502:, the "four Cs" (color, cut, clarity, and carats), has been introduced to help describe the factors used to grade a diamond. With modification, these categories can be useful in understanding the grading of all gemstones. The four criteria carry different weights depending upon whether they are applied to colored gemstones or to colorless diamonds. In diamonds, the cut is the primary determinant of value, followed by clarity and color. An ideally cut diamond will sparkle, to break down light into its constituent rainbow colors (dispersion), chop it up into bright little pieces (scintillation), and deliver it to the eye (brilliance). In its rough crystalline form, a diamond will do none of these things; it requires proper fashioning and this is called "cut". In gemstones that have color, including colored diamonds, the purity, and beauty of that color is the primary determinant of quality.
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respected labs, AGTA-GTL (New York), CISGEM (Milano), GAAJ-ZENHOKYO (Tokyo), GIA (Carlsbad), GIT (Bangkok), GĂĽbelin (Lucerne) and SSEF (Basel), have established the
Laboratory Manual Harmonisation Committee (LMHC), for the standardization of wording reports, promotion of certain analytical methods and interpretation of results. Country of origin has sometimes been difficult to determine, due to the constant discovery of new source locations. Determining a "country of origin" is thus much more difficult than determining other aspects of a gem (such as cut, clarity, etc.).
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1174:(if any). Lab-created stones tend to have a more vivid color since impurities common in natural stones are not present in the synthetic stone. Synthetics are made free of common naturally occurring impurities that reduce gem clarity or color unless intentionally added in order to provide a more drab, natural appearance, or to deceive an assayer. On the other hand, synthetics often show flaws not seen in natural stones, such as minute particles of corroded metal from lab trays used during synthesis.
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practices, environmental sustainability, and ethical sourcing is essential. Additionally, investing in community development projects, such as education and healthcare initiatives, can help alleviate poverty and empower marginalized communities dependent on the gemstone industry. Collaboration across sectors is crucial for fostering a more equitable and sustainable gemstone trade that benefits both producers and consumers while respecting human rights and environmental integrity.
692:
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195:
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930:, both the lighter and the darker blue shades such as "London" blue, has been irradiated to change the color from white to blue. Most green quartz (Oro Verde) are also irradiated to achieve the yellow-green color. Diamonds are mainly irradiated to become blue-green or green, although other colors are possible. When light-to-medium-yellow diamonds are treated with gamma rays they may become green; with a high-energy electron beam, blue.
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786:) but exhibit different colors because of impurities which absorb and reflect different wavelengths of light depending on their individual compositions. Even the same named gemstone can occur in many different colors: sapphires show different shades of blue and pink and "fancy sapphires" exhibit a whole range of other colors from yellow to orange-pink, the latter called "
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stone's appearance to be enhanced. Depending on the type and extent of treatment, they can affect the value of the stone. Some treatments are used widely because the resulting gem is stable, while others are not accepted most commonly because the gem color is unstable and may revert to the original tone.
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Auguste
Verneuil, a student of Fremy, went on to develop flame-fusion as an alternative to the flux-melt method. He developed large furnaces which were able to produce large quantities of corundums more efficiently and shifted the gemstone market dramatically. This process is still used today and the
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Prior to development of synthesising processes the alternatives on the market to natural gemstones were imitations or fake. In 1837, the first successful synthesis of ruby occurred. French chemist Marc Gaudin managed to produce small crystals of ruby from melting together potassium aluminium sulphate
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Addressing these socio-economic challenges requires intensive effort from various stakeholders, including governments, industry executives, and society, to promote sustainable practices and ensure equitable outcomes for all involved parties. Implementing and enforcing regulations to ensure fair labor
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The color of any material is due to the nature of light itself. Daylight, often called white light, is all of the colors of the spectrum combined. When light strikes a material, most of the light is absorbed while a smaller amount of a particular frequency or wavelength is reflected. The part that is
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properties of the gem. If the angles are too steep or too shallow, the light will pass through and not be reflected back toward the viewer. The faceting machine is used to hold the stone onto a flat lap for cutting and polishing the flat facets. Rarely, some cutters use special curved laps to cut and
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Gemstone pricing and value are governed by factors and characteristics in the quality of the stone. These characteristics include clarity, rarity, freedom from defects, the beauty of the stone, as well as the demand for such stones. There are different pricing influencers for both colored gemstones,
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Synthetic gemstones share chemical and physical properties with natural gemstones, but there are some slight differences that can be used to discern synthetic from natural. These differences are slight and often require microscopy as a tool to distinguish differences. Undetectable synthetics pose a
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Synthetic corundum includes ruby (red variation) and sapphire (other color variations), both of which are considered highly desired and valued. Ruby was the first gemstone to be synthesized by
Auguste Verneuil with his development of the flame-fusion process in 1902. Synthetic corundum continues to
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Furthermore, the gemstone industry is also susceptible to issues related to transparency and ethics, which impact both producers and consumers. The lack of standardized certification processes and the prevalence of illicit practices undermine market integrity and trust. The lack of transparency and
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This difference in color is based on the atomic structure of the stone. Although the different stones formally have the same chemical composition and structure, they are not exactly the same. Every now and then an atom is replaced by a completely different atom, sometimes as few as one in a million
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A gemstone that has been rising in popularity is
Cuprian Elbaite Tourmaline which is also called "Paraiba Tourmaline". It was first discovered in the late 1980s in ParaĂba, Brazil and later in Mozambique and Nigeria. It is famous for its glowing neon blue color. Paraiba Tourmaline has become one of
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The flame fusion process is completed in a
Verneuil furnace. The furnace consists of an inverted blowpipe burner which produces an extremely hot oxyhydrogen flame, a powder dispenser, and a ceramic pedestal. A chemical powder which corresponds to the desired gemstone is passed through this flames.
