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balance involves the exquisite coordination of food intake and energy expenditure. Experiments in the 1940s and 1950s showed that lesions of the lateral hypothalamus (LH) reduced food intake; hence, the normal role of this brain area is to stimulate feeding and decrease energy utilization. In contrast, lesions of the medial hypothalamus, especially the ventromedial nucleus (VMH) but also the PVN and dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (DMH), increased food intake; hence, the normal role of these regions is to suppress feeding and increase energy utilization. Yet discovery of the complex networks of neuropeptides and other neurotransmitters acting within the hypothalamus and other brain regions to regulate food intake and energy expenditure began in earnest in 1994 with the cloning of the leptin (ob, for obesity) gene. Indeed, there is now explosive interest in basic feeding mechanisms given the epidemic proportions of obesity in our society, and the increased toll of the eating disorders, anorexia nervosa and bulimia. Unfortunately, despite dramatic advances in the basic neurobiology of feeding, our understanding of the etiology of these conditions and our ability to intervene clinically remain limited.
1731:
hypothalamus and other brain areas that are a part of a neurocircuit that regulates food intake in response to input from humoral signals that circulate at concentrations proportionate to body fat content. ... An emerging concept in the neurobiology of food intake is that neurocircuits exist that are normally inhibited, but when activated in response to emergent or stressful stimuli they can override the homeostatic control of energy balance. Understanding how these circuits interact with the energy homeostasis system is fundamental to understanding the control of food intake and may bear on the pathogenesis of disorders at both ends of the body weight spectrum.
297:(broken down by water) to adenosine diphosphate and inorganic phosphate. Here it is the thermodynamically favorable free energy of hydrolysis that results in energy release; the phosphoanhydride bond between the terminal phosphate group and the rest of the ATP molecule does not itself contain this energy. An organism's stockpile of ATP is used as a battery to store energy in cells. Utilization of chemical energy from such molecular bond rearrangement powers biological processes in every biological organism.
791:
achieved through several mechanisms. The first mechanism postulates that the free energy of the proton gradient is utilized to alter the conformation of polypeptide molecules in the ATP synthesis active centers. The second mechanism suggests that the change in the conformational state is also produced by the transformation of mechanical energy into chemical energy using biological mechanoemission.
49:
1677:
Orexin neurons are regulated by peripheral mediators that carry information about energy balance, including glucose, leptin, and ghrelin. ... Accordingly, orexin plays a role in the regulation of energy homeostasis, reward, and perhaps more generally in emotion. ... The regulation of energy
585:
can be used to donate electrons to a series of redox reactions that take place in electron transport chain complexes. These redox reactions take place in enzyme complexes situated within the mitochondrial membrane. These redox reactions transfer electrons "down" the electron transport chain, which is
557:
is a metabolic process where the body prioritizes ketone bodies, produced from fat, as its primary fuel source instead of glucose. This shift often occurs when glucose levels are low: during prolonged fasting, strenuous exercise, or specialized diets like ketogenic plans, the body may also adopt
505:
is the opposite of glycolysis; when the cell's energy charge is low (the concentration of ADP is higher than that of ATP), the cell must synthesize glucose from carbon- containing biomolecules such as proteins, amino acids, fats, pyruvate, etc. For example, proteins can be broken down into amino
1730:
However, in normal individuals, body weight and body fat content are typically quite stable over time owing to a biological process termed 'energy homeostasis' that matches energy intake to expenditure over long periods of time. The energy homeostasis system comprises neurons in the mediobasal
404:
reaction is an anabolic chemical reaction that consumes energy. It is the opposite of an exergonic reaction. It has a positive ΔG because it takes more energy to break the bonds of the reactant than the energy of the products offer, i.e. the products have weaker bonds than the reactants. Thus,
790:
The binding change mechanism, proposed by Paul Boyer and John E. Walker, who were awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1997, suggests that ATP synthesis is linked to a conformational change in ATP synthase. This change is triggered by the rotation of the gamma subunit. ATP synthesis can be
485:), the cell cannot undergo glycolysis, releasing energy from available glucose to perform biological work. Pyruvate is one product of glycolysis, and can be shuttled into other metabolic pathways (gluconeogenesis, etc.) as needed by the cell. Additionally, glycolysis produces
286:" of the cell. A cell can use this energy charge to relay information about cellular needs; if there is more ATP than ADP available, the cell can use ATP to do work, but if there is more ADP than ATP available, the cell must synthesize ATP via oxidative phosphorylation.
