207:, too, may be unanswered by democratic decision-making processes. Not only are those minority groups without meaningful representation in either single-member districts or majority-rule electorates disadvantaged in the realm of political interests, but these same groups are often those most impacted by the effects of climate change and other environmental problems. In addition, recent literature around non-human representation has investigated the ways in which the interests of affected conscious agents, which are definitionally uninvolved in the political decisions of human society, are consistently underrepresented; solutions accounting for this disparity often appeal to reforms that would reduce democratic choice from a traditional perspective, including by giving biological experts greater say in policymaking, though even their ability to determine the interests of non-humans is uncertain. On a global scale, those most impacted by the effects of climate change may have little say in determining policies that would curb emissions or otherwise work to adapt to climate outcomes. Not only do individuals only have the ability to determine climate policy in their own state, but those states that emit the least atmospheric carbon are often most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, while those that emit the most are often least vulnerable, a discrepancy unaccounted for by democratic processes.
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incentives for policymakers to legislate toward these ends in a system deriving legitimacy from the consent of the governed is substantive; for instance, given political responsiveness as a result of electoral accountability, policymakers in democratic governments have reason to consider a wide view of the public interest that incorporates the varied positions of their constituents and work to efficiently create change. On such a view, democracies will likely consider the consequential impacts to most, if not all constituents, caused by climate change. Factors like regime stability and ruler or governing official interests, too, seem better aligned for progress in a democracy; civil unrest is less likely in a state perceived as legitimate, as is graft, both of which appear likely to inhibit climate action.
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considerable opposition to pro-environmental policies across broad coalitions and around the globe. Populist movements in
Western democracies over the last several years, in particular, have taken positions that actively oppose such policies, and analyses of deliberative modes of participatory democracy have shown results that mirror the interests of those participating and do not necessarily tend towards a more favorable view of environmental or climate action. As redress to these potential shortcomings, means of reforming democratic processes, both theoretical and pragmatic, to correct for what may be short-sighted political interests have been suggested, though these reforms may reduce democratic choice or participation.
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climate or environmental progress, which are often unaligned with these groups' financial interests. In developing democracies, environmental reforms are often seen as lesser priorities, given the need for addressing more proximate public concerns, including poverty, infrastructure, and general economic development. Financial incentive can also play a role in preventing the passage of environmental policy outside of the legal realm; some evidence suggests that corruption, present in some form in a number of democratic institutions globally, erodes regulatory ability and public trust in state institutions, reducing the ability of democracies to effectively mitigate carbon emissions and other sources of pollution.
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emissions on an international scale limits their development. From a
Southern perspective, it is the developed world that should take the bulk of the responsibility for climate change due to their industrialization being responsible for the current dangers to the climate. The northern perspective on this issue states that developed nations cannot be held responsible when the consequences of their actions were unknown until recently and were committed by long-dead generations. The result is a difficult political debate on how environmental problems should be dealt with and who bares responsibility for it.
340:"No justice ... seems possible or thinkable without the principle of some responsibility, beyond all living present, within that which disjoins the living present, before the ghosts of those who are not yet born or who are already dead . Without this non-contemporaneity with itself of the living present ... without this responsibility and this respect for justice concerning those who are not there, of those who are no longer or who are not yet present and living, what sense would there be to ask the question 'where?' 'where tomorrow?' 'whither?'"
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as impacting their lives, or when they lack the education to evaluate the importance of the problem. The human benefits from environmental exploitation and protection compete. Addressing the needs of the environment requires foregoing the materialistic benefits of its continued exploitation, making it difficult to pursue environmental protection under the confines of liberal principles. Considering the implications of ecological degradation for future human generations can give environmental concerns a basis in
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environment. It is a post-humanist consideration of all matter that rejects arguments of utility that privilege humans. This politically relevant social theory combats inequality beyond the interpersonal plane. People are ethically responsible for one another, and for the physical spaces they navigate, including animal and plant life, and the inanimate matter that sustains it, like soil. New materialism encourages political action according to this world vision, even if it is incompatible with economic growth.
