:(5): 1159–1173.
2979:
2973:
2972:
2970:
2968:
2963:
2953:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2920:
2919:
2910:. Archived from
2903:
2894:
2893:
2886:
2880:
2879:
2843:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2832:
2809:
2803:
2802:
2785:(3–4): 247–252.
2774:
2768:
2767:
2749:
2725:
2719:
2718:
2708:
2690:
2666:
2660:
2659:
2649:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2576:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2541:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2509:
2492:(6): 1487–1500.
2477:
2471:
2468:
2458:
2418:
2376:
2370:
2369:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2324:
2292:
2286:
2285:
2267:
2153:can shatter its
2075:and speciation.
1970:strains used in
1942:kinnow mandarins
1779:Belle de Boskoop
1514:
1513:
1509:
1506:
1440:is more common.
1366:J. B. S. Haldane
1253:mole salamanders
1086:flowering plants
735:heteropolyploids
654:Malus domesticus
588:Tolmiea menzisii
539:Spartina anglica
533:Celosia argentea
526:(twelve sets; 12
486:, (eight sets; 8
413:), for example,
21:
8957:
8956:
8952:
8951:
8950:
8948:
8947:
8946:
8927:
8926:
8925:
8920:
8864:
8847:Paleopolyploidy
8811:
8766:Hybrid concepts
8760:
8703:
8651:
8621:Species complex
8605:
8577:
8572:
8542:
8537:
8495:
8402:
8364:
8334:
8323:Paleopolyploidy
8268:
8262:
8118:
8092:Heterochromatin
8055:
8049:
8040:
7997:
7992:
7955:
7904:
7895:
7850:
7809:
7796:
7760:Genome Research
7753:
7720:
7695:
7634:
7597:
7562:
7519:
7510:
7467:
7432:
7385:
7379:
7362:
7358:
7356:Further reading
7353:
7301:
7300:
7296:
7256:
7251:
7250:
7246:
7208:
7207:
7203:
7159:
7158:
7154:
7110:
7109:
7105:
7059:
7058:
7054:
7010:
7009:
7005:
6961:
6960:
6956:
6914:
6913:
6909:
6865:
6864:
6860:
6820:
6815:
6814:
6810:
6756:
6755:
6751:
6712:
6711:
6707:
6651:
6650:
6646:
6602:
6601:
6597:
6560:Genome Research
6553:
6552:
6548:
6510:
6509:
6505:
6443:
6442:
6438:
6405:(7): e1000549.
6392:
6391:
6387:
6354:(2): e1004161.
6341:
6340:
6336:
6282:
6281:
6277:
6262:10.2307/2440307
6243:
6242:
6238:
6202:
6201:
6197:
6167:
6166:
6162:
6118:
6117:
6108:
6064:
6063:
6059:
6048:Oxalis tuberosa
6045:
6044:
6040:
6031:
6029:
6020:
6019:
6015:
5985:
5984:
5980:
5969:Silvae Genetica
5962:
5961:
5957:
5921:
5920:
5916:
5872:
5871:
5867:
5837:
5836:
5832:
5788:
5787:
5783:
5739:
5738:
5734:
5690:
5689:
5685:
5641:
5640:
5636:
5606:
5605:
5601:
5565:
5564:
5560:
5498:
5497:
5493:
5472:(11): 591–597.
5463:
5462:
5458:
5414:
5413:
5409:
5365:
5364:
5360:
5308:
5307:
5300:
5264:
5263:
5259:
5215:
5214:
5210:
5179:(12): 972–974.
5166:
5165:
5161:
5154:
5137:
5136:
5129:
5120:
5118:
5113:
5112:
5108:
5070:
5069:
5065:
5019:
5018:
5014:
5001:
5000:
4993:
4957:
4956:
4952:
4918:
4917:
4913:
4871:
4870:
4866:
4836:
4835:
4831:
4795:
4794:
4790:
4750:
4745:
4744:
4740:
4686:
4685:
4681:
4658:10.1139/g06-152
4643:
4642:
4638:
4612:
4611:
4607:
4555:
4554:
4547:
4523:10.1.1.323.1059
4507:
4506:
4502:
4492:
4491:
4487:
4478:The Chromosomes
4473:
4472:
4468:
4414:
4413:
4406:
4370:
4369:
4365:
4311:
4310:
4306:
4262:
4261:
4257:
4250:
4237:
4236:
4232:
4196:
4195:
4191:
4176:10.2307/2438023
4161:
4160:
4156:
4133:10.1038/nrg1711
4127:(11): 836–846.
4118:
4117:
4108:
4078:
4077:
4070:
4034:
4033:
4029:
3993:
3992:
3988:
3958:
3957:
3953:
3943:
3942:
3938:
3923:
3902:
3901:
3897:
3867:
3866:
3859:
3829:
3828:
3824:
3783:(7): e1008900.
3770:
3769:
3765:
3705:
3704:
3700:
3640:
3639:
3635:
3582:Current Biology
3575:
3574:
3570:
3540:
3539:
3532:
3525:
3506:
3499:
3498:
3494:
3464:
3463:
3459:
3429:
3428:
3424:
3390:
3389:
3385:
3347:
3346:
3342:
3312:
3311:
3307:
3271:
3270:
3263:
3215:
3214:
3210:
3195:10.2307/2443640
3176:
3175:
3171:
3128:(8): e0135411.
3111:
3090:
3070:. Vol. 2.