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Synthetic gems are physically, optically, and chemically identical to the natural stone, but are created in a laboratory. Imitation or simulated stones are chemically different from the natural stone, but may appear quite similar to it; they can be more easily manufactured synthetic gemstones of a
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is heated, those stones should not be coated with boric acid (which can etch the surface) or any other substance. They do not have to be protected from burning, like a diamond (although the stones do need to be protected from heat stress fracture by immersing the part of the jewelry with stones in
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Before the innovation of modern-day tools, thousands of years ago, people were recorded to use a variety of techniques to treat and enhance gemstones. Some of the earliest methods of gemstone treatment date back to the Minoan Age, for example foiling, which is where metal foil is used to enhance a
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Gemstones are often treated to enhance the color or clarity of the stone. In some cases, the treatment applied to the gemstone can also increase its durability. Even though natural gemstones can be transformed using the traditional method of cutting and polishing, other treatment options allow the
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Today the gemstone trade no longer makes such a distinction. Many gemstones are used in even the most expensive jewelry, depending on the brand-name of the designer, fashion trends, market supply, treatments, etc. Nevertheless, diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds still have a reputation that
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Fracture filling has been in use with different gemstones such as diamonds, emeralds, and sapphires. In 2006 "glass-filled rubies" received publicity. Rubies over 10 carats (2 g) with large fractures were filled with lead glass, thus dramatically improving the appearance (of larger rubies in
737:, etc. are commonly cut as cabochons. These gems are designed to show the stone's color, luster and other surface properties as opposed to internal reflection properties like brilliance. Grinding wheels and polishing agents are used to grind, shape, and polish the smooth dome shape of the stones.
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The hydrothermal growth process attempts to imitate the natural growth process of minerals. The required gem materials are sealed in a container of water and placed under extreme pressure. The water is heated beyond its boiling point which allows normally insoluble materials to dissolve. As more
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The flux growth process was the first process able to synthesize emerald. Flux growth begins with a crucible which can withstand high heat; either graphite or platinum which is filled with a molten liquid referred to as flux. The specific gem ingredients are added and dissolved in this fluid and
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In 1918 this process was developed by J. Czocharalski and is also referred to as the "crystal pulling" method. In this process, the required gemstone materials are added to a crucible. A seed stone is placed into the melt in the crucible. As the gem begins to crystallize on the seed, the seed is
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A few years later an alternative to flux melt was developed which led to the introduction of what was labeled "reconstructed ruby" to the market. Reconstructed ruby was sold as a process which produced larger rubies from melting together bits of natural ruby. In later attempts to recreate this
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Types of synthetic quartz include citrine, rose quartz, and amethyst. Natural occurring quartz is not rare, but is nevertheless synthetically produced as it has practical application outside of aesthetic purposes. Quartz generates an electric current when under pressure and is used in watches,
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Each laboratory has its own methodology to evaluate gemstones. A stone can be called "pink" by one lab while another lab calls it "padparadscha". One lab can conclude a stone is untreated, while another lab might conclude that it is heat-treated. To minimize such differences, seven of the most
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Another treatment method that is commonly used to treat gemstones is bleaching. This method uses a chemical in order to reduce the colour of the gem. After bleaching, a combination treatment can be done by dying the gemstone once the unwanted colours are removed. Hydrogen peroxide is the most
282:. Use of the terms 'precious' and 'semi-precious' in a commercial context is, arguably, misleading in that it suggests certain stones are more valuable than others when this is not reflected in the actual market value, although it would generally be correct if referring to desirability.
495:(GIA) in the early 1950s. Historically, all gemstones were graded using the naked eye. The GIA system included a major innovation: the introduction of 10x magnification as the standard for grading clarity. Other gemstones are still graded using the naked eye (assuming 20/20 vision).
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the most popular gemstones in recent times thanks to its color and is considered to be one of the important gemstones after rubies, emeralds, and sapphires according to GĂĽbelin Gemlab. Even though it is a tourmaline, Paraiba
Tourmaline is one of the most expensive gemstones.
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The socio-economic dynamics of the gemstone industry are shaped by market forces and consumer preferences and typically go undiscussed. Changes in demand and prices can significantly affect the livelihoods of those involved in gemstone mining and trade, particularly in
484:
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The most common synthesized beryl is emerald (green). Yellow, red and blue beryls are possible but much more rare. Synthetic emerald became possible with the development of the flux growth process and is produced in this way and well as hydrothermal growth.
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Gems that are transparent are normally faceted, a method that shows the optical properties of the stone's interior to its best advantage by maximizing reflected light which is perceived by the viewer as sparkle. There are many commonly used shapes for
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threat to the market if they are able to be sold as rare natural gemstones. Because of this there are certain characteristic gemologists look for. Each crystal is characteristic to the environment and growth process under which it was created.
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material cannot be added once the container is sealed, in order to create a larger gem the process would begin with a "seed" stone from a previous batch which the new material will crystallize on. This process takes a few weeks to complete.
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Found all over the world, the industry of coloured gemstones (i.e. anything other than diamonds) is currently estimated at around US$ 1.55 billion as of 2023 and is projected to steadily increase to a value of US$ 4.46 billion by 2033.