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among other environmental issues. Leaders may, in practice, not be motivated by a theoretical public good, but instead expend resources on resolving those policy challenges which are most visible to their electorate. Given the largely intangible nature of climate change as a problem – one that is gradual, invisible, and global – the political opportunity cost of focusing on this challenge or other less visible environmental issues may be high for electorally accountable democratic leaders.
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with environmental crisis relative to other forms of government. Democracies do not have the provisions to make environmental reforms that are not mandated by voters, and many voters lack incentives or desire to demand policies that could compromise immediate prosperity. The question arises as to whether the foundation of politics is morality or practicality. A scheme that conceives of and values the environment beyond its human utility, an
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government in
Beijing are weak, so solutions are decentralized. Wealthier provinces are far more effective in their preservation and sustainable development efforts than poorer regions. China therefore provides an example of the consequences of environmental damage falling disproportionately on the poor. NGOs, the media, and the international community have all contributed to China's response to environmental problems.
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and air quality in liberal societies. Research on the effects of political institutions on air quality presents results that the relationship between the degree of democracy and air quality, as measured by SO2 concentrations, is positive and quite robust. In practice, environmentalism can improve democracy rather than necessitate its end, by expanding democratic participation and promoting political innovations.
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make changes in our way of living to save future generations. The UNFCCC led to the creation of
Conference Of the Parties in 1995. A key task for the COP is to review the national communications and emission inventories submitted by parties. Based on this information, the COP assesses the effects of the measures taken by parties and the progress made in achieving the ultimate objective of the convention.
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141:', which saw a dramatic increase in industrialization, agriculture, and consumption of resources leading to a new geological era of environmental deficit. The development of environmentalism in the United Kingdom emerged in this period following the great London smog of 1952 and the Torrey Canyon oil spill of 1967. This is reflected by the emergence of
476:(MMA). The departments of this ministry deal with climate change, the quality of the environment, biodiversity and forests, sustainable urban and rural development, forests and biodiversity, and environmental citizenship. Other organisations are also responsible for the implementation of environmental policies, such as
234:. Rather, political solutions can navigate the particularities of various facets of environmental crisis. Climate change mitigation strategies can be at odds with democratic priorities of prosperity, progress, and state sovereignty, and instead underscore a collective relationship with the environment.
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have also accompanied the economic growth in these nations. Environmental degradation tends to motivate action more than the threat of global warming does, since air and water pollution cause immediate health problems, and because pollutants can damage natural resources, hampering economic potential.
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In political theory, the lottery system is a democratic design that allows governments to address problems with future, rather than immediate, impacts. Deliberative bodies composed of randomly selected representatives can draft environmental policies that have short-term costs without considering the
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is guided by individual human priorities. Groups unable to voice their self-interest, such as minorities without suffrage, or non-humans, are not included in the political compromise. Addressing environmental crises can be impeded when citizens of liberal democracies do not see environmental problems
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presents a challenge to achieving international environmental governance. As the Global North has achieved development from a history of exploiting the South and producing high levels of emissions over time, developing countries are only recently beginning to industrialize. Thus, any attempt to limit
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In the United States, although "environmentalism" was once considered a White phenomenon, scholars have identified "pro-environment positions among Latino, African-American, and non-Hispanic white respondents," with growing environmental concern especially among
Latinos. Other scholars have similarly
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In contrast, empirical evidence does show inconsistencies in the ways in which democracies address environmental problems. Though the reason for this variation is largely unclear, a number of features of democratic state organization appear to contribute to observed failures to act on climate change,
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Another actor is the state, which has a very powerful and important role in the issue solving actions at national level. All states are responsible (even though some are more responsible than others) and all are committed to the new policy paradigm of sustainable development: ‘development that meets
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and Dennis
Thompson claimed that reason prevails over self-interest in deliberative democracy, making it a more just system. The broad perspective that this discursive model encourages could lead to a stronger engagement with environmental concerns. When compared to non-democracies, democracies are