3065:
3022:
3019:
3015:
2981:
2980:
2976:
2966:
2964:
2931:
2930:
2926:
2917:
2915:
2905:
2904:
2897:
2888:
2887:
2883:
2845:
2844:
2840:
2830:
2828:
2826:
2811:
2810:
2806:
2776:
2775:
2771:
2734:New Phytologist
2727:
2726:
2722:
2681:(7): e1008900.
2668:
2667:
2663:
2603:
2602:
2598:
2561:New Phytologist
2554:
2553:
2549:
2539:
2537:
2528:
2527:
2523:
2479:
2478:
2474:
2428:
2380:
2377:
2373:
2343:
2342:
2338:
2294:
2293:
2289:
2282:
2269:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2218:
2183:
2149:irradiation or
2126:
2081:
2071:and subsequent
2001:Rhizopus oryzae
1950:
1910:Oxalis tuberosa
1770:
1727:
1625:paleopolyploidy
1594:
1582:
1511:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1426:
1418:
1382:
1374:Shinya Yamanaka
1245:; others, like
1243:parthenogenesis
1209:
1204:
1184:Triticum urartu
1176:Triticum urartu
1164:Triticum urartu
1145:
1139:
1109:
1103:
1098:
1006:
1004:Paleopolyploidy
996:paleopolyploidy
984:
982:Paleopolyploidy
975:
967:
962:
950:
944:
911:
899:
893:
764:chromosomes or
759:
753:
731:amphipolyploids
724:
631:triploid bridge
573:
568:
558:), for example
490:), for example
376:), for example
316:
309:
304:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8955:
8953:
8945:
8944:
8939:
8929:
8928:
8922:
8921:
8919:
8918:
8906:
8894:
8882:
8869:
8866:
8865:
8863:
8862:
8855:Macroevolution
8840:
8835:
8830:
8825:
8819:
8817:
8813:
8812:
8810:
8809:
8804:
8799:
8789:
8770:
8768:
8762:
8761:
8759:
8758:
8756:Haldane's rule
8753:
8748:
8743:
8729:
8724:
8719:
8713:
8711:
8705:
8704:
8702:
8701:
8696:
8682:
8679:Founder effect
8659:
8657:
8653:
8652:
8650:
8649:
8644:
8639:
8634:
8629:
8624:
8613:
8611:
8610:Basic concepts
8607:
8606:
8604:
8603:
8598:
8593:
8588:
8582:
8579:
8578:
8573:
8571:
8570:
8563:
8556:
8548:
8539:
8538:
8536:
8535:
8530:
8525:
8520:
8519:
8518:
8507:
8505:
8501:
8500:
8497:
8496:
8494:
8493:
8488:
8483:
8478:
8473:
8468:
8463:
8458:
8453:
8448:
8443:
8438:
8433:
8428:
8423:
8418:
8412:
8410:
8404:
8403:
8401:
8400:
8395:
8390:
8385:
8380:
8374:
8372:
8363:
8362:
8357:
8342:
8340:
8336:
8335:
8333:
8332:
8327:
8326:
8325:
8320:
8315:
8310:
8300:
8299:
8298:
8293:
8283:
8278:
8272:
8270:
8264:
8263:
8261:
8260:
8259:
8258:
8253:
8248:
8243:
8233:
8232:
8231:
8226:
8221:
8216:
8214:Submetacentric
8211:
8201:
8196:
8191:
8186:
8181:
8176:
8171:
8166:
8161:
8155:
8146:
8141:
8140:or heterosome)
8134:Sex chromosome
8126:
8124:
8120:
8119:
8117:
8116:
8111:
8106:
8101:
8096:
8095:
8094:
8089:
8079:
8070:
8065:
8059:
8057:
8051:
8050:
8041:
8039:
8038:
8031:
8024:
8016:
8010:
8009:
8003:
7996:
7995:External links
7993:
7991:
7990:
7964:(5): 333–341.
7953:
7902:
7893:
7857:Genome Biology
7848:
7822:(1–4): 65–73.
7807:
7794:
7766:(3): 382–390.
7751:
7718:
7693:
7632:
7595:
7575:(3): 658–661.
7560:
7517:
7508:
7474:The Plant Cell
7465:
7445:(4): 751–766.
7430:
7383:
7377:
7359:
7357:
7354:
7352:
7351:
7314:(4): 507–514.
7294:
7267:(3): 219–227.
7244:
7217:(1): 150–154.
7201:
7152:
7103:
7052:
7003:
6954:
6907:
6858:
6831:(7): 511–529.
6808:
6749:
6722:(3): 147–165.
6705:
6644:
6615:(2): 115–129.
6595:
6546:
6525:10.3852/09-192
6519:(3): 689–696.
6503:
6436:
6385:
6334:
6275:
6256:(3): 343–347.
6236:
6195:
6176:(4): 393–434.
6160:
6106:
6077:(1): 649–660.
6057:
6038:
6013:
5988:Aquatic Botany
5978:
5955:
5934:(3): 918–927.
5914:
5865:
5846:(2): 277–289.
5830:
5801:(6): 833–843.
5781:
5732:
5683:
5654:(3): 240–252.
5634:
5615:(3): 141–147.
5599:
5558:
5491:
5456:
5407:
5378:(3): 452–462.
5358:
5298:
5257:
5208:
5159:
5152:
5127:
5106:
5063:
5012:
4991:
4970:(3): 151–182.
4950:
4931:(2): 129–142.
4911:
4864:
4845:(4): 425–430.
4829:
4808:(2): 214–221.
4788:
4761:(7): 391–405.
4738:
4699:(2): 327–334.
4679:
4652:(2): 119–136.