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was discovered by Bart Cannon in 1968 on
Kangaroo Ridge near Washington Pass in Okanogan County, Washington, USA. The mineral was named in honor of mathematician and geologist Jack Zektzer, who presented the material for study in
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The flame fusion process was the first process used which successfully created large quantities of synthetic gemstones to be sold on the market. This remains the most cost effective and common method of creating corundums today.
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resulting from mining activities. Environmental degradation can pose long-term threats to ecosystems and biodiversity, further worsening the socio-economic state in affected regions. Unregulated mining practices often result in
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was discovered in 1967 in
Northern Tanzania. With its supply possibly declining in the next 30 years, this gemstone is considered to be more rare than a diamond. This type of gemstone receives its vibrant blue from being
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commonly used product used to alter gemstones and have notably been used to treat jade and pearls. The treatment of bleaching can also be followed by impregnation, which allows the gemstone's durability to be increased.
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accountability in the supply chain aggravates pre-existing inequalities, as middlemen and corporations often capture a disproportionate share of the profits. As a result the unequal distribution of profits along the
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operations are frequently conducted in remote or underdeveloped areas, lacking proper infrastructure and access to essential services such as healthcare and education. This further contributes to the pre-existing
556:) have been popular and hence been regarded as precious, thus reinforcing the notion that a mineral's rarity may have been implicated in its classification as a precious stone and thus contribute to its value.
1049:. The environmental impact of gemstone mining not only poses a threat to ecosystems but also undermines the long-term viability of the industry by diminishing the quality and quantity of available resources.
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and potassium chromate through what would later be known as the flux melt process. Following this, another French chemist Fremy was able to grow large quantities of small ruby crystals using a lead flux.
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Heat can either improve or spoil gemstone color or clarity. The heating process has been well known to gem miners and cutters for centuries, and in many stone types heating is a common practice. Most
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Synthetic spinel was first produced by accident. It can be created in any color making it popular to simulate various natural gemstones. It is created through flux growth and hydrothermal growth.
1995:
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was discovered by
Antoine François Alfred Lacroix (1863–1948) in 1902 in Tuléar Province, Madagascar. It was named in honor of the French naturalist and explorer Alfred Grandidier (1836–1912).
702:
A few gemstones are used as gems in the crystal or other forms in which they are found. Most, however, are cut and polished for usage as jewelry. The two main classifications are as follows:
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was discovered in 1956 in
Ohngaing in Myanmar. The mineral was named in honor of the British gemologist Arthur Charles Davy Pain. At one point it was considered the rarest mineral on Earth.
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and labor within gemstone mining operations. Many mines, particularly in developing countries, face challenges such as inadequate safety measures, low wages, and poor working conditions.
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456:. Gemstones may also be classified in terms of their "water". This is a recognized grading of the gem's luster, transparency, or "brilliance". Very transparent gems are considered "
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Some gemstones are more difficult to synthesize than others and not all stones are commercially viable to attempt to synthesize. These are the most common on the market currently.
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recrystallize to form the desired gemstone.This is a longer process compared to the flame fusion process and can take two months up to a year depending on the desired final size.
563:
Rare or unusual gemstones, generally understood to include those gemstones which occur so infrequently in gem quality that they are scarcely known except to connoisseurs, include
923:, the processes can make gemstones radioactive. Health risks related to the residual radioactivity of the treated gemstones have led to government regulations in many countries.
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to disguise them. This wax or oil is also colored to make the emerald appear of better color as well as clarity. Turquoise is also commonly treated in a similar manner.
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Physical characteristics that make a colored stone valuable are color, clarity to a lesser extent (emeralds will always have a number of inclusions), cut, unusual
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250:, with all other gemstones being semi-precious. This distinction reflects the rarity of the respective stones in ancient times, as well as their quality: all are
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Gemstone enhancement: heat, irradiation, impregnation, dyeing, and other treatments which alter the appearance of gemstones, and the detection of such treatments
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in Brazil in the 19th century, amethyst was considered a "precious stone" as well, going back to ancient Greece. Even in the last century certain stones such as
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is directly mined in New South Wales, Australia, making it the rarest type of opal. Having a darker composition, this gemstone can be in a variety of colours.
3006:"Faceting the Future: The Need for and Proposal of the Adoption of a Kimberley Process-Styled Legitimacy Certification System for the Global Gemstone Market"
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process it was found to not be possible and is believed reconstructed rubies were most likely created using a multi-step method of melting of ruby powder.
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was discovered in 1956 in Madagascar. It was named after the discoverer, French geologist Paul Hibon. Gem quality hibonite has been found only in Myanmar.
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have been manufactured in labs that possess chemical and physical characteristics identical to the naturally occurring variety. Synthetic (lab created)
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American Gem Trade Laboratory which is part of the American Gem Trade Association (AGTA), a trade organization of jewelers and dealers of colored stones
1104:. The simulants imitate the look and color of the real stone but possess neither their chemical nor physical characteristics. In general, all are less
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The Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand (Public Organization) or GIT, Thailand's national institute for gemological research and gem testing, Bangkok
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A material which is mostly the same can exhibit different colors. For example, ruby and sapphire have the same primary chemical composition (both are
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is often heated to remove yellow tones, or to change green colors into the more desirable blue, or enhance its existing blue color to a deeper blue.