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The tensions between liberal democracy and environmental goals raise questions about the possible limitations of democracy (or at least democracy as we know it): in its responsiveness to subtle but large-scale problems, its ability to work from a holistic societal perspective, its aptness in coping
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posits that liberal democracies are unfit to address environmental problems, and that the prioritization of these challenges would involve a transition to more authoritarian forms of government. Others counter this by pointing to the past successes of environmental reform movements to improve water
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Big organisations like the United
Nations are also a centre-actor in protecting the environment with various different programs with the United Nations Environment Program which encourage caring for the environment and making people understand why the environment is so important and why we need to
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are mixed, as evidenced by the variation in the environmental progress of different democratic governments. From a theoretical perspective, democratic procedures can effect meaningful reform if public support for these reforms exists, especially when compared with autocratic regimes, as the set of
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politics is distinct in at least two ways: first, "it has a primary concern with the relationship between human society and the natural world" (page 3); and second, "unlike most other single issues, it comes replete with its own ideology and political movement" (page 5, drawing on
Michael Jacobs,
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Since environmental politics has appeared, new forms of engagement involving new actors have also been created. Environmental pressure groups were the first bodies to speak up about the human impact on nature. WWF was first created in 1961 in Morges, Switzerland followed by
Greenpeace in 1971 in
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has been discussed as a political model more compatible with environmental goals. Deliberative democracy is a system in which informed political equals weigh values, information, and expertise, and debate priorities to make decisions, as opposed to a democracy based on interest aggregation. This
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Economic interests and outside influences may also limit the ability of democratic actors to drive meaningful environmental change. In developed democracies, businesses and other groups with economic motivations often hold considerable lobbying power and, therefore, have the ability to forestall
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in
Stockholm marked the entry of environmental politics into the international agenda, giving rise to new environmental political thought and its incorporation into policymaking. Since then, environmentalism has taken shape as its own political ideology and has had numerous variations, from more
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to achieve shared targets related to energy consumption and environmental usage. Climate change complicates political ideology and practice, affecting conceptions of responsibility for future societies as well as economic systems. Material inequality between nations make technological solutions
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Environmental concerns were rooted in the vast social changes that took place in the United States after World War II. Although environmentalism can be identified in earlier years, only after the war did it become a widely shared social priority. This began with outdoor recreation in the 1950s,
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article). Citizens demand better air and water quality, and technology becomes more efficient and clean when incomes increase. The level of income per capita needed to reverse the trend of environmental degradation in industrializing nations varies with the environmental impact indicator. More
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The formation of green parties in many countries in Europe are new actors that are making a big difference in the understanding of the human impact on the environment and in the making of policies. Also, the creation of environmental ministries and agencies make possible the addressing of the
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China's environmental ills include acid rain, severe smog, and a reliance on coal-burning for energy. China has instated environmental policies since the 1970s, and has one of the most extensive environmental conservation programs on paper. However, regulation and enforcement by the central
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New materialism is a strain of thought in philosophy and the social sciences that conceives of all material as having life or agency. It criticizes frameworks of justice that center on human attributes like consciousness as insufficient for modern ethical problems that concern the natural
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In addition, the problem of popular disinterest in advancing environmental policy presents challenges for the prospects of democratic institutions' ability to drive environmental progress. Despite growing public understanding of the threat posed by climate change, the last decade has seen
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Lobbies and scientists have an important role in environmental politics to indeed warn the population and come up with solutions to challenges that the environment is causing. They also come up with scientific data, research and ideas to create policies in order to help the environment.
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was established in 1985, but corruption within bureaucratic agencies, namely the influence of wealthy industry leaders, limited any attempts at enforcement of the policies put in place. Under the leadership of Prime Minister
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the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ which tries to reconcile the conflicting objectives of development and economic growth with environmental protection.