4636:
4625:(4): 476–507.
4615:Xenopus laevis
4605:
4568:(4 Suppl): B.
4545:
4516:(1): 401–437.
4500:
4485:
4466:
4404:
4383:(5): 699–717.
4363:
4304:
4255:
4248:
4230:
4189:
4170:(7): 487–499.
4154:
4106:
4087:(1): 467–501.
4068:
4047:(2): 487–493.
4027:
4006:(2): 391–398.
3986:
3967:(1): 467–501.
3951:
3936:
3921:
3895:
3876:(1): 113–122.
3857:
3822:
3763:
3698:
3633:
3568:
3549:(1): 589–639.
3530:
3523:
3492:
3473:(3): 145–149.
3457:
3422:
3403:(1–2): 61–75.
3383:
3356:(6): 233–242.
3340:
3305:
3261:
3208:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3088:
3063:
3061:
3013:
2974:
2924:
2895:
2881:
2854:(2): 135–141.
2838:
2824:
2804:
2769:
2740:(2): 457–461.
2720:
2661:
2596:
2567:(2): 457–461.
2547:
2521:
2472:
2470:
2469:
2441:(2): 266–278.
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2371:
2336:
2287:
2281:978-1285423586
2280:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2222:Diploidization
2217:
2214:
2208:and is likely
2182:
2179:
2159:D. radiodurans
2143:D. radiodurans
2141:. Exposure of
2125:
2122:
2080:
2079:Chromalveolata
2077:
2057:S. pastorianus
2012:
2011:
1996:
1975:
1954:fungal species
1949:
1946:
1922:
1921:
1914:
1889:
1867:
1814:
1811:saffron crocus
1791:Ribston Pippin
1769:
1766:
1747:Secale cereale
1726:
1723:
1719:Monocotyledons
1681:Crocus sativus
1677:saffron crocus
1593:
1590:
1581:
1578:
1535:, with marked
1430:differentiated
1406:sex chromosome
1400:. It shows 22
1381:
1378:
1261:spermatophores
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1141:Main article:
1138:
1135:
1105:Main article:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1058:) in an early
1014:diploidization
1002:Main article:
998:in eukaryotes.
983:
980:
974:
973:Mesopolyploidy
971:
966:
963:
961:
960:Temporal terms
958:
946:Main article:
943:
940:
919:endopolyploidy
910:
909:Endopolyploidy
907:
895:Main article:
892:
889:
866:T. porrifolius
778:heterozygosity
766:nondisjunction
757:
751:
727:Allopolyploids
723:
722:Allopolyploidy
720:
696:documented in
627:triploid block
576:Autopolyploids
572:
571:Autopolyploidy
569:
567:
566:Classification
564:
563:
562:
560:black mulberry
549:
517:
504:
477:
469:(seven sets; 7
460:
443:
439:Betula kenaica
427:
404:
391:saffron crocus
385:(three sets; 3
380:
367:
308:
305:
303:
300:
280:E. × robertsii
276:Orkney Islands
256:E. × robertsii
189:and flowering
84:, but produce
26:
24:
18:Endopolyploidy
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8954:
8943:
8940:
8938:
8935:
8934:
8932:
8917:
8916:
8907:
8905:
8904:
8899:
8895:
8893:
8892:
8883:
8881:
8880:
8871:
8870:
8867:
8860:
8859:Chronospecies
8856:
8852:
8848:
8844:
8841:
8839:
8836:
8834:
8831:
8829:
8826:
8824:
8821:
8820:
8818:
8814:
8808:
8805:
8803:
8800:
8797:
8793:
8792:Reinforcement
8790:
8787:
8786:Recombination
8783:
8779:
8775:
8772:
8771:
8769:
8767:
8763:
8757:
8754:
8752:
8749:
8747:
8744:
8741:
8737:
8733:
8730:
8728:
8725:
8723:
8720:
8718:
8715:
8714:
8712:
8710:
8706:
8700:
8697:
8694:
8690:
8686:
8683:
8680:
8676:
8672:
8668:
8664:
8661:
8660:
8658:
8654:
8648:
8645:
8643:
8640:
8638:
8635:
8633:
8630:
8628:
8625:
8622:
8618:
8615:
8614:
8612:
8608:
8602:
8599:
8597:
8594:
8592:
8589:
8587:
8584:
8583:
8580:
8576:
8569:
8564:
8562:
8557:
8555:
8550:
8549:
8546:
8534:
8531:
8529:
8526:
8524:
8521:
8517:
8514:
8513:
8512:
8509:
8508:
8506:
8502:
8492:
8489:
8487:
8484:
8482:
8479:
8477:
8474:
8472:
8469:
8467:
8464:
8462:
8459:
8457:
8454:
8452:
8449:
8447:
8444:
8442:
8439:
8437:
8434:
8432:
8429:
8427:
8424:
8422:
8419:
8417:
8414:
8413:
8411:
8409:
8405:
8399:
8396:
8394:
8391:
8389:
8386:
8384:
8381:
8379:
8376:
8375:
8373:
8371:
8367:
8361:
8358:
8355:
8351:
8347:
8344:
8343:
8341:
8337:
8331:
8328:
8324:
8321:
8319:
8316:
8314:
8311:
8309:
8306:
8305:
8304:
8301:
8297:
8294:
8292:
8289:
8288:
8287:
8284:
8282:
8279:
8277:
8274:
8273:
8271:
8269:and evolution
8265:
8257:
8254:
8252:
8249:
8247:
8244:
8242:
8239:
8238:
8237:
8234:
8230:
8227:
8225:
8222:
8220:
8217:
8215:
8212:
8210:
8207:
8206:
8205:
8202:
8200:
8197:
8195:
8194:Isochromosome
8192:
8190:
8187:
8185:
8182:
8180:
8177:
8175:
8172:
8170:
8167:
8165:
8162:
8159:
8156:
8154:
8150:
8147:
8145:
8142:
8139:
8135:
8131:
8128:
8127:
8125:
8121:
8115:
8112:
8110:
8107:
8105:
8102:
8100:
8097:
8093:
8090:
8088:
8085:
8084:
8083:
8080:
8078:
8074:
8071:
8069:
8066:
8064:
8061:
8060:
8058:
8052:
8048:
8044:
8037:
8032:
8030:
8025:
8023:
8018:
8017:
8014:
8007:
8004:
8002:
7999:
7998:
7994:
7987:
7983:
7979:
7975:
7971:
7967:
7963:
7959:
7954:
7950:
7946:
7942:
7938:
7933:
7932:10.1038/42711
7928:
7924:
7920:
7916:
7912:
7908:
7903:
7899:
7894:
7890:
7886:
7881:
7876:
7871:
7866:
7862:
7858:
7854:
7849:
7845:
7841:
7837:
7833:
7829:
7825:
7821:
7817:
7813:
7808:
7804:
7800:
7795:
7791:
7787:
7782:
7777:
7773:
7769:
7765:
7761:
7757:
7752:
7748:
7744:
7740:
7736:
7732:
7728:
7724:
7719:
7715:
7711:
7707:
7703:
7699:
7694:
7690:
7686:
7681:
7676:
7672:
7668:
7663:
7658:
7654:
7650:
7646:
7642:
7638:
7633:
7629:
7625:
7621:
7617:
7613:
7609:
7605:
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7583:
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7570:
7566:
7561:
7557:
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7548:
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7523:
7518:
7514:
7509:
7505:
7501:
7496:
7491:
7487:
7483:
7479:
7475:
7471:
7466:
7462:
7458:
7453:
7448:
7444:
7440:
7436:
7431:
7427:
7423:
7418:
7413:
7409:
7405:
7401:
7397:
7393:
7389:
7384:
7380:
7374:
7369:
7368:
7361:
7360:
7355:
7347:
7343:
7339:
7335:
7330:
7325:
7321:
7317:
7313:
7309:
7305:
7298:
7295:
7290:
7286:
7282:
7278:
7274:
7270:
7266:
7262:
7261:Extremophiles
7255:
7248:
7245:
7240:
7236:
7232:
7228:
7224:
7220:
7216:
7212:
7205:
7202:
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7107:
7104:
7099:
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7063:
7056:
7053:
7048:
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7034:
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7022:
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6995:
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6885:
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6804:
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6753:
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6671:
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6504:
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6463:
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6455:
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6447:
6440:
6437:
6432:
6428:
6423:
6418:
6413:
6408:
6404:
6400:
6399:PLOS Genetics
6396:
6389:
6386:
6381:
6377:
6372:
6367:
6362:
6357:
6353:
6349:
6348:PLOS Genetics
6345:
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6164:
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6130:
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6115:
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6102:
6098:
6093:
6088:
6084:
6080:
6076:
6072:
6068:
6061:
6058:
6053:
6049:
6042:
6039:
6028:on 2019-02-03
6027:
6023:
6017:
6014:
6009:
6005:
6001:
5997:
5993:
5989:
5982:
5979:
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5074:
5067:
5064:
5059:
5055:
5050:
5045:
5040:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5026:PLOS Genetics
5023:
5016:
5013:
5009:. 8 Oct 2012.
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3777:PLOS Genetics
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2914:on 2021-02-25
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2827:
2821:
2817:
2816:
2808:
2805:
2800:
2796:
2792:
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2784:
2780:
2773:
2770:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2748:
2743:
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2735:
2731:
2724:
2721:
2716:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2675:PLOS Genetics
2672:
2665:
2662:
2657:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2600:
2597:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2551:
2548:
2536:
2532:
2529:Fessenden M.