147:) may also be used for jewelry and are therefore often considered to be gemstones as well. Most gemstones are hard, but some softer minerals such as
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Whether a gemstone is a natural stone or synthetic, the chemical, physical, and optical characteristics are the same: They are composed of the same
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Cultured, synthetic, or "lab-created" gemstones are not imitations: The bulk mineral and trace coloring elements are the same in both. For example,
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and obstructs community development such that the benefits of gemstone extraction may not adequately reach those directly involved in the process.
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1250:. For corundum the flame must be 2000 °C. This process takes hours and yields a crystal with the same properties as its natural counterpart.
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Gem dealers are aware of the differences between gem laboratories and will make use of the discrepancies to obtain the best possible certificate.
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633:(HRD Antwerp), The Diamond High Council, Belgium is one of Europe's oldest laboratories; its main stakeholder is the Antwerp World Diamond Centre
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Hainschwang, Thomas; Notari, Franck; Massi, Laurent; Armbruster, Thomas; Rondeau, Benjamin; Fritsch, Emmanuel; Nagashima, Mariko (Summer 2010).
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reflected reaches the eye as the perceived color. A ruby appears red because it absorbs all other colors of white light while reflecting red.
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460:", while "second" or "third water" gems are those of a lesser transparency. Additionally, material or flaws within a stone may be present as
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furnaces have not changed much from the original design. World production of corundum using this method reaches 1000 million carats a year.
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159:. However, generally speaking, soft minerals are not typically used as gemstones by virtue of their brittleness and lack of durability.
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be made typically by flame-fusion as it is most cost-effective, but can also be produced through flux growth and hydrothermal growth.
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is heated at low temperatures to remove brown undertones and give a more desirable blue / purple color. A considerable portion of all
892:; otherwise, the diamond, which is pure carbon, could be burned on the surface or even burned completely up. When jewelry containing
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and enabled the creation of gemstone colors that do not exist or are extremely rare in nature. However, particularly when done in a
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254:, with fine color in their purest forms (except for the colorless diamond), and very hard with a hardness score of 8 to 10 on the
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was discovered in 1965 at the Poudrette Quarry in Canada and named after the quarry's owners and operators, the Poudrette family.
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1004:, often from disadvantaged backgrounds, endure hazardous working conditions and receive meager wages, contributing to cycles of
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36:
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Some gemstone treatments make use of the fact that these impurities can be "manipulated", thus changing the color of the gem.
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and for diamonds. The pricing on colored stones is determined by market supply-and-demand, but diamonds are more intricate.
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was discovered in Sri Lanka by Sunil Palitha Gunasekera in 1902 and named after Serendib, the old Arabic name for Sri Lanka.
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chatter marks which on the surface which appear crack like which are caused from damage during polishing of the gemstone
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Enamelled gold, amethyst, and pearl pendant, about 1880, Pasquale Novissimo (1844–1914), V&A Museum number M.36-1928
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Gemstone Dedicated Gamma Irradiator Development: Proceedings of the INAC 2007 International Nuclear Atlantic Conference
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or bixbite was discovered in an area near Beaver, Utah in 1904 and named after the American mineralogist Maynard Bixby.
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refractive index than diamond, and when presented beside an equivalently sized and cut diamond will show more "fire".
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358:, the form the gem is usually found in. For example, diamonds, which have a cubic crystal system, are often found as
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was discovered in 1945. It was named after the discoverer, the Irish gemologist Count Edward Charles Richard Taaffe.
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1779:"What are the differences between precious and semi-precious stones? - Information - Leysen - Joaillier since 1855"
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can be far more valuable than a mid-quality emerald. Another traditional term for semi-precious gemstones used in
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pulled away and the gem continues to grow. This is used for corundum but is currently the least popular method.
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The foreign material inside this fracture-filled emerald appears rainbow-colored under darkfield illumination.
663:(AIGS), the oldest gemological institute in South East Asia, involved in gemological education and gem testing
1730:"Colored Gemstones Market: Sales Projection Shows 11.6% CAGR Growth Potential by 2033 – Market Research Blog"
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In the addition to the aesthetic and adorning/ornamental purpose of gemstones, there are many proponents of
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was discovered in 1883 in Russia and named after its discoverer, Pawel Wladimirowich Jeremejew (1830–1899).
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To produce corundum, a pure aluminium powder is used with different additives to achieve different colors.
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Gemstones have no universally accepted grading system. Diamonds are graded using a system developed by the
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or simply cab. These have been a popular shape since ancient time and is more durable than faceted gems.
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does little to improve socio-economic inequalities, particularly in regions where gemstones are mined.
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669:(SSEF), founded by Henry Hänni, focusing on colored gemstones and the identification of natural pearls
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Gemmological Association of All Japan (GAAJ-ZENHOKYO), Zenhokyo, Japan, active in gemological research
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Gems are characterized in terms of their color (hue, tone and saturation), optical phenomena, luster,
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Artisanal and small-scale mining and agriculture: Exploring their links in rural sub-Saharan Africa
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627:(IGI), independent laboratory for grading and evaluation of diamonds, jewelry, and colored stones
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2825:"Occupying the Margins: Labour Integration and Social Exclusion in Artisanal Mining in Tanzania"
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Pearls are a gemstone that is commonly treated with hydrogen peroxide to remove unwanted colours
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was discovered in 1967 in the Musgrave Mountains in South Australia and named for the location.
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was discovered in 1957 in Chambers County, Texas, US, and named after the deposit's location.