363:
because the nutrients are reacted with oxygen (the materials are oxidized slowly enough that the organisms do not produce fire). The oxidation releases energy, which may evolve as heat or be used by the organism for other purposes, such as breaking chemical bonds.
1335:, D. Miller and I. Bihler. "The restrictions on possible mechanisms of intestinal transport of sugars". In: Membrane Transport and Metabolism. Proceedings of a Symposium held in Prague, August 22–27, 1960. Edited by A. Kleinzeller and A. Kotyk.
385:). Over the course of a reaction, energy needs to be put in, and this activation energy drives the reactants from a stable state to a highly energetically unstable transition state to a more stable state that is lower in energy (see:
204:. It can also be defined as the study of energy relationships and energy transformations and transductions in living organisms. The ability to harness energy from a variety of metabolic pathways is a property of all living organisms.
558:
ketosis as an efficient alternative for energy production. This metabolic adaptation allows the body to conserve precious glucose for organs that depend on it, like the brain, while utilizing readily available fat stores for fuel.
278:) is the main "energy currency" for organisms; the goal of metabolic and catabolic processes are to synthesize ATP from available starting materials (from the environment), and to break- down ATP (into adenosine diphosphate (
1465:
of sodium and glucose in the apical membrane of the small intestinal epithelial cell. Half a century later this idea has turned into one of the most studied of all transporter proteins (SGLT1), the sodium–glucose
1290:
Devrim-Lanpir, Aslı, Lee Hill, and Beat
Knechtle. 2021. "Efficacy of Popular Diets Applied by Endurance Athletes on Sports Performance: Beneficial or Detrimental? A Narrative Review" Nutrients 13, no. 2: 491.
534:. The remaining eight reactions produce other carbon-containing metabolites. These metabolites are successively oxidized, and the free energy of oxidation is conserved in the form of the reduced coenzymes
1401:
transport cross the brush border. This hypothesis was rapidly tested, refined and extended encompass the active transport of a diverse range of molecules and ions into virtually every cell type.
602:, another major bioenergetic process, is the metabolic pathway used by plants in which solar energy is used to synthesize glucose from carbon dioxide and water. This reaction takes place in the
774:
activity to ATP production are not the major source of useful chemical energy in most cells. Chemiosmotic coupling is the major energy producing process in most cells, being utilized in
256:, autotrophs and heterotrophs participate in a universal metabolic network—by eating autotrophs (plants), heterotrophs harness energy that was initially transformed by the plants during
1390:
concept to explain active transport . Specifically, he proposed that the accumulation of glucose in the intestinal epithelium across the brush border membrane was coupled to downhill
709:
This allows organisms to utilize energy and resources efficiently. For example, in cellular respiration, energy released by the breakdown of glucose is coupled in the synthesis of ATP.
267:
are broken and made as part of the exchange and transformation of energy. Energy is available for work (such as mechanical work) or for other processes (such as chemical synthesis and
854:
184:(ATP) molecules. That is, the goal of bioenergetics is to describe how living organisms acquire and transform energy in order to perform biological work. The study of
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1872:
1271:
Masood W, Annamaraju P, Khan Suheb MZ, et al. Ketogenic Diet. . In: StatPearls . Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls
Publishing; 2024 Jan-. Available from:
359:
to release energy, although some nutrients can also be oxidized anaerobically by various organisms. The utilization of these materials is a form of slow
300:
Living organisms obtain energy from organic and inorganic materials; i.e. ATP can be synthesized from a variety of biochemical precursors. For example,
30:
This article is about the biological study of energy transformation. For the
Reichian body-oriented psychotherapy sometimes known as bioenergetics, see
651:
In a reversible process, entropy remains constant where as in an irreversible process (more common to real-world scenarios), entropy tends to increase.
1336:
481:, producing two molecules of ATP (per 1 molecule of glucose) in the process. When a cell has a higher concentration of ATP than ADP (i.e. has a high
734:
was the first ever proposal of flux coupling in biology and was the most important event concerning carbohydrate absorption in the 20th century.
271:
processes in growth), when weak bonds are broken and stronger bonds are made. The production of stronger bonds allows release of usable energy.