2525:
2522:
2517:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2476:
2473:
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2457:
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2416:
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2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2379:
2378:
2375:
2372:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2340:
2337:
2332:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2288:
2283:
2277:
2273:
2266:
2263:
2257:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2219:
2215:
2213:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2198:
2193:
2192:
2188:
2180:
2178:
2176:
2175:
2170:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2095:
2090:
2086:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2061:transcriptome
2058:
2054:
2050:
2049:Saccharomyces
2040:
2036:
2034:
2033:
2029:
2028:basidiomycota
2025:
2021:
2017:
2016:hybridization
2009:
2008:
2007:Saccharomyces
2003:
2002:
1997:
1994:
1993:
1988:
1987:
1982:
1981:
1976:
1973:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1955:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1919:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1871:chrysanthemum
1868:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1771:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1758:
1756:
1750:
1748:
1744:
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1736:
1732:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1715:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1688:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1667:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1641:
1636:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1570:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1555:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1483:fertilization
1480:
1476:
1471:
1469:
1468:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1425:
1417:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1362:
1357:
1353:
1348:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1325:
1324:Octomys mimax
1320:
1316:
1312:
1309:, but kin to
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1264:
1262:
1259:, "stealing"
1258:
1257:kleptogenesis
1254:
1250:
1249:
1244:
1240:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1206:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1172:hybrid genome
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1144:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1127:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1114:
1108:
1100:
1095:
1093:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1061:
1057:
1056:2R hypothesis
1053:
1052:
1047:
1043:
1042:
1037:
1036:
1031:
1030:baker's yeast
1027:
1022:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1005:
997:
993:
988:
981:
979:
972:
970:
965:Neopolyploidy
964:
959:
957:
955:
949:
941:
939:
937:
933:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
908:
906:
904:
898:
890:
888:
887:
885:
880:
879:
874:
873:
868:
867:
862:
860:
856:
851:
850:
845:
844:
839:
837:
833:
828:
827:
822:
820:
816:
811:
810:Triangle of U
807:
806:Brassicaceous
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
774:
771:
767:
763:
755:
747:
746:hybridization
743:
738:
736:
732:
728:
721:
719:
716:
714:
710:
705:
703:
699:
694:
690:
686:
681:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
650:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
595:
590:
589:
583:
581:
577:
570:
565:
561:
557:
553:
550:
547:
546:
541:
540:
535:
534:
529:
525:
521:
518:
516:
512:
509:(ten sets; 10
508:
505:
503:
499:
495:
494:
489:
485:
481:
478:
476:
472:
468:
464:
461:
459:
455:
451:
447:
444:
441:
440:
435:
432:(five sets; 5
431:
428:
426:
425:
420:
416:
412:
409:(four sets; 4
408:
405:
403:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
381:
379:
375:
371:
368:
366:
362:
358:
355:
354:
353:
351:
348:. The letter
347:
343:
337:
336:
331:
327:
322:
318:
314:
306:
301:
299:
297:
293:
287:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
252:
247:
242:
240:
236:
232:
231:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
209:hybridization
206:
202:
198:
197:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
163:
161:
157:
153:
152:cell cultures
149:
148:cell division
144:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
87:
83:
82:somatic cells
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
39:
33:
19:
8913:
8901:
8889:
8877:
8777:
8693:Ring species
8642:Cospeciation
8637:Cladogenesis
8586:Introduction
8317:
8235:
8203:
8043:Cytogenetics
7961:
7957:
7914:
7910:
7897:
7860:
7856:
7819:
7815:
7802:
7763:
7759:
7730:
7726:
7708:(1): 13–30.
7705:
7701:
7644:
7640:
7603:
7599:
7572:
7568:
7529:
7525:
7512:
7477:
7473:
7442:
7438:
7399:
7395:
7387:
7366:
7311:
7307:
7297:
7264:
7260:
7247:
7214:
7210:
7204:
7169:
7165:
7155:
7120:
7116:
7106:
7065:
7061:
7055:
7023:(1): 71–75.
7020:
7016:
7006:
6971:
6967:
6957:
6924:
6920:
6916:
6910:
6875:
6871:
6861:
6828:
6824:
6811:
6769:(6): e5914.
6766:
6762:
6752:
6719:
6715:
6708:
6657:
6653:
6647:
6612:
6609:DNA Research
6608:
6598:
6563:
6559:
6549:
6516:
6512:
6506:
6453:
6449:
6439:
6402:
6398:
6388:
6351:
6347:
6337:
6292:
6288:
6278:
6253:
6249:
6245:
6239:
6212:
6208:
6198:
6173:
6169:
6163:
6128:
6124:
6074:
6070:
6060:
6051:
6047:
6041:
6030:. Retrieved
6026:the original
6016:
5991:
5987:
5981:
5972:
5968:
5964:
5958:
5931:
5927:
5917:
5882:
5878:
5868:
5843:
5839:
5833:
5798:
5794:
5784:
5749:
5745:
5735:
5700:
5696:
5686:
5651:
5647:
5637:
5612:
5608:
5602:
5575:
5571:
5561:
5508:
5504:
5494:
5469:
5465:
5459:
5424:
5420:
5410:
5375:
5371:
5361:
5318:
5314:
5274:
5270:
5260:
5228:(1): 37–40.
5225:
5221:
5211:
5176:
5172:
5162:
5141:
5119:. Retrieved
5109:
5076:
5072:
5066:
5029:
5025:
5015:
5007:ScienceDaily
5006:
4967:
4963:
4953:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4914:
4881:
4877:
4873:
4867:
4842:
4838:
4832:
4805:
4801:
4791:
4758:
4754:
4741:
4696:
4692:
4682:
4649:
4645:
4639:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4608:
4565:
4561:
4513:
4509:
4503:
4494:
4488:
4477:
4469:
4424:
4420:
4380:
4376:
4366:
4321:
4317:
4307:
4275:(1): 86–88.
4272:
4268:
4258:
4239:
4233:
4206:
4202:
4192:
4167:
4163:
4157:
4124:
4120:
4084:
4080:
4044:
4040:
4030:
4003:
3999:
3989:
3964:
3960:
3954:
3945:
3939:
3904:
3898:
3873:
3869:
3835:
3831:
3825:
3780:
3776:
3766:
3715:
3711:
3701:
3650:
3646:
3636:
3585:
3581:
3571:
3546:
3542:
3502:
3495:
3470:
3466:
3460:
3435:
3431:
3425:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3386:
3353:
3349:
3343:
3318:
3314:
3308:
3281:
3277:
3229:
3225:
3219:
3211:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3172:
3125:
3121:
3115:
3067:
3034:
3028:
3016:
2991:
2987:
2986:(Poaceae)".