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Overall, 20% of the Amazon rainforest—the world's largest—has been "transformed" (deforested) and another 6% has been "highly degraded", causing Amazon Watch to warn that the Amazonia is in the midst of a tipping point
294:. Grass-roots democracy is an approach in which ordinary citizens are in charge of politics, in opposition to ‘larger organizations and wealthy individuals with concentrated vested interests in particular policies’.
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assumed office in 2023 deforestation rates halved compared to 2022. Lula has also promised to restore the Amazon rainforest and chase down climate criminals during his speech at climate summit COP27 in 2022.
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However, in India, as in China, the implementation of written environmental policies, laws, and amendments has proven challenging. Official legislation by the central government (see a partial list at
436:"It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures." (Art. 51A)
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The international political community is presently based on liberal principles that prioritize individual freedoms and capitalist systems that make quick and ambitious climate responses difficult.
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definition of democracy emphasizes informed discussion among citizens in the decision making process, and encourages decisions to benefit the common good rather than individual interests.
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Steffen, W., Broadgate, W., Deutsch, L., Gaffney, O., & Ludwig, C. (2015). The trajectory of the Anthropocene: The Great Acceleration. The Anthropocene Review, 2(1), 81–98.
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Okereke, Chukwumerije. Global Justice and Neoliberal Environmental Governance: Ethics, Sustainable Development and International Co-Operation. Routledge, 2010., pp. 168-186
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With rising incomes, environmental degradation tends to decrease in industrializing nations, as depicted in the Environmental Kuznets Curve (described in a section of the
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Graphic 2: Current State of the Amazon by country, by percentage / Source: RAISG (Red Amazónica de Información Socioambiental Georreferenciada) Elaborated by authors.
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Bättig, Michèle B.; Bernauer, Thomas (15 April 2009). "National Institutions and Global Public Goods: Are Democracies More Cooperative in Climate Change Policy?".
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Niles, John O., et al. “A Southern Perspective on Curbing Global Climate Change.” Climate Change Policy: A Survey, Island Press, Washington, DC, 2002, pp. 375–392.
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Hays, Samuel P., and Barbara D. Hays. Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1987. Print.
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465:, and along with it brings many environmental problems such as deforestation, air, land degradation and water pollution. (for more Environmental issues, see
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The Kuznets curve is a hypothetical curve representing the trajectory of environmental degradation in developing nations as a function of per capita income.
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and still later with toxic chemical pollutants. After World War II, environmental politics became a major public concern. The Post-war era resulted in the '
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367:" nations) are rapidly industrializing, and are increasingly responsible for global carbon emissions and the associated climate change. Other forms of
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306:, all parties follow inevitably a similar path towards concentration of power and oligarchy. Green parties thus follow different principles nowadays.
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Local actors are also very important as they get together and protest or warn the population about the environment, like Greta Thunberg.
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Heywood, Andrew, and Andrew Heywood. “Global Environmental Issues.” Global Politics, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2011, pp. 383–411.
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developed nations can facilitate eco-friendly transitions in emerging economies by investing in the development of clean technologies.
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Vancouver, Canada. ‘These are organised efforts by citizens to put pressure on governments – or others - to accomplish various ends’
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329:. She develops the concept of materialism with the aim of providing a stronger basis in political theory for environmental politics.
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348:. As all matter is interdependent, humans have obligations to all parts of the material world, including those that are unfamiliar.
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extended into the wider field of the protection of natural environments, and then became infused with attempts to cope with air and
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Zur Soziologie des Parteiwesens in der modernen Demokratie; Untersuchungen über die oligarchischen Tendenzen des Gruppenlebens
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in fact more cooperative in climate change policy creation, but not necessarily on the outcome and effects of these policies.
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was a political and activist mass movement which demanded a radical transformation in the values and structures of society."
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Racial/Ethnic Group Attitudes Toward Environmental Protection in California: Is "Environmentalism" Still a White Phenomenon?
