30:
2079:
2068:
121:
animals. After mining the land has to be reclaimed, process takes time and cannot necessarily re-establish the original biodiversity. The impact of sub-surface mining on the surroundings will be less than for open pit mines. However, sub-surface mining may also cause subsidence of the surface due to the collapse of mined-out area and abandoned stone drifts.
132:) and combustion ashes needs additional land use. According to the study of the European Academies Science Advisory Council, after processing, the waste material occupies a greater volume than the material extracted, and therefore cannot be wholly disposed underground. According to this, production of a barrel of
191:
and forest. In
Estonia, for each cubic meter of oil shale mined, 25 cubic meters of water must be pumped from the mine area. At the same time, the thermal processing of oil shale needs water for quenching hot products and the control of dust. Water concerns are a particularly sensitive issue in
120:
processing requires extensive land use. Mining, processing, and waste disposal require land to be withdrawn from traditional uses, and therefore should avoid high density population areas. Oil shale mining reduces the original ecosystem diversity with habitats supporting a variety of plants and
350:
methods may require ice-capping or some other form of barrier to restrict the flow of the newly gained oil into the groundwater aquifers. However, after the removal of the freeze wall these methods can still cause groundwater contamination as the hydraulic conductivity of the remaining shale
140:. The mining and processing of about one billion tonnes of oil shale in Estonia has created about 360-370 million tonnes of solid waste, of which 90 million tonnes is a mining waste, 70–80 million tonnes is a semi-coke, and 200 million tonnes are combustion ashes.
203:
Water is the main transmitter of oil shale industry pollutants. One environmental issue is to prevent noxious materials leaching from spent shale into the water supply. The oil shale processing is accompanied by the formation of process waters and waste waters containing
288:
in the extraction process, the generation of the energy needed to heat the shale and in the other oil and gas processing operations, and fuel used in the mining of the rock and the disposal of waste. As the varying mineral composition and
1602:
1311:
220:
stated that surface mining and retort operations produce 2 to 10 U.S. gallons (7.6 to 37.9 L; 1.7 to 8.3 imp gal) of waste water per 1 short ton (0.91 t) of processed oil shale.
1170:
921:
Proposed Oil Shale and Tar Sands
Resource Management Plan Amendments to Address Land Use Allocations in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming and Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement
196:, where there are plans to expand the oil shale industry. Depending on technology, above-ground retorting uses between one and five barrels of water per barrel of produced shale oil.
1304:
484:"A study on the EU oil shale industry viewed in the light of the Estonian experience. A report by EASAC to the Committee on Industry, Research and Energy of the European Parliament"
1500:
1478:
1441:
680:
1297:
877:
Oil Shale
Development in the United States. Prospects and Policy Issues. Prepared for the National Energy Technology Laboratory of the United States Department of Energy
252:
depends primarily on the combustion technology and burning regime, while the emissions of solid particles are determined by the efficiency of fly ash-capturing devices.
1515:
1483:
985:
2128:
1468:
1416:
136:
can generate up to 1.5 tonnes of semi-coke, which may occupy up to 25% greater volume than the original shale. This is not confirmed by the results of
1490:
1463:
1436:
1411:
396:
1822:
1562:
1174:
2092:
2087:
1807:
1431:
1223:
2123:
2082:
1426:
919:
1812:
171:
or "heaps"), not underground where it could potentially reach clean ground water. As semi-coke consists of, in addition to minerals, up to 10%
958:
313:, an energy source which is also politically contentious due to its high emission levels. For both power generation and oil extraction, the CO
1827:
1505:
1025:
892:
1922:
1770:
845:
266:
Carbon dioxide emissions from the production of shale oil and shale gas are higher than conventional oil production and a report for the
1775:
1421:
1406:
267:
1196:
270:
warns that increasing public concern about the adverse consequences of global warming may lead to opposition to oil shale development.
248:). It includes particles of different types (carbonaceous, inorganic ones) and different sizes. The concentration of air pollutants in
1872:
1686:
1676:
1597:
1520:
2097:
1706:
1691:
1525:
1473:
671:
1753:
1567:
1458:
1448:
442:
293:
of oil shale deposits varies widely, the actual values vary considerably. At best, the direct combustion of oil shales produces
1887:
1636:
1614:
1572:
1542:
1495:
1378:
1361:
1344:
1320:
152:
667:"Oil Shale Processing as a Source of Aquatic Pollution: Monitoring of the Biologic Effects in Caged and Feral Freshwater Fish"
2071:
1592:
1587:
213:
175:
that may pose hazard to the environment owing to leaching of toxic compounds as well as to the possibility of self-ignition.