2983:
2977:
2967:15 September
2965:. Retrieved
2941:
2937:
2927:
2916:. Retrieved
2912:the original
2884:
2851:
2847:
2841:
2829:. Retrieved
2814:
2807:
2782:
2778:
2772:
2737:
2733:
2723:
2678:
2674:
2664:
2613:
2609:
2599:
2564:
2560:
2550:
2538:. Retrieved
2534:
2524:
2489:
2485:
2475:
2438:
2434:
2386:
2382:
2374:
2349:
2345:
2339:
2304:
2300:
2290:
2271:
2265:
2195:
2189:
2184:
2172:
2171:
2158:
2142:
2129:
2127:
2114:
2094:Phytophthora
2092:
2082:
2056:
2048:
2045:
2030:
2013:
2005:
2004:, the genus
1999:
1990:
1984:
1978:
1965:
1961:
1951:
1938:Hemerocallis
1937:
1923:
1908:
1759:
1751:
1746:
1738:
1728:
1716:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1697:
1691:
1684:
1680:
1670:
1663:
1644:
1639:
1637:
1622:
1583:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1556:
1519:in triploid
1499:miscarriages
1472:
1465:
1459:with both a
1442:
1427:
1359:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1322:
1318:
1302:
1298:
1265:
1246:
1236:
1221:brine shrimp
1210:
1195:
1191:
1188:homoeologous
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1167:
1163:
1146:
1128:
1124:cytogenetics
1110:
1060:evolutionary
1051:Oryza sativa
1049:
1039:
1033:
1023:
1007:
976:
968:
951:
929:
918:
912:
900:
882:
878:T. miscellus
876:
870:
864:
859:T. pratensis
853:
847:
841:
830:
824:
813:
775:
762:homoeologous
741:
739:
734:
730:
726:
725:
717:
706:
701:
697:
682:
653:
651:
630:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
592:
586:
584:
575:
574:
555:
551:
543:
537:
531:
527:
524:duodecaploid
523:
519:
515:strawberries
510:
506:
491:
487:
483:
479:
470:
466:
462:
449:
448:(six sets; 6
445:
437:
433:
429:
422:
410:
406:
386:
382:
373:
372:(two sets; 2
369:
360:
356:
349:
341:
340:
333:
329:
325:
317:
295:
291:
288:
284:E. peregrina
283:
279:
268:E. peregrina
267:
263:
259:
255:
249:
243:
238:
228:
224:
216:
212:
194:
164:
145:
77:
45:
44:
8915:WikiProject
8675:Centrifugal
8256:Polycentric
8246:Monocentric
8229:Holocentric
8224:Acrocentric
8219:Telocentric
8209:Metacentric
8087:Euchromatin
8047:chromosomes
7863:(12): 250.
7696:Soltis DE,
7388:Arabidopsis
5703:: 377–406.
5222:AJP Reports
5115:"Triploidy"
3838:(1): 5–17.
3718:(1): 5218.
3653:(1): 5218.
3432:Aquaculture
3397:Aquaculture
3393:Salmo salar
3284:(1): 1–22.
3041:: 950–956.
2616:(1): 5218.
2540:22 February
2151:desiccation
2118:tetraurelia
1865:Pelargonium
1820:varieties,
1453:miscarriage
1356:John Gurdon
1315:chinchillas
1311:guinea pigs
1303:T. barrerae
1268:parenchymal
1160:durum wheat
1082:Angiosperms
1067:vertebrates
923:prokaryotes
843:B. carinata
815:B. oleracea
808:crops, the
643:watermelons
520:dodecaploid
359:(one set; 1
302:Terminology
183:salamanders
125:gametophyte
117:life cycles
105:Hymenoptera
62:chromosomes
8942:Speciation
8931:Categories
8778:Polyploidy
8740:Allochrony
8717:Adaptation
8685:Parapatric
8667:Peripatric
8663:Allopatric
8632:Anagenesis
8575:Speciation
8408:Centromere
8339:Structures
8318:Polyploidy
8308:Aneuploidy
8109:Nucleosome
8099:Chromosome
6878:: plr001.
6872:AoB Plants
6683:2262/22660
6032:2022-03-07
5121:2018-12-23
2918:2008-08-30
2352:(1): 1–9.
2346:Chromosoma
2301:Cell Cycle
2258:References
2139:chromosome
2116:Paramecium
2073:adaptation
2065:Phenotypic
2024:chromosome
1918:sugar cane
1905:sugar cane
1893:strawberry
1807:watermelon
1762:colchicine
1652:epigenetic
1647:speciation
1633:speciation
1629:angiosperm
1601:Speciation
1573:Mixoploidy
1540:hypoplasia
1517:phenotypes
1491:polar body
1457:mixoploidy
1449:polyspermy
1438:Aneuploidy
1434:parenchyma
1388:Schematic
1352:Har Swarup
1280:octodontid
1278:death. An
1196:homologous
1186:parent is
1143:Homoeology
1131:eukaryotes
1090:eukaryotes
948:Monoploidy
897:Aneuploidy
849:Tragopogon
666:colchicine
658:bud sports
496:(genus of
467:septaploid
463:heptaploid
430:pentaploid
419:Salmonidae
407:tetraploid
402:Tardigrada
260:E. guttata
217:tetraploid
173:, such as
156:colchicine
133:sporophyte
103:and other
70:eukaryotes
58:homologous
46:Polyploidy
8699:Sympatric
8360:Protamine
8267:Processes
8251:Dicentric
8104:Chromatid
8082:Chromatin
8063:Karyotype
7799:Soltis PS
7698:Soltis PS
6917:Seminavis
6513:Mycologia
6170:Mycologia
5648:BioEssays
4783:214766734
4518:CiteSeerX
3799:1553-7404
3740:2041-1723
3675:2041-1723
3610:0960-9822
3487:0022-1503
3335:1601-5223
3315:Hereditas
3256:1439-0426
3232:: 24–33.