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When jewelry containing diamonds is heated for repairs, the diamond should be protected with
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within the stone such as color zoning (the uneven distribution of coloring within a gem) and
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3426:"Understanding Gem Synthetics, Treatments, And Imitations, Part 4: Synthetic Gemstone Guide"
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802:, which is colorless in its pure mineral form, becomes emerald with chromium impurities. If
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are sufficient to absorb certain colors and leave the other colors unaffected. For example,
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There are two main categories for creation of these minerals: melt or solution processes.
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234:; similar distinctions are made in other cultures. In modern use, the precious stones are
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This melts the ingredients which drop on to a plate and solidify into a crystal called a
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have also been defined as precious in the jewellery trade. Up to the discoveries of bulk
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grit inside a rotating barrel. The largest pebble here is 40 mm (1.6 in) long.
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Gemstones: a complete color reference for precious and semiprecious stones of the world
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3845:
2406:
1615:
1472:
1426:
1163:
1054:
1042:
1030:
787:
449:
381:, while any other color of corundum is considered sapphire. Other examples are the
259:
148:
120:
3782:
2927:
1639:
3023:
2190:
1609:
614:
There are a number of laboratories which grade and provide reports on gemstones.
5286:
5176:
5015:
4965:
4960:
4876:
4718:
4594:
4544:
4419:
4414:
4106:
4017:
3874:
2928:"Mining and socio-ecological systems: A systematic review of Sub-Saharan Africa"
2926:
Takam Tiamgne, Xavier; Kalaba, Felix K.; Nyirenda, Vincent R. (September 2022).
2863:
1576:
1478:
1432:
885:
is treated with a variety of heat treatments to improve both color and clarity.
815:
742:
576:
572:
545:
483:
457:
441:
386:
275:
271:
251:
183:
2084:. His Majesty's Stationery Office, Wyman & Sons. p. 11. Archived from
648:
European Gemological Laboratory (EGL), founded in 1974 by Guy Margel in Belgium
5120:
5065:
4940:
4853:
4821:
4811:
4713:
4662:
4599:
4574:
4449:
4254:
4228:
3986:
3980:
2982:
2693:
1823:
1484:
1460:
1444:
1331:
small air bubbles which were trapped inside the boule during formation process
1089:
927:
889:
795:
564:
510:
359:
351:
211:
171:
3518:
3379:
3323:
3263:
3159:
2990:
2951:
2887:
2848:
2784:
745:. The facets must be cut at the proper angles, which varies depending on the
5266:
5259:
5130:
5125:
5105:
5030:
4955:
4949:
4930:
4826:
4767:
4682:
4579:
4514:
4489:
4479:
4409:
4388:
4257:
4207:
4139:
4134:
4091:
4045:
4025:
4021:
3922:
3907:
3902:
3834:
3740:
2541:
1438:
1420:
1397:
1315:
1085:
1038:
893:
874:
811:
803:
734:
730:
696:
584:
553:
402:
394:
390:
279:
267:
175:
112:
108:
48:
Group of precious and semiprecious stones—both uncut and faceted—including (
3175:
2809:
297:. The first characteristic a gemologist uses to identify a gemstone is its
44:
3752:
3701:
621:(GIA), the main provider of education services and diamond grading reports
5334:
5308:
5297:
5234:
5161:
5100:
5090:
5085:
5045:
4985:
4975:
4935:
4906:
4901:
4816:
4772:
4657:
4652:
4589:
4529:
4519:
4484:
4459:
4434:
4429:
4276:
4244:
4223:
4169:
4157:
4111:
4086:
4076:
4034:
3996:
3940:
3897:
3869:
3560:
2775:
1519:
1404:
1140:
1132:
1124:
1093:
878:
863:
859:
807:
783:
707:
541:
525:
437:
398:
378:
347:
294:
286:
243:
215:
167:
128:
69:
57:
3472:
3456:
3120:
2967:"Environmental impact of mining, erosion and sedimentation in Sri Lanka"
5329:
5239:
5151:
5060:
5025:
5010:
4995:
4980:
4970:
4843:
4777:
4728:
4667:
4524:
4499:
4464:
4270:
4197:
4081:
4008:
3957:
3864:
3854:
3510:
3255:
3167:
3135:
2107:
Secrets of The Gem Trade: The Connoisseur's Guide to Precious Gemstones
2041:
Secrets of The Gem Trade, The Connoisseur's Guide to Precious Gemstones
2021:
Secrets of The Gem Trade, The Connoisseur's Guide to Precious Gemstones
1804:
Secrets of The Gem Trade, The Connoisseur's Guide to Precious Gemstones
1391:
1320:
1155:
1147:
1128:
1116:
1005:
746:
657:
Gemmology Institute of Southern Africa, Africa's premium gem laboratory
599:
580:
568:
549:
529:
517:
382:
302:
247:
235:
179:
104:
101:
65:
53:
3614:
2862:
Hinton, Jennifer J; Veiga, Marcello M; Veiga, A.Tadeu C (March 2003).
1665:
645:
American Gemological Laboratories (AGL), owned by Christopher P. Smith
516:
Apart from the more generic and commonly used gemstones such as from
5229:
5135:
5095:
5070:
5005:
4990:
4886:
4871:
4866:
4782:
4733:
4723:
4439:
4404:
4189:
4152:
4149:
4145:
4029:
4013:
3912:
3494:
3239:
2081:
Precious Stones considered in their scientific and artistic relations
1097:
1074:
1009:
897:
836:
gemstone's colour. Other methods recorded 2000 years ago in the book
306:
263:
203:
2489:
1953:"Gemstone Identification: How to Identify Gemstones | Gemstones.com"
3725:"Vidéo – Nolwenn Leroy lumineuse et enceinte dans le clip de Gemme"
3589:
Harris, Daniel C. (September 26, 2003). Tustison, Randal W. (ed.).