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The British environmental movement: The development of an environmental consciousness and environmental activism, 1945-1975
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431:"The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife." (Art. 48A)
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Heywood, Andrew. “Global Environmental Issues.” Global Politics, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2011, pp. 383–411.
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New materialism is related to a shift from the view of the environment as a form of capital to a form of labor (see
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and other historical thinkers to trace the emergence of their philosophy and to justify their environmental claims:
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were once dedicated to offer a project valuing the ideology of grass-roots democracy. However, according to
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Holiday, Sara Nelson (2015). "Beyond The Limits to Growth: Ecology and the Neoliberal Counterrevolution".
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Carter, Neil. The Politics of the Environment: Ideas, Activism, Policy. Cambridge University Press, 2018.
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The roles of democracy and democratic institutions in advancing environmental policy and, in particular,
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Dobson, Andrew (2016-03-07). Gabrielson, Teena; Hall, Cheryl; Meyer, John M.; Schlosberg, David (eds.).
929:"Between environmental and ecological democracy: theory and practice at the democracy-environment nexus"
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noted that Asian Americans are strongly pro-environmental, with some variation among ethnic subgroups.
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was amended to reflect environmental priorities, motivated in part by the potential threat of natural
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Bernauer, Thomas; Koubi, Vally (15 March 2009). "Effects of political institutions on air quality".
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Further, he distinguishes between modern and earlier forms of environmental politics, in particular
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Taking the State to Court: Public Interest Litigation and the Public Sphere in Metropolitan India
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Shrivastava, Kumar Sambhav. “Too Little in Environment Ministry's Kitty.” Down To Earth, 2014,
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766:"Amazon Against the Clock: A Regional Assessment on Where and How to Protect 80% by 2025"
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Specters of Marx: The State of the Debt, the Work of Mourning and the New International
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https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/too-little-in-environment-ministrys-kitty-45226
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1077:"Global mismatch between greenhouse gas emissions and the burden of climate change"
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1959:"Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future"
1720:"Will Emerging Economies Repeat the Environmental Mistakes of their Rich Cousins?"
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599: – Study of political, economic and social factors about environmental issues
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1770:"China's Environmental Challenge: Political, Social and Economic Implications"
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All material, living and dead, is interrelated in "the mesh" as described by
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1499:"Grassroots-democracy Meaning | Best 1 Definitions of Grassroots-democracy"
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Laws implemented in response to environmental concerns vary by nation (see
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This article is about the discipline. For the practice by governments, see
121:. Contemporary environmental politics "was driven by the idea of a global
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1634:
34:
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MacBean, Alasdair (2007). "China's Environment: Problems and Policies".
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Pickering, Jonathan; Bäckstrand, Karin; Schlosberg, David (2020-01-02).
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1976:"COP28 Agreement Signals "Beginning of the End" of the Fossil Fuel Era"
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986:"Environmental governance: participatory, multi-level - and effective?"
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871:"Democracy, democratization and climate change: complex relationships"
1908:"COP27: Brazil is back on the world stage, Lula tells climate summit"
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Althor, Glenn; Watson, James E. M.; Fuller, Richard A. (April 2016).
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Climate change is slow relative to political cycles of leadership in
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750:. World Resources Institute / Global Forest Review. 4 April 2024.
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269:, could be crucial for democracies to respond to climate change.
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The examination of the environmental stances of both mainstream
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in the Western world beginning in the 1970s. Notably, the 1972
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The politics of the environment : ideas, activism, policy
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Green Parties in Transition: The End of Grass-roots Democracy?
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578: – Concept in political ecology and environmental policy
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Scholarly journals representing this field of study include:
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that threatened the very existence of humanity." And "modern
1872:"Brazil: Amazon sees worst deforestation levels in 15 years"
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This can be explained more exhaustively with the concept of
1997:
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The Politics of the Environment: Ideas, Activism, Policy
1380:(1988). "Democracy, Bureaucracy and Environmentalism".