244:, must intake nutrients from food to be able to sustain energy by breaking down chemical bonds in nutrients during metabolic processes such as
1895:
232:; living organisms survive because of exchange of energy between living tissues/ cells and the outside environment. Some organisms, such as
590:. This difference in proton concentration between the mitochondrial matrix and inner membrane space is used to drive ATP synthesis via
282:) and inorganic phosphate) by utilizing it in biological processes. In a cell, the ratio of ATP to ADP concentrations is known as the "
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Energy is spent to create and maintain order in the cells, and surplus energy and other simpler by-products are released to create
377:
reaction is a spontaneous chemical reaction that releases energy. It is thermodynamically favored, indexed by a negative value of Δ
692:
for velocity or rate of chemical reaction at which equilibrium is reached. It depends on amount of enzyme and energy activation.
1482:
Peter
Mitchell (1961). "Coupling of phosphorylation to electron and hydrogen transfer by a chemi-osmotic type of mechanism".
523:
196:
Bioenergetics is the part of biochemistry concerned with the energy involved in making and breaking of chemical bonds in the
164:
research that includes the study of the transformation of energy in living organisms and the study of thousands of different
70:
66:
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220:
are some of the central processes in the study of biological organisms, because the role of energy is fundamental to such
85:
810: – the difference between energy obtained through food consumption and energy expenditure – in living systems.
660:(from solid to liquid, or to gas), entropy increases because the number of possible arrangements of particles increases.
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389:). The reactants are usually complex molecules that are broken into simpler products. The entire reaction is usually
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293:. The terminal phosphate bonds of ATP are relatively weak compared with the stronger bonds formed when ATP is
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of chemical reactions in a way that the product of one reaction becomes the substrate of another reaction.
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that exchange materials and energy with the environment. They are never at equilibrium with the surrounding.
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endergonic reactions are thermodynamically unfavorable. Additionally, endergonic reactions are usually
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545:. These reduced electron carriers can then be re-oxidized when they transfer electrons to the
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493:(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), which will ultimately be used to donate electrons to the
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1581:"Molecular mechanics of protonmotive F 0 F 1 ATPases: Rolling well and turnstile hypothesis"
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If ∆G>0, the chemical reaction is non-spontaneous and unfavorable in that direction.
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Orel, Valeri E. (October 1998). "Biological mechanochemiemission and bioenergetics".
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Wright, Ernest M.; Turk, Eric (2004). "The sodium glucose cotransport family SLC5".
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the insight from this time that remains in all current text books is the notion of
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1153:"CHAPTER 3: CALCULATION OF THE ENERGY CONTENT OF FOODS - ENERGY CONVERSION FACTORS"
834:
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591:
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241:
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240:) without needing to consume nutrients and break them down. Other organisms, like
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1804:"Universal energy principle of biological systems and the unity of bioenergetics"
1000:
889:"Universal energy principle of biological systems and the unity of bioenergetics"
17:
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acids, and these simpler carbon skeletons are used to build/ synthesize glucose.
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329:
205:
48:
1746:
Juretic, D., 2021. Bioenergetics: a bridge across life and universe. CRC Press.
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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For the metabolic processes of ATP synthesis and utilization in the body, see
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Environmental materials that an organism intakes are generally combined with
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processes that lead to production and utilization of energy in forms such as
1457:
published originally as an appendix to a symposium paper published in 1960 (
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344:. The amount of energy actually obtained by the organism is lower than the
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446:
201:
669:, the chemical reaction is spontaneous and favourable in that direction.
1757:
Bioenergetics: The
Molecular Basis of Biological Energy Transformations
985:"Advances in measuring cellular bioenergetics using extracellular flux"
554:
531:
462:
393:. The release of energy (called Gibbs free energy) is negative (i.e. −Δ
341:
313:
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161:
1665:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 179, 262–263.
1097:"AMPK: a nutrient and energy sensor that maintains energy homeostasis"
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771:
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678:, the reactants and products of chemical reaction are at equilibrium.
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Hardie, D. Grahame; Ross, Fiona A.; Hawley, Simon A. (April 2012).
1085:
New York: W.H. Freeman and
Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pg. 522- 523.
1072:
New York: W.H. Freeman and
Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pgs. 22, 506.
1661:
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). Sydor A, Brown RY (ed.).
770:
were understood first, but such processes for direct coupling of
722:
presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose
397:) because energy is released from the reactants to the products.
225:
1197:
New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pg. 503.
1184:
New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pg. 502.