1069:
Synthetic gemstones are distinct from imitation or simulated gems.
996:
A situation that arises as a result of this is the exploitation of
222:
The traditional classification in the West, which goes back to the
5208:
5198:
5188:
5171:
5166:
5156:
5115:
4945:
4925:
4861:
4793:
4534:
4509:
4454:
4129:
4096:
4002:
3992:
3951:
3879:
2812:(Report). International Institute for Environment and Development.
1640:"Pearl | Natural, Cultured & Imitation Gemstones | Britannica"
1450:
1410:
1364:
1314:
1232:
1001:
970:
953:
799:
769:
757:
718:
690:
533:
482:
471:
406:
144:
136:
2264:"The Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand (Public Organization)"
5080:
5055:
5050:
5000:
4762:
4284:
4218:
4211:
4163:
3962:
3917:
3859:
3828:
Gemmological classifications by E. Ya. Kievlenko (1980), updated
1120:
882:
726:
537:
521:
239:
124:
61:
4361:
3792:
1985:
Desirable diamonds: The world's most famous gem. by Sarah Todd.
938:
Emeralds containing natural fissures are sometimes filled with
3107:
Shigley, James (2000). "Treated and synthetic gem materials".
1611:
Simply Gemstones: Designs for Creating Beaded Gemstone Jewelry
1505:(meaning gemstone in French) and the single of the same name.
943:
939:
1690:
4357:
3788:
2524:
Gemstone Enhancement: History, Science and State of the Art
1150:
and are colored by the same trace materials, have the same
3457:"A brief overview of gem materials: Natural and synthetic"
2432:"Padparadscha Sapphires: 10 Tips On Judging The Rare Gem"
1327:
Gemstones created from the flame-fusion process may have
1139:
have been manufactured in large quantities as industrial
993:
where the industry serves as a crucial source of income.
862:, and partial heating with a strong gradient results in "
963:
particular). Such treatments are fairly easy to detect.
774:
A variety of semiprecious stones in a piece of jewellery
338:). Many gems are crystals which are classified by their
2615:. Associação Brasileira de Energia Nuclear. p. 1.
2224:"Geographic Origin Determination of ParaĂba Tourmaline"
2192:
Gemstone Energy Medicine: Healing Body, Mind and Spirit
1976:
AskOxford.com Concise Oxford English dictionary online.
1369:
Auguste Verneuil – creator of flame-fusion process 1902
639:(AGS) is not as widely recognized nor as old as the GIA
598:
who also value gemstones on the basis of their alleged
405:(pink), which are all varieties of the mineral species
3040:"New process promises bigger, better diamond crystals"
2965:
Dissanayake, C. B.; Rupasinghe, M. S. (October 1996).
2078:
Church, A.H. (1905). "Definition of Precious Stones".
672:
GĂĽbelin Gem Lab, the traditional Swiss lab founded by
377:. For example, ruby is the red variety of the species
2654:
Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Kammerling, Robert C. (1991).
2282:"Rapaport report of ICA Gemstone Conference in Dubai"
3591:"A peek into the history of sapphire crystal growth"
1352:
Gemstones created from hydrothermal growth may have
762:
Nearly 300 variations of diamond color exhibited at
289:, who describe gems and their characteristics using
5279:
5222:
5144:
4915:
4852:
4791:
4753:
4746:
4706:
4608:
4562:
4555:
4395:
4294:
4182:
4120:
4067:
4058:
3971:
3931:
3888:
3843:
3833:
3495:"Study on inclusions in natural and synthetic gems"
2903:
Global Report on Artisanal & Small-Scale Mining
2864:"Clean artisanal gold mining: a utopian approach?"
2339:
2164:"Pricing of Colored Gemstones | Joseph Menzie Inc"
1345:small cavities which are filled with flux solution
1341:Gemstones created from flux melt process may have
1080:Examples of simulated or imitation stones include
266:are relatively inexpensive, a green garnet called
19:Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see
3292:"Historical aspects of crystal growth technology"
2407:"Ruby and Sapphire: Gems of the Mineral Corundum"
1501:was inspired by the gemstones for her 2017 album
151:may be used in jewelry because of their color or
3238:Hervey, P. R.; Foise, J. W. (February 1, 2001).
2905:. Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development.
866:" – a stone partly amethyst and partly citrine.
706:Stones cut as smooth, dome-shaped stones called
3652:"10 Gems Rarer and More Valuable Than Diamonds"
3207:
3205:
2649:
2647:
2526:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann.
2101:
2099:
2097:
2095:
1824:"Crystal Habits and Forms of Minerals and Gems"
1077:), glass, plastic, resins, or other compounds.
915:The irradiation process is widely practiced in
725:Stones which are opaque or semi-opaque such as
3391:
3389:
3285:
3283:
3281:
2971:International Journal of Environmental Studies
2517:
2515:
2109:, Brunswick House Press, Lenox, Massachusetts.
2088:on September 29, 2007 – via Farlang.com.