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Whittaker, Matthew, Segura, and Bowler, Shaun (2005). "
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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
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Alternative forms of democracy for environmental policy
1890:"Amazon rainforest: Deforestation rate halved in 2023"
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Frankland, E.G., Lucardie, P. and Rihoux, B. (2008).
811:"The limits of democracy in tackling climate change"
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1652:. Ann Arbor: Open Humanities Press. pp. 67–68.
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Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties
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Ministry of Environment and Climate Change (Brazil)
1829:. International Fund for Agricultural Development.
1750:The International Society for Ecological Economics
1621:Newman, Lance (2002). "Marxism and Ecocriticism".
472:In 1985, the Brazilian government established the
147:United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
1648:Dolphijn and van der Tuin, Rick and Iris (2012).
744:"Forest Pulse: The Latest on the World's Forests"
728:"Forest Pulse: The Latest on the World's Forests"
617:Environmental Politics: A Very Short Introduction
1998:"La COP 28, Conférence des Parties D'ONU Climat"
1594:New Materialisms: Ontology, Agency, and Politics
1145:"Against Elections: The Lottocratic Alternative"
363:Brazil, Russia, India, and China (known as the "
584: – Political party based on green politics
442:Environmental policy of the Government of India
933:Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning
325:uses the term "vital materialism" in her book
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1650:New Materialism: Interviews and Cartographies
1434:Gutmann and Thompson, Amy and Dennis (2004).
444:) is often more symbolic than practical. The
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1339:. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company.
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1200:Aapi Nexus: Policy, Practice and Community
502:environmental problems that have emerged.
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1474:
1116:
984:Newig, Jens; Fritsch, Oliver (May 2009).
952:
886:
834:
314:New materialism and environmental justice
1947:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1597:. United States: Duke University Press.
1275:
1273:
1271:
1269:
1021:. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press.
782:from the original on 10 September 2022.
734:. World Resources Institute. June 2023.
680:https://doi.org/10.1177/2053019614564785
641:
639:
637:
572: – Part of environmental philosophy
374:
310:political consequences for re-election.
225:necessitates some form of international
3005:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1051:"Racial Disparities and Climate Change"
608:
86:affecting the environment, at multiple
16:Study of politics about the environment
1768:Economy, Elizabeth (27 January 2003).
1569:
697:(doctoral). University of Northumbria.
545:International Environmental Agreements
97:Neil Carter, in his foundational text
1847:. online: Asia House. pp. 63–84.
1823:"Combating Environmental Degradation"
1306:"Democracy and the Ecological Crisis"
1212:10.17953/appc.11.1-2.958537240526x56v
1027:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199685271.013.41
922:
920:
918:
916:
914:
864:
862:
804:
802:
800:
798:
796:
794:
792:
407:For history, laws, and policies, see
393:List of environmental laws by country
7:
2957:
1337:Ecology and the Politics of Scarcity
2981:
1282:Deliberative Environmental Politics
990:Environmental Policy and Governance
446:Ministry of Environment and Forests
1556:. Surrey and Burlington: Ashgate.
754:from the original on 4 April 2024.
738:from the original on 27 June 2023.
14:
1743:"The Environmental Kuznets Curve"
1667:. New York and London: Routledge.
3020:
3008:
2980:
2968:
2956:
2938:
2937:
2676:
2542:
2541:
2531:
2147:
1801:10.1111/j.1467-9701.2007.00883.x
809:Povitkina, Marina (2018-05-04).
25:Environmental Politics (journal)
2915:Human impact on the environment
2316:Science, technology and society
1382:Journal of Environmental Ethics
1152:Philosophy & Public Affairs
869:Burnell, Peter (October 2012).
2823:Public transport encouragement
1927:What is environmental politics
1718:Shaw, William (1 March 2012).
1364:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.09.003
467:Environmental issues in Brazil
332:New materialists have invoked
73:environmental social movements
1:
1541:. Leipzig: Werner Klinkhardt.
1394:10.5840/enviroethics198810437
954:10.1080/1523908X.2020.1703276
836:10.1080/09644016.2018.1444723
775:. September 2022. p. 8.