983:
Ferrick, David A.; Neilson, Andy; Beeson, Craig (March 2008).
754:
in aqueous solution function in the production of ATP in cell
417:) gained or lost in a reaction can be calculated as follows: Δ
337:
42:
1323:
New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pg 734.
1310:
New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pg 731.
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New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pg 640.
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New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pg 633.
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New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pg 568.
1223:
New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pg 544.
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New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pg. 22.
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New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pg. 28.
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New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pg. 506.
970:
New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pg. 24.
952:
New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pg. 27.
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such that there is an increase in entropy of the surrounding.
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New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2013. Sixth ed., p. 23.
877:
New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2013. Sixth ed., pg 24.
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must be compensated by releasing energy which will increase
606:. After glucose is synthesized, the plant cell can undergo
1461:
et al. 1960). The key point here was 'flux coupling', the
160:
flow through living systems. This is an active area of
1888:
Bioenergetics : a bridge across life and universe
289:
Living organisms produce ATP from energy sources via
726:
as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption.
1692:"Neurobiology of food intake in health and disease"
1415:"Facts, fantasies and fun in epithelial physiology"
73:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1780:
1754:
570:is the process where reducing equivalents such as
620:During energy transformations in living systems,
348:; there are losses in digestion, metabolism, and
332:must consume organic compounds, mostly including
1535:"THE ATP SYNTHASE—A SPLENDID MOLECULAR MACHINE"
742:One of the major triumphs of bioenergetics is
252:. Importantly, as a direct consequence of the
1273:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499830/
477:is the process of breaking down glucose into
8:
236:, can acquire energy from sunlight (through
1861:The Molecular & Cellular Bioenergetics
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1873:American Society of Exercise Physiologists
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133:Learn how and when to remove this message
1690:Morton GJ, Meek TH, Schwartz MW (2014).
766:. Other cellular sources of ATP such as
469:Examples of major bioenergetic processes
328:produce ATP using light energy, whereas
1878:
1386:in 1961 was the first to formulate the
866:
782:organisms in addition to mitochondria.
1321:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
1308:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
1260:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
1247:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
1234:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
1221:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
1208:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
1195:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
1182:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
1083:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
1070:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
1057:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
1044:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
1031:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
968:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
950:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
875:Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry.
1802:Green DE, Zande HD (September 1981).
1636:Bioelectrochemistry and Bioenergetics
1101:Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology
855:Table of standard Gibbs free energies
762:. This work earned Mitchell the 1978
7:
188:is thus essential to bioenergetics.
71:adding citations to reliable sources
887:Green, D. E.; Zande, H. D. (1981).
1319:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
1306:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
1293:https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020491
1258:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
1245:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
1232:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
1219:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
1206:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
1193:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
1180:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
1081:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
1068:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
1055:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
1042:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
1029:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
966:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
948:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
873:Nelson, David L., Cox, Michael M.
25:
1579:Mitchell, Peter (11 March 1985).
1787:(3rd ed.). Academic Press.
1761:(2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley.
1551:10.1146/annurev.biochem.66.1.717
47:
1163:from the original on 2023-03-21
58:needs additional citations for
1779:; Ferguson, Stuart J. (2002).
1432:10.1113/expphysiol.2007.037523
1:
1890:. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
1648:10.1016/S0302-4598(98)00133-0
1539:Annual Review of Biochemistry
304:can oxidize minerals such as
1808:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
1605:10.1016/0014-5793(85)81142-X
1339:, Prague, 1961, pp. 439-449.
1001:10.1016/j.drudis.2007.12.008
312:, such as elemental sulfur,
254:First Law of Thermodynamics
1956:
1863:Gordon Research Conference
346:amount present in the food
36:
29:
1363:10.1007/s00424-003-1063-6
1337:Czech Academy of Sciences
764:Nobel Prize for Chemistry
564:Oxidative phosphorylation
291:oxidative phosphorylation
786:Binding Change Mechanism
568:electron transport chain
547:electron transport chain
526:, is first reacted with
495:electron transport chain
274:Adenosine triphosphate (
1886:Juretić, Davor (2022).
1419:Experimental Physiology
1829:10.1073/pnas.78.9.5344
914:10.1073/pnas.78.9.5344
622:order and organization
615:Additional information
524:pyruvate dehydrogenase
263:In a living organism,
230:energy transformations
182:adenosine triphosphate
512:The citric acid cycle
250:the citric acid cycle
32:bioenergetic analysis
1533:Boyer, Paul (1997).