3057:2221-1691
2756:0028-646X
2697:1553-7404
2638:2041-1723
2583:0028-646X
2415:219537026
2135:bacterium
2111:Alveolata
2089:oomycetes
1962:Allomyces
1934:daylilies
1887:kiwifruit
1879:triticale
1731:triticale
1521:placentas
1493:from the
1445:triploidy
1416:Karyotype
1398:karyotype
1390:karyogram
1289:'s harsh
1287:Argentina
1229:cyprinids
1227:and many
1225:salmonids
1213:flatworms
1113:eukaryote
1107:Karyotype
1101:Karyotype
1018:mutations
942:Monoploid
927:bacterium
903:aneuploid
891:Aneuploid
855:T. dubius
836:B. juncea
790:triticale
782:heterotic
693:aneuploid
639:apomictic
507:decaploid
493:Acipenser
484:octoploid
480:octaploid
458:kiwifruit
446:hexaploid
342:Polyploid
270:arose on
264:E. lutea,
239:octaploid
235:Sugarcane
225:hexaploid
119:with two
97:monoploid
78:polyploid
8879:Category
8796:evidence
8601:Glossary
8504:See also
8346:Telomere
8313:Euploidy
8241:Acentric
8138:allosome
8130:Autosome
8056:concepts
7986:20796914
7978:11331899
7889:15575976
7844:14092900
7836:12836686
7790:12618368
7747:20774036
7714:25065732
7689:12374856
7620:12836691
7591:15720677
7556:15496914
7504:18024568
7461:14648853
7426:11130711
7346:22393850
7338:17903038
7281:15844015
7239:31385928
7231:21265763
7090:17006450
6998:17086204
6949:84299819
6902:22476472
6853:43275127
6845:16626980
6803:19526052
6763:PLOS ONE
6744:23349682
6736:19243081
6692:16541074
6639:19261625
6590:18787083
6533:20524600
6498:12093907
6431:19578406
6380:24550744
6329:21873232
6231:19765175
6155:22492065
6101:18757946
6071:Genetics
5950:37337836
5909:29212720
5860:15183714
5825:18276791
5776:16624896
5746:Genetics
5727:17280525
5678:16479580
5629:12615008
5594:21743474
5553:19667210
5535:40484335
5486:16701441
5451:31645766
5402:10054182
5394:17981114
5353:17702935
5293:16892970
5252:23943708
5203:28009278
5195:14508508
5101:23496028
5058:30312291
4986:58937352
4945:42913498
4859:15780745
4839:Genomics
4824:16580173
4802:Genomics
4775:32242122
4733:16591473
4674:42528911
4666:17546077
4600:11649126
4592:23509424
4540:11092833
4461:27671652
4399:19802709
4358:18445653
4299:19571289
4225:26112701
4141:16304599
4101:31637733
4063:28000935
4022:26439879
3981:31637733
3931:20259289
3890:20028473
3852:20070540
3817:32667955
3758:31740675
3693:31740675
3628:24139735
3563:41689384
3378:29713625
3370:10802558
3300:33874422
3162:26266951
3122:PLOS ONE
3098:51706250
3008:25522023
2984:Spartina
2876:15752992
2764:33454987
2715:32667955
2656:31740675
2591:33454987
2516:25929999
2465:28082603
2407:32508157
2331:31096847
2252:Sympatry
2242:Polysomy
2216:See also
2212:repair.
2187:archaeon
2124:Bacteria
2053:chimeric
1873:, bread
1845:rapeseed
1826:macaroni
1783:Jonagold
1768:Examples
1755:grafting
1694:conifers
1563:in vitro
1544:placenta
1276:prenatal
1202:Examples
1120:cytology
1063:ancestor
934:. Hence
872:T. mirus
832:B. napus
826:B. nigra
770:bivalent
709:homology
670:oryzalin
498:sturgeon
383:triploid
274:and the
230:Brassica
175:goldfish
160:Oryzalin
54:organism
8891:Commons
8843:Fossils
8833:Insects
8782:Klepton
8671:Quantum
8617:Species
8591:History
8516:Plasmid
8370:Histone
8281:Meiosis
8276:Mitosis
7949:4307263
7941:9192896
7919:Bibcode
7671:3073458
7649:Bibcode
7628:9666357
7534:Bibcode
7495:2174891
7404:Bibcode
7316:Bibcode
7289:8391234
7196:8021173
7147:2785985
7098:4412830
7070:Bibcode
6976:Bibcode
6929:Bibcode
6893:3064507
6794:2690839
6771:Bibcode
6662:Bibcode
6630:2673734
6581:2556262
6541:9072505
6480:3059188
6458:Bibcode
6422:2699053
6371:3923673
6320:3167505
6297:Bibcode
6270:2440307
6190:4547843
6146:3350714
6092:2535714
5996:Bibcode
5900:5740271
5816:2710208
5767:1526534
5718:1949485
5669:1986666
5544:2728988
5513:Bibcode
5442:6872490
5344:2442920
5323:Bibcode
5315:Science
5243:3699153
5093:3323647
5049:6200260
4923:(L.)".