258:. Other stones are classified by their color,
4373:
3804:
1348:inclusions in the gemstone from crucible used
1266:Nickel, chromium and iron for orange sapphire
984:Socioeconomic issues in the gemstone industry
107:which, when cut or polished, is used to make
16:Piece of mineral crystal used to make jewelry
8:
3355:
3353:
3351:
3349:
3347:
3345:
3076:"An Introduction to Synthetic Gem Materials"
2707:Nuclear Regulatory Commission (April 2019).
1229:Verneuil flame fusion process (melt process)
285:In modern times gemstones are identified by
3134:Elwell, Dennis (1981). Nassau, Kurt (ed.).
2769:(2). Gemological Institute of America: 70.
1334:visible banding from formation of the boule
4750:
4559:
4380:
4366:
4358:
4328:
4064:
3840:
3811:
3797:
3789:
3488:
3486:
2557:"The Early History of Gemstone Treatments"
2484:
2482:
1879:. Princeton University Press. p. 47.
3646:
3644:
3069:
3067:
3065:
3063:
3061:
2774:
1927:Hurrell, Karen; Johnson, Mary L. (2017).
1575:. Oxford University Press. Archived from
1260:Iron and titanium oxide for blue sapphire
135:materials that are not minerals (such as
1691:"Soft Gemstones and Minerals | Gem5.com"
1108:than diamond. Moissanite actually has a
901:the water when metal parts are heated).
365:Gemstones are classified into different
193:
43:
3711:from the original on December 13, 2017.
3419:
3417:
2606:Omi, Nelson M.; Rela, Paulo R. (2007).
1560:
766:at the Natural History Museum in London
717:by polishing small flat windows called
661:Asian Institute of Gemological Sciences
155:or other physical properties that have
3635:
3542:"Synthetic Gem Materials in the 1980s"
2719:from the original on September 1, 2022
2709:"Backgrounder on Irradiated Gemstones"
2367:Vargas, Glenn; Vargas, Martha (2002).
2130:from the original on November 6, 2014.
1298:Hydrothermal growth (solution process)
210:the rough stones, except the ruby and
3570:from the original on November 1, 2021
3240:"Synthetic quartz crystal — A review"
3046:from the original on December 1, 2010
2803:
2801:
2754:"Color in Gems: The New Technologies"
2684:from the original on November 4, 2022
2442:from the original on January 19, 2018
2305:
2303:
2170:from the original on October 27, 2021
2152:from the original on August 28, 2017.
1906:. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 13.
721:at regular intervals at exact angles.
7:
3479:from the original on April 15, 2023.
3244:Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration
3042:. Carnegie Institution for Science.
2569:from the original on January 2, 2023
1876:Gemstones: A Concise Reference Guide
1455:Black Opal – the rarest type of opal
846:include oiling and dyeing/staining.
476:Spanish emerald and gold pendant at
226:, begins with a distinction between
3662:from the original on March 31, 2023
3436:from the original on March 22, 2023
3330:from the original on April 15, 2023
3190:from the original on April 15, 2023
3088:from the original on April 15, 2023
2490:"An Introduction to Gem Treatments"
1716:"Gemstone Hardness and Wearability"
1666:"Gemopedia - Gemstone Encyclopedia"
1020:Another such issue revolves around
625:International Gemological Institute
3455:Jayaraman, A (December 28, 2023).
2752:Rossman, George R. (Summer 1981).
2738:from websites or documents of the
2500:from the original on April 6, 2023
2288:from the original on July 26, 2011
2230:from the original on April 9, 2022
1280:Czochralski process (melt process)
1065:Synthetic and artificial gemstones
560:exceeds those of other gemstones.
190:Characteristics and classification
14:
3595:Window and Dome Technologies VIII
2589:"Tanzanite heating – the science"
2436:The Natural Sapphire Company Blog
1806:, Brunswick House Press, pp. 3–8
1757:. Dover Publications. p. 2.
4339:
4327:
3777:
3763:
3751:
3739:
3493:Li, Zhaolin (December 1, 2001).
3290:Scheel, Hans J (April 1, 2000).
3025:Jewelers' circular-keystone: JCK
2841:10.1111/j.1467-7660.2007.00431.x
2734: This article incorporates
2729:
1873:Hansen, Robin (April 12, 2022).
1263:Nickel oxide for yellow sapphire
619:Gemological Institute of America
493:Gemological Institute of America
3941:Yellow, Green, Violet Sapphires
3499:Chinese Journal of Geochemistry
3152:10.1126/science.211.4487.1156.a
2944:10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.102947
2325:"A Guide to Gem Cutting Styles"
2311:"A Guide to Gem Cutting Styles"
2250:"International Gem Society LLC"
2142:"A complete guide to Gemstones"
37:Precious stone (disambiguation)
2284:. Diamonds.net. May 16, 2007.
2043:, Brunswick House Press, p. 15
2023:, Brunswick House Press, p.36
1853:www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
1415:Red Beryl - discovered in 1940
1356:inclusions from container used
1289:Flux growth (solution process)
1272:Copper for blue-green sapphire
1:
3768:The dictionary definition of
3683:"Hibonite: A New Gem Mineral"
3316:10.1016/S0022-0248(99)00780-0
2880:10.1016/s0959-6526(02)00031-8
2868:Journal of Cleaner Production
2823:Fisher, Eleanor (July 2007).
2713:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
1931:. New York: Chartwell Books.
1275:Cobalt for dark blue sapphire
4333:List of gemstones by species
4302:List of individual gemstones
3963:Precious White and Fire Opal
3785:travel guide from Wikivoyage
2465:. London u.a: Butterworths.