538:Global Environmental Politics
409:Environmental policy in China
254:liberal democratic politics.
3048:Environmental social science
2060:Environmental social science
1774:Council on Foreign Relations
1623:Interdiscip Stud Lit Environ
1522:Ostrogorski, Moisey (1902).
1436:"Why Deliberative Democracy"
1182:Political Research Quarterly
1143:Guerrero, Alexander (2014).
888:10.1080/13510347.2012.709684
2813:Natural resource management
2099:Environmental communication
1413:. Oxford University Press.
1280:Baber and Bartlett (2005).
1240:Edmondson and Levy (2013).
1018:Are There Limits to Limits?
691:Wilson, Mark (April 2014).
99:Politics of the Environment
3064:
2084:Environmental anthropology
1964:. Oxford University Press.
1741:Stern, David (June 2003).
1455:International Organization
1440:Princeton University Press
651:Cambridge University Press
221:Effectively responding to
18:
2933:
2725:Environmental engineering
2674:
2527:
2145:
1827:Investing in Rural People
1663:Derrida, Jacques (1993).
1467:10.1017/S0020818309090092
369:environmental degradation
247:Interest-group liberalism
232:climate change mitigation
2808:Environmental technology
2757:Environmental toxicology
2752:Environmental statistics
2747:Environmental humanities
2114:Environmental psychology
1929:. John Wiley & Sons.
1843:Dembowski, Hans (2001).
1591:Coole and Frost (2010).
1537:Michels, Robert (1911).
1242:Climate Change and Order
1184:(58)3: pp. 435, 435-447.
576:Environmental governance
564:Ecological modernization
227:environmental governance
166:Countries with the most
2720:Environmental economics
2643:Environmental chemistry
2119:Environmental sociology
2094:Environmental economics
2074:Ecological anthropology
1407:Fishkin, James (2009).
1304:Mathews, Freya (1991).
621:Oxford University Press
558:Carbon fee and dividend
150:radical theories like '
108:Greening the Millenium?
23:. For the journal, see
2777:Sustainability science
2109:Environmental politics
2022:Environmental Politics
1526:. New York: Macmillan.
1503:www.yourdictionary.com
1310:Legal Service Bulletin
815:Environmental Politics
741:● 2022 and 2023 data:
531:Environmental Politics
461:Brazil is home to the
438:
433:
380:
342:
279:deliberative democracy
180:
171:
101:(2009), suggests that
31:Environmental politics
2742:Environmental studies
2614:Environmental science
2204:Ecological humanities
2104:Environmental history
1943:Carter, Neil (2001).
1410:When the People Speak
434:
429:
421:Constitution of India
378:
338:
292:grass-roots democracy
277:In political theory,
212:electoral democracies
205:environmental justice
177:
165:
158:Democratic challenges
2730:Environmental health
2715:Environmental design
2710:Ecological economics
2296:Integrated geography
2174:Behavioral geography
2079:Ecological economics
1352:Ecological Economics
649:, 2nd ed. New York:
645:Carter, Neil. 2007.
570:Environmental ethics
493:Environmental actors
267:environmental ethics
168:primary (old-growth)
21:Environmental policy
2899:Environment by year
2889:Research institutes
2803:Energy conservation
2628:Atmospheric science
2567:Research institutes
2089:Environmental crime
1978:. December 11, 2023
1914:. 16 November 2022.
1878:. 19 November 2021.
1692:2015Antip..47..461N
1093:2016NatSR...620281A
945:2020JEPP...22....1P
827:2018EnvPo..27..411P
427:to economic growth:
80:public policymaking
33:designate both the
2975:Environment portal
2858:Water purification
2537:Environment portal
2291:Industrial ecology
1896:. 12 January 2024.