997:
1758:
1696:
1354:
1725:
1609:
1366:
799:
258:
There are possible links from being in an oil shale area to a higher risk of asthma and lung cancer than other areas.
103:
technologies may reduce some of these concerns in future, but may raise others, such as the pollution of groundwater.
338:
process is the most attractive proposition due to the reduction in standard surface environmental problems. However,
255:
Open deposition of semi-coke causes distribution of pollutants in addition to aqueous vectors also via air (dust).
100:
163:. To avoid contamination of the groundwater, the solid waste from the thermal treatment process is disposed in an
1995:
1947:
1842:
1735:
1619:
1286:
Concerning potential leases of
Federal oil sands lands in Utah and oil shale lands in Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado
928:
217:
2000:
1955:
1857:
1582:
1398:
1109:
294:
409:
2047:
1985:
1388:
993:
730:"Global oil shale issues and perspectives. Synthesis of the Symposium on Oil Shale. 18–19 November, Tallinn"
229:
183:
Mining influences the water runoff pattern of the area affected. In some cases it requires the lowering of
17:
1990:
1817:
1283:
1234:
1373:
1253:
818:
502:
932:
665:
Tuvikene, Arvo; Sirpa
Huuskonen; Kari Koponen; Ossi Ritola; Ülle Mauer; Pirjo Lindström-Seppä (1999).
581:"Environmental hazard of the waste streams of Estonian oil shale industry: an ecotoxicological review"
1975:
1743:
1383:
1349:
1339:
137:
88:
962:
2037:
2030:
1970:
1907:
1867:
1862:
1537:
1230:
1140:
1074:
737:
631:
588:
538:
483:
370:
1040:
187:
levels below the level of the oil shale strata, which may have harmful effects on the surrounding
2118:
2052:
2010:
2005:
1965:
1917:
1681:
1453:
692:
365:
285:
91:
generate waste material, which must be disposed of, and harmful atmospheric emissions, including
76:
64:
849:
212:
and several other products, heavily separable and toxic to the environment. A 2008 programmatic
1927:
1802:
1748:
1547:
1532:
1145:
1083:
888:
746:
710:
640:
597:
547:
436:"Unconventional Oil and Gas Production. Opportunities and Challenges of Oil Shale Development"
360:
241:
351:
increases allowing groundwater to flow through and leach salts from the newly toxic aquifer.
1902:
1882:
1877:
1852:
1651:
1624:
1200:
700:
684:
172:
52:
1066:
2015:
1932:
1912:
1892:
1792:
1641:
1266:
875:
831:
772:
623:
515:
125:
80:
56:
874:
Bartis, James T.; LaTourrette, Tom; Dixon, Lloyd; Peterson, D.J.; Cecchine, Gary (2005).
530:
482:
Francu, Juraj; Harvie, Barbra; Laenen, Ben; Siirde, Andres; Veiderma, Mihkel (May 2007).
729:
2042:
1937:
1837:
1765:
705:
666:
274:
237:
233:
96:
92:
72:
29:
580:
2112:
2025:
1980:
1960:
1782:
1557:
290:
60:
1718:
1713:
1701:
1661:
1646:
1334:
777:
148:
1289:
232:. These factory plants provide the atmospheric emissions of gaseous products like
1832:
1787:
1656:
1629:
1135:
302:
188:
184:
34:
1284:
Oil Shale and Tar Sands Draft
Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
1897:
318:
160:
84:
1149:
1110:"Op-ed: Don't let Estonian shale firm do to Utah what it has done to Estonia"
1087:
750:
644:
601:
551:
2020:
1666:
164:
133:
129:
68:
1067:"Deposition flux and atmospheric behavior of oil shale combustion aerosols"
714:
435:
200:
processing, according to one estimate, uses about one-tenth as much water.
1552:
249:
192:
arid regions, such as the western part of the United States and Israel's
168:
156:
48:
846:"Critics charge energy, water needs of oil shale could harm environment"
1847:
1797:
1577:
696:
408:: Association for the Study of Peak Oil & Gas – USA. Archived from
343:
334:
298:
281:
245:
205:
144:
38:
1671:
405:
1039:(2). Lithuanian Academy of Sciences Publishers: 8–18. Archived from
688:
310:
193:
342:
processes do involve possible significant environmental costs to
884:
1293:
1026:"Estonian oil shale properties and utilization in power plants"
143:
The waste material may consist of several pollutants including
1065:
Teinemaa, E.; Kirso, U.; Strommen, M.R.; Kamens, R.M. (2003).