4906:4226624
4886:Bibcode
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4701:Bibcode
4583:3571666
4452:5068283
4429:Bibcode
4349:2373351
4326:Bibcode
4290:4111249
4184:2438023
4149:3329282
3808:7392332
3749:6861236
3720:Bibcode
3684:6861236
3655:Bibcode
3619:3859316
3590:Bibcode
3440:Bibcode
3405:Bibcode
3234:Bibcode
3203:2443640
3153:4534381
3130:Bibcode
3039:Medknow
2961:4751722
2856:Bibcode
2787:Bibcode
2706:7392332
2647:6861236
2618:Bibcode
2507:5033005
2456:5381655
2366:1181521
2322:6592246
2181:Archaea
2155:genomes
2107:diatoms
2103:Fucales
1964:, some
1920:hybrids
1907:, oca (
1901:pansies
1853:tobacco
1673:meiosis
1613:gametes
1609:meiosis
1605:diploid
1586:teleost
1567:in vivo
1537:adrenal
1529:haploid
1525:fetuses
1510:⁄
1479:diandry
1461:diploid
1394:diploid
1361:Xenopus
1337:Octomys
1272:mammals
1238:Xenopus
1217:leeches
1207:Animals
1116:species
1075:teleost
1065:of the
954:haploid
884:Xenopus
819:B. rapa
754:hybrids
689:meiosis
678:mitotic
647:bananas
502:dahlias
500:fish),
370:diploid
357:haploid
346:nucleus
213:diploid
201:species
171:animals
167:mammals
141:meiosis
129:mitosis
93:meiosis
89:gametes
86:haploid
74:diploid
8838:Plants
8689:Clines
8077:Genome
8068:Ploidy
7984:
7976:
7947:
7939:
7911:Nature
7887:
7880:545788
7877:
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7047:649572
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2232:Ploidy
2010:, etc.
1995:, etc.
1974:, etc.
1972:bakery
1930:lilies
1926:tulips
1897:dahlia
1861:kinnow
1857:peanut
1841:canola
1837:potato
1833:cotton
1803:ginger
1799:citrus
1795:banana
1741:) and
1665:Crepis
1617:zygote
1592:Plants
1588:fish.
1495:oocyte
1487:oocyte
1475:digyny
1380:Humans
1329:Andean
1327:, the
1291:desert
1283:rodent
1231:(i.e.
1219:, and
1078:fishes
936:ploidy
915:muscle
802:quinoa
798:peanut
794:Cotton
399:phylum
378:humans
191:plants
181:, and
179:salmon
165:Among
137:spores
131:; the
123:. The
109:plants
72:) are
66:nuclei
52:of an
8823:Birds
8354:TINF2
8123:Types
8054:Basic
7982:S2CID
7945:S2CID
7840:S2CID
7743:JSTOR
7727:Taxon
7710:JSTOR
7702:Taxon
7667:JSTOR
7624:S2CID
7342:S2CID
7285:S2CID
7257:(PDF)
7235:S2CID
7094:S2CID
6945:S2CID
6849:S2CID
6821:(PDF)
6740:S2CID
6716:Yeast
6700:94448
6696:S2CID
6537:S2CID
6476:JSTOR
6266:JSTOR
6186:JSTOR
5531:JSTOR
5398:S2CID
5199:S2CID
5097:S2CID
4982:S2CID
4941:S2CID
4902:S2CID
4779:S2CID
4751:(PDF)
4670:S2CID
4596:S2CID
4180:JSTOR
4145:S2CID
4097:S2CID
3977:S2CID
3559:S2CID
3507:(PDF)
3374:S2CID
3199:JSTOR
3116:Morus
3094:S2CID
3004:S2CID
2411:S2CID
2389:(6).
2362:S2CID
2147:X-ray
2128:Each
2099:algae
1948:Fungi
1875:wheat
1829:wheat
1822:durum
1818:apple
1787:Mutsu
1775:apple
1735:wheat
1725:Crops
1533:fetus
1370:clone
1071:human
990:This
800:, or
786:wheat
580:taxon
454:wheat
393:, or
328:to 64
307:Types
221:durum
205:Wheat
193:(see
187:ferns
115:have
113:algae
50:cells
32:polyp
8828:Fish
8136:(or
7974:PMID
7937:PMID
7885:PMID
7832:PMID
7786:PMID
7685:PMID
7616:PMID
7587:PMID
7552:PMID
7500:PMID
7457:PMID
7422:PMID
7386:The
7373:ISBN
7334:PMID
7277:PMID
7227:PMID
7192:PMID
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7086:PMID
7043:PMID
6994:PMID
6898:PMID
6876:2011
6841:PMID
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6732:PMID
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6635:PMID
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6325:PMID
6227:PMID
6151:PMID
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5946:PMID
5905:PMID
5856:PMID
5821:PMID
5772:PMID
5723:PMID
5674:PMID
5625:PMID
5590:PMID
5549:PMID
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5447:PMID
5390:PMID
5372:Cell
5349:PMID
5289:PMID
5248:PMID
5191:PMID
5148:ISBN
5089:PMID
5054:PMID
4855:PMID
4820:PMID
4771:PMID
4729:PMID
4662:PMID
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4221:PMID
4137:PMID
4059:PMID
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3606:ISSN
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3331:ISSN
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3252:ISSN
3158:PMID
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3053:ISSN
2969:2024
2872:PMID
2833:2013
2820:ISBN
2760:PMID
2752:ISSN
2711:PMID
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2634:ISSN
2587:PMID
2579:ISSN
2542:2017
2512:PMID
2461:PMID
2403:PMID
2327:PMID
2276:ISBN
2185:The
2085:taxa
1928:and
1849:leek
1580:Fish
1523:and
1313:and
1233:carp
1166:and
1154:and
1046:rice
875:and
863:and
840:and
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700:and
645:and
536:and
294:and
262:and
101:bees
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