1700:10.1111/anti.12125
1635:10.1093/isle/9.2.1
1476:20.500.11850/19435
1164:10.1111/papa.12029
1081:Scientific Reports
425:resource depletion
381:
353:Ecosystem services
239:North-South divide
181:
172:
139:Great Acceleration
3043:Political science
2996:
2995:
2818:Pollution control
2580:
2579:
2419:Green criminology
2179:Community studies
2134:Political ecology
1925:DeSombre (2020).
1789:The World Economy
1563:978-0-7546-7429-0
1244:. pp. 50–60.
1101:10.1038/srep20281
1036:978-0-19-968527-1
629:978-0-19-966557-0
597:Political ecology
484:. However, Since
463:Amazon Rainforest
230:insufficient for
123:ecological crisis
69:political parties
3055:
3025:
3024:
3013:
3012:
3004:
2984:
2983:
2972:
2960:
2959:
2941:
2940:
2863:Waste management
2853:Urban metabolism
2848:Sewage treatment
2838:Renewable energy
2680:
2607:
2600:
2593:
2584:
2545:
2544:
2535:
2467:natural resource
2151:
2139:Regional science
2053:
2046:
2039:
2030:
2025:journal homepage
2009:
2008:
2006:
2004:
1994:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1963:
1955:
1949:
1948:
1940:
1931:
1930:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1886:
1880:
1879:
1868:
1862:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1840:
1831:
1830:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1765:
1754:
1753:
1747:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1726:. Archived from
1715:
1704:
1703:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1618:
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1542:
1534:
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1450:
1444:
1443:
1431:
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1398:
1397:
1374:
1368:
1367:
1358:(5): 1355–1365.
1347:
1341:
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1329:
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1320:
1314:
1313:
1301:
1286:
1285:
1277:
1264:
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1237:
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1130:
1120:
1072:
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1065:
1063:
1062:
1057:. 15 August 2020
1047:
1041:
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1012:
1006:
1005:
981:
975:
974:
956:
924:
909:
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890:
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787:
786:
781:
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762:
756:
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739:
723:
717:
714:
708:
705:
699:
698:
688:
682:
676:
670:
667:
661:
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632:
613:
587:
359:Emerging nations
127:environmentalism
78:The analysis of
3063:
3062:
3058:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3053:
3052:
3033:
3032:
3031:
3019:
3007:
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2791:
2782:Systems ecology
2681:
2672:
2633:Biogeochemistry
2616:
2611:
2581:
2576:
2523:
2372:
2343:Systems ecology
2327:Sustainability
2321:science studies
2306:Rural sociology
2152:
2143:
2129:Human geography
2062:
2057:
2017:
2012:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1981:
1979:
1974:
1973:
1969:
1961:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1942:
1941:
1934:
1924:
1923:
1919:
1906:
1905:
1901:
1888:
1887:
1883:
1870:
1869:
1865:
1856:
1852:
1842:
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1834:
1821:
1820:
1816:
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1781:
1767:
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1757:
1745:
1740:
1739:
1735:
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1677:
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1662:
1661:
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1492:
1452:
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1447:
1433:
1432:
1428:
1421:
1406:
1405:
1401:
1378:Paehlke, Robert
1376:
1375:
1371:
1349:
1348:
1344:
1333:Ophuls, William
1331:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1317:
1303:
1302:
1289:
1279:
1278:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1253:
1249:
1239:
1238:
1227:
1206:(1–2): 91–109.
1193:
1192:
1188:
1175:
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1147:
1142:
1141:
1134:
1074:
1073:
1069:
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1002:10.1002/eet.509
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978:
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925:
912:
875:Democratization
868:
867:
860:
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790:
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763:
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742:
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615:Andrew Dobson,
614:
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585:
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523:
495:
459:
417:
401:
361:
316:
275:
252:anthropocentric
160:
135:water pollution
119:preservationism
115:conservationism
60:related to the
28:
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12:
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2966:
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2925:Technogaianism
2922:
2920:Sustainability
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2686:Related fields
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2015:External links
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1795:(2): 292–307.
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1730:on 2015-12-08.
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