209:
1171:"The Greens Won't Line Up For Dirty Brown Coal in the Valley"
1173:. Australian Greens Victoria. 18 August 2006. Archived from
931:. September 2008. pp. 4–3. FES 08-32. Archived from
1199:. Environment News Service. 28 May 2004. Archived from
1197:"Greenpeace Germany Protests Brown Coal Power Stations"
624:"Estonian Oil Shale Retorting Industry at a Crossroads"
33:
1224:"Oil Shale and the Environmental Cost of Production"
489:. European Academies Science Advisory Council: 23–30
273:
Emissions arise from several sources. These include
1946:
1734:
1397:
1327:
1082:(3 Special). Estonian Academy Publishers: 429–440.
848:. U.S. Water News Online. July 2007. Archived from
681:
National
Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
317:emissions can be reduced by better utilization of
918:"Chapter 4. Effects of Oil Shale Technologies".
99:. Experimental in-situ conversion processes and
297:similar to those from the lowest form of coal,
961:. Shale Oil Information Center. Archived from
390:
388:
386:
45:Environmental impact of the oil shale industry
1305:
47:includes the consideration of issues such as
8:
546:(4). Estonian Academy Publishers: 511–514.
18:Environmental effects of oil shale industry
1312:
1298:
1290:
1019:
1017:
1015:
913:
911:
79:causes the usual environmental impacts of
1823:Environmental issues in the United States
1141:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
1075:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
745:(1). Estonian Academy Publishers: 81–92.
738:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
704:
639:(2). Estonian Academy Publishers: 97–98.
632:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
596:(1). Estonian Academy Publishers: 53–93.
589:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
539:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
1808:Effects of climate change on agriculture
531:"Design of a new oil shale surface mine"
28:
869:
867:
574:
572:
570:
568:
382:
244:, and the airborne particulate matter (
218:United States Bureau of Land Management
1813:Effects of climate change on livestock
1262:
1251:
1144:(Extra). Estonian Academy Publishers.
827:
816:
800:"Fact Sheet:Oil Shale Water Resources"
773:"Oil-shale 'rush' is sparking concern"
511:
500:
153:polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
280:released by the decomposition of the
7:
2129:Environmental impact of fossil fuels
2067:
1923:Tropical cyclones and climate change
805:. United States Department of Energy
477:
475:
473:
471:
469:
467:
465:
463:
461:
459:
398:Unconventional Liquid Fuels Overview
228:Main air pollution is caused by the
1956:Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion
771:Speckman, Stephen (22 March 2008).
1278:External links and further reading
25:
1603:pharmaceuticals and personal care
1222:Grunewald, Elliot (6 June 2006).
986:"Hopes for shale oil are revived"
984:Fischer, Perry A. (August 2005).
672:Environmental Health Perspectives
2078:
2077:
2066:
1754:decline in amphibian populations
1459:Deforestation and climate change
579:Kahru, A.; Põllumaa, L. (2006).
443:Government Accountability Office
1888:Land surface effects on climate
1345:Environmental impact assessment
1321:Human impact on the environment
395:Bartis, Jim (26 October 2006).
2124:Environmental impact of mining
1024:Ots, Arvo (12 February 2007).
434:Mittal, Anu K. (10 May 2012).
214:environmental impact statement
1:
1759:decline in insect populations
112:Land use and waste management
957:Luken, Larry (9 July 2005).
230:oil shale-fired power plants
138:Estonia's oil shale industry
107:Surface mining and retorting
124:Disposal of mining wastes,
2145:
321:from the product streams.
101:carbon capture and storage
2061:
1996:Environmental engineering
1843:Environmental degradation
1620:fishing down the food web
929:Bureau of Land Management
65:extraction and processing
2001:Environmental mitigation
1858:Greenhouse gas emissions
1818:Environmental insecurity
404:. World Oil Conference.
262:Greenhouse gas emissions
224:Air pollution management
2048:Sustainable consumption
1389:Social ecology (ethics)
994:Gulf Publishing Company
1991:Ecological engineering
1771:runaway climate change
1261:Cite journal requires
826:Cite journal requires
622:Mölder, Leevi (2004).
510:Cite journal requires
41:
1374:List of global issues
1134:Koel, Mihkel (1999).
1114:The Salt Lake Tribune
32:
1976:Community resilience
1776:in the United States
1744:Biodiversity threats
1417:cannabis cultivation
1384:Planetary boundaries
1350:Environmental issues
1340:Ecological footprint
1203:on 30 September 2007
1136:"Estonian oil shale"
885:The RAND Corporation
728:Brendow, K. (2003).