1413:Boyd, C A R (2008).
989:Drug Discovery Today
825:Cellular respiration
820:Bioenergetic systems
608:photophosphorylation
516:cellular respiration
487:reducing equivalents
222:biological processes
200:found in biological
170:cellular respiration
67:improve this article
39:Bioenergetic systems
1820:1981PNAS...78.5344G
1597:1985FEBSL.182....1M
1496:1961Natur.191..144M
905:1981PNAS...78.5344G
850:Exercise physiology
748:chemiosmotic theory
738:Chemiosmotic theory
628:of the surrounding.
588:proton motive force
522:, synthesized from
387:reaction coordinate
320:to produce ATP. In
172:and the many other
1777:Nicholls, David G.
1696:Nat. Rev. Neurosci
1278:2021-06-14 at the
800:Energy homeostasis
453:= temperature (in
413:The free energy (Δ
368:Types of reactions
186:metabolic pathways
168:processes such as
1897:978-0-8153-8838-8
1751:Lehninger, Albert
744:Peter D. Mitchell
697:Reaction coupling
520:acetyl coenzyme A
439:Gibbs free energy
383:Gibbs free energy
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27:Branch of biology
18:Energy metabolism
16:(Redirected from
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586:coupled to the
579:
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503:Gluconeogenesis
489:in the form of
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82:"Bioenergetics"
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1585:FEBS Letters
1584:
1574:
1562:. Retrieved
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1528:
1487:
1483:
1477:
1455:Robert Crane
1452:
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1382:
1357:(5): 510–8.
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835:ATP synthase
798:
789:
778:and several
776:chloroplasts
760:mitochondria
741:
717:
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666:
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635:open systems
634:
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592:ATP synthase
528:oxaloacetate
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308:or forms of
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154:cell biology
150:biochemistry
145:
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120:
110:
103:
96:
89:
77:
65:Please help
60:verification
57:
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1463:cotransport
1388:cotransport
1157:www.fao.org
806:control of
804:homeostatic
732:cotransport
724:cotransport
714:Cotransport
604:chloroplast
302:lithotrophs
210:development
1930:Biophysics
1919:Categories
1906:1237252428
1753:L (1971).
1591:(1): 1–7.
1167:2023-05-08
861:References
768:glycolysis
756:organelles
475:Glycolysis
402:endergonic
361:combustion
326:autotrophs
295:hydrolyzed
246:glycolysis
234:autotrophs
218:catabolism
162:biological
93:newspapers
1613:0014-5793
1121:1471-0080
1009:1359-6446
530:to yield
518:in which
391:catabolic
375:exergonic
214:anabolism
202:organisms
198:molecules
178:enzymatic
174:metabolic
1726:24840801
1512:13771349
1449:41086034
1441:18192340
1379:41985805
1371:12748858
1276:Archived
1161:Archived
1139:22436748
1017:18342804
814:See also
758:such as
644:disorder
566:and the
479:pyruvate
457:), and ∆
447:enthalpy
407:anabolic
342:proteins
314:sulfites
306:nitrates
269:anabolic
192:Overview
166:cellular
1848:6946475
1816:Bibcode
1717:4076116
1621:2857661
1593:Bibcode
1564:18 July
1559:9242922
1520:1784050
1492:Bibcode
1130:5726489
933:6946475
901:Bibcode
802:is the
752:protons
750:of how
728:Crane's
703:linkage
701:Is the
667:∆G<0
656:During
626:entropy
555:Ketosis
532:citrate
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455:kelvins
433:where ∆
107:scholar
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357:oxygen
340:, and
316:, and
310:sulfur
206:Growth
158:energy
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1459:Crane
1445:S2CID
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1375:S2CID
572:NADPH
114:JSTOR
100:books
1902:OCLC
1892:ISBN
1844:PMID
1789:ISBN
1763:ISBN
1722:PMID
1667:ISBN
1617:PMID
1609:ISSN
1566:2024
1555:PMID
1508:PMID
1437:PMID
1367:PMID
1135:PMID
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1013:PMID
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676:∆G=0
583:NADH
581:and
576:FADH
543:NADH
541:and
536:FADH
491:NADH
338:fats
248:and
226:Life
216:and
176:and
152:and
86:news
1867:see
1834:PMC
1824:doi
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1704:doi
1644:doi
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