155:, some of which are
2038:Restoration ecology
1971:Climate engineering
1908:Ocean acidification
1898:Loss of green belts
1868:Holocene extinction
1863:Habitat destruction
1538:Environmental crime
1231:Stanford University
529:Kattel, T. (2003).
371:Oil shale economics
346:, especially since
116:Surface mining and
83:. In addition, the
2053:Waste minimization
2011:Mitigation banking
2006:Industrial ecology
1966:Cleaner production
1918:Resource depletion
1454:Corporate behavior
1412:animal agriculture
1000:on 9 November 2006
990:World Oil Magazine
965:on 28 October 2008
366:Oil shale industry
286:carbonate minerals
89:thermal processing
77:oil shale deposits
42:
2106:
2105:
1928:Water degradation
1803:Ecological crisis
1749:biodiversity loss
1548:Industrialisation
1533:Genetic pollution
1379:Impact assessment
959:"Oil Shale Myths"
894:978-0-8330-3848-7
361:Oil shale geology
242:hydrogen chloride
16:(Redirected from
2136:
2081:
2080:
2070:
2069:
1903:Phosphorus cycle
1883:Land consumption
1878:Land degradation
1853:Freshwater cycle
1652:Overexploitation
1625:marine pollution
1432:cocoa production
1314:
1307:
1300:
1291:
1271:
1270:
1264:
1259:
1257:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1239:
1233:. Archived from
1228:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1167:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1156:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1122:
1120:
1108:Lotman, Silvia.
1105:
1099:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1071:
1062:
1056:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1045:
1030:
1021:
1010:
1009:
1007:
1005:
996:. Archived from
981:
975:
974:
972:
970:
954:
948:
947:
945:
943:
937:
926:
915:
906:
905:
903:
901:
882:
871:
862:
861:
859:
857:
842:
836:
835:
829:
824:
822:
814:
812:
810:
804:
796:
790:
789:
787:
785:
768:
762:
761:
759:
757:
734:
725:
719:
718:
708:
662:
656:
655:
653:
651:
628:
619:
613:
612:
610:
608:
585:
576:
563:
562:
560:
558:
535:
526:
520:
519:
513:
508:
506:
498:
496:
494:
488:
479:
454:
453:
451:
449:
440:
431:
425:
424:
422:
420:
414:
403:
392:
295:carbon emissions
179:Water management
53:waste management
21:
2144:
2143:
2139:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2134:
2133:
2109:
2108:
2107:
2102:
2057:
2016:Organic farming
1942:
1933:Water pollution
1913:Ozone depletion
1893:Loss and damage
1793:Desertification
1730:
1642:Overconsumption
1563:cleaning agents
1464:Energy industry
1427:meat production
1393:
1323:
1318:
1280:
1275:
1274:
1260:
1250:
1243:
1241:
1240:on 13 June 2007
1237:
1226:
1221:
1220:
1216:
1206:
1204:
1195:
1194:
1190:
1180:
1178:
1177:on 24 June 2007
1169:
1168:
1164:
1154:
1152:
1133:
1132:
1128:
1118:
1116:
1107:
1106:
1102:
1092:
1090:
1069:
1064:
1063:
1059:
1049:
1047:
1043:
1028:
1023:
1022:
1013:
1003:
1001:
983:
982:
978:
968:
966:
956:
955:
951:
941:
939:
935:
924:
917:
916:
909:
899:
897:
895:
880:
873:
872:
865:
855:
853:
852:on 18 June 2008
844:
843:
839:
825:
815:
808:
806:
802:
798:
797:
793:
783:
781:
770:
769:
765:
755:
753:
732:
727:
726:
722:
689:10.2307/3434660
664:
663:
659:
649:
647:
626:
621:
620:
616:
606:
604:
583:
578:
577:
566:
556:
554:
533:
528:
527:
523:
509:
499:
492:
490:
486:
481:
480:
457:
447:
445:
438:
433:
432:
428:
418:
416:
415:on 21 July 2011
412:
401:
394:
393:
384:
379:
357:
332:Currently, the
330:
316:
308:
301:, at 2.15
291:calorific value
278:
264:
234:nitrogen oxides
226:
181:
126:spent oil shale
114:
109:
81:open-pit mining
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2142:
2140:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2111:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2074:
2062:
2059:
2058:
2056:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2043:Sustainability
2040:
2035:
2034:
2033:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1952:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1938:Water scarcity
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1873:Nitrogen cycle
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1838:Forest dieback
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1779:
1778:
1773:
1766:Climate change
1763:
1762:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1740:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1723:
1722:
1721:
1711:
1710:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1633:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1607:
1606:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1583:nanotechnology
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1529:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1488:
1487:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1445:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1403:
1401:
1395:
1394:
1392:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1370:
1369:
1367:on marine life
1359:
1358:
1357:
1355:list of issues
1347:
1342:
1337:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1324:
1319:
1317:
1316:
1309:
1302:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1263:|journal=
1214:
1188:
1162:
1126:
1100:
1057:
1046:on 5 June 2013
1011:
976:
949:
938:on 27 May 2010
907:
893:
863:
837:
828:|journal=
791:
763:
720:
657:
614:
564:
521:
512:|journal=
455:
426:
381:
380:
378:
375:
374:
373:
368:
363:
356:
353:
329:
323:
314:
306:
276:
268:European Union
263:
260:
238:sulfur dioxide
225:
222:
216:issued by the
180:
177:
113:
110:
108:
105:
97:greenhouse gas
93:carbon dioxide
73:Surface mining
63:caused by the
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2141:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2114:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2075:
2073:
2064:
2063:
2060:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
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2026:Reforestation
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61:air pollution
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19:
1719:urban sprawl
1714:Urbanization
1662:Particulates
1647:Overdrafting
1510:
1362:Human impact
1335:Anthropocene
1254:cite journal
1242:. Retrieved
1235:the original
1217:
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819:cite journal
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782:. Retrieved
778:Deseret News
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194:Negev Desert
182:
161:carcinogenic
149:heavy metals
142:
123:
117:
115:
44:
43:
26:
1833:Externality
1828:Coral reefs
1788:Defaunation
1657:Overgrazing
1630:overfishing
1610:Marine life
1484:electricity
1407:Agriculture
1093:2 September
683:: 745–752.
607:2 September
448:22 December
189:arable land
185:groundwater
128:(including
35:Ida-Virumaa
2113:Categories
2098:mitigation
2093:assessment
2088:by country
1986:Decoupling
1948:Mitigation
1677:Reservoirs
1598:pesticides
1543:Explosives
1521:reservoirs
1422:irrigation
1033:Energetika
377:References
328:processing
319:waste heat
95:, a major
85:combustion
2119:Oil shale
2021:Recycling
1687:Transport
1672:Quarrying
1667:Pollution
1526:transport
1516:petroleum
1511:oil shale
1474:biodiesel
1150:0208-189X
1088:0208-189X
784:24 August
751:0208-189X
645:0208-189X
602:0208-189X
552:0208-189X
165:open dump
134:shale oil
130:semi-coke
69:oil shale
2083:Category
1707:shipping
1692:aviation
1578:plastics
1568:concrete
1553:Land use
1469:biofuels
1437:palm oil
942:7 August
715:10464075
355:See also
344:aquifers
250:flue gas
173:organics
169:landfill
145:sulfates
49:land use
2072:Commons
1848:Erosion
1798:Ecocide
1736:Effects
1682:Tourism
1615:fishing
1573:fashion
1496:fashion
1449:Bitcoin
1328:General
1207:28 June
1181:28 June
1155:21 July
1119:14 June
1004:1 April
969:1 April
900:29 June
856:1 April
756:21 July
706:1566439
697:3434660
650:23 June
557:23 June
419:28 June
348:in-situ
340:in-situ
335:in-situ
326:In-situ
299:lignite
282:kerogen
246:fly ash
206:phenols
198:In situ
118:in-situ
39:Estonia
2076:
2065:
1637:Mining
1491:energy
1399:Causes
1244:2 June
1148:
1086:
891:
749:
713:
703:
695:
643:
600:
550:
406:Boston
151:, and
55:, and
2031:urban
1702:roads
1593:paper
1588:paint
1238:(PDF)
1227:(PDF)
1070:(PDF)
1050:6 May
1044:(PDF)
1029:(PDF)
936:(PDF)
925:(PDF)
881:(PDF)
803:(PDF)
733:(PDF)
693:JSTOR
679:(9).
627:(PDF)
584:(PDF)
534:(PDF)
493:6 May
487:(PDF)
439:(PDF)
413:(PDF)
402:(PDF)
303:moles
157:toxic
57:water
1697:rail
1479:coal
1442:(US)
1267:help
1246:2007
1209:2007
1183:2007
1157:2007
1146:ISSN
1121:2016
1095:2007
1084:ISSN
1052:2011
1006:2008
971:2008
944:2010
902:2007
889:ISBN
858:2008
832:help
811:2007
786:2008
758:2007
747:ISSN
711:PMID
652:2007
641:ISSN
609:2007
598:ISSN
559:2007
548:ISSN
516:help
495:2011
450:2012
421:2007
284:and
240:and
159:and
87:and
59:and
1726:War
701:PMC
685:doi
677:107
210:tar
75:of
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