1530:List of individual gemstones
1525:List of gemstones by species
713:Stones which are cut with a
667:Swiss Gemmological Institute
637:American Gemological Society
1269:Manganese for pink sapphire
1092:, and uncolored, synthetic
1008:and exploitation. Gemstone
5412:
2901:Hentschel, Thomas (2002).
1015:socio-economic disparities
908:
478:Victoria and Albert Museum
170:, a gem maker is called a
18:
5317:
4325:
4317:List of sapphires by size
3826:
3430:International Gem Society
3400:. John Wiley & Sons.
3398:Crystal Growth Technology
3364:. Butterworth-Heinemann.
3296:Journal of Crystal Growth
3004:Harrington, Alexandra R.
2983:10.1080/00207239608711069
2195:. Natural Healing Press.
2054:"Zoning (Colour Banding)"
1996:"Inclusions in Gemstones"
1590:Webster Online Dictionary
1545:List of sapphires by size
1497:French singer-songwriter
1209:clocks, and oscillators.
1022:environmental degradation
293:specific to the field of
21:Gemstone (disambiguation)
4312:List of emeralds by size
3218:pubs.geoscienceworld.org
3028:. Chilton Company. 1994.
2740:United States Government
2342:Introduction to Lapidary
2338:Kraus, Pansy D. (2007).
2120:"5 Most Precious Stones"
1540:List of emeralds by size
814:. With iron, it becomes
4882:Nickel silver (alpacca)
3360:Read, Peter G. (1999).
2346:. Krause Publications.
1900:Read, Peter G. (2005).
1047:sustainable development
794:atoms. These so-called
354:. Another term used is
50:clockwise from top left
33:Jewels (disambiguation)
3744:Quotations related to
2829:Development and Change
2808:Hilson, Gavin (2016).
2736:public domain material
2371:. G. & M. Vargas.
2189:Katz, Michael (2005).
1456:
1416:
1386:List of rare gemstones
1370:
1324:
1319:Visible banding in an
1257:Chromic oxide for ruby
1238:
976:
959:
775:
767:
750:polish curved facets.
699:
631:Hoge Raad Voor Diamant
488:
480:
219:
73:
5223:Other natural objects
3880:Natural marine pearls
3702:10.5741/GEMS.46.2.135
3540:Nassau, Kurt (1990).
3396:Scheel, Hans (2003).
3136:"Synthetic Gemstones"
2794:on November 12, 2022.
2555:Nassau, Kurt (1984).
2522:Nassau, Kurt (1994).
2461:Nassau, Kurt (1984).
2369:Faceting For Amateurs
1608:Alden, Nancy (2009).
1454:
1414:
1368:
1318:
1236:
974:
957:
810:, beryl becomes pink
788:padparadscha sapphire
773:
761:
694:
687:Cutting and polishing
486:
475:
291:technical terminology
197:
47:
25:Gems (disambiguation)
5376:Jewellery components
4698:Wire wrapped jewelry
4678:Repoussé and chasing
3999:, pink, yellow-green
3760:at Wikimedia Commons
3727:. RTL. 19 July 2017.
3561:10.5741/GEMS.26.1.50
2776:10.5741/GEMS.17.2.60
2126:. November 9, 2009.
1162:, and show the same
991:developing countries
911:Gemstone irradiation
806:is added instead of
695:A diamond cutter in
299:chemical composition
29:Gem (disambiguation)
5240:Ebonite (vulcanite)
4346:Minerals portal
3918:Precious Black Opal
3690:Gems & Gemology
3607:2003SPIE.5078....1H
3549:Gems & Gemology
3308:2000JCrGr.211....1S
3214:"Synthetic emerald"
3212:Lefever, R (1982).
2762:Gems & Gemology
2632:on October 21, 2022
2105:Wise, R. W., 2003,
2039:Wise, R. W., 2006,
2019:Wise, R. W., 2006,
1802:Wise, R. W., 2006,
1751:Bauer, Max (1968).
1100:; all of which are
1073:different mineral (
1035:water contamination
858:is made by heating
454:absorption spectrum
440:. They may exhibit
182:cutter is called a
131:) and occasionally
4585:Jewellery designer
4168:Opaque iridescent
4059:Jewelry-Industrial
4005:yellow, blue, pink
3511:10.1007/BF03166857
3256:10.1007/BF03402862
2665:Wiley-Interscience
1646:. January 19, 2024
1644:www.britannica.com
1595:2007-06-03 at the
1579:on March 21, 2020.
1550:Luminous gemstones
1493:In popular culture
1457:
1417:
1371:
1325:
1239:
1186:Synthetic corundum
1137:synthetic diamonds
977:
960:
776:
768:
764:the Aurora display
700:
489:
481:
452:and a distinctive
220:
166:A gem expert is a
94:semiprecious stone
74:
56:, uncut synthetic
35:, and
5358:
5357:
5275:
5274:
5145:Organic gemstones
4742:
4741:
4355:
4354:
4183:Industrial stones
4178:
4177:
4054:
4053:
3756:Media related to
3656:The Spruce Crafts
3615:10.1117/12.501428
3467:(11): 1555–1565.
3115:(11): 1566–1571.
2622:978-85-99141-02-1
2472:978-0-408-01447-2
2438:. April 6, 2015.
2148:. April 2, 2015.
2146:Jewellery Monthly
2124:HowStuffWorks.com
1957:www.gemstones.com
1938:978-0-7858-3498-4
1913:978-0-7506-6449-3
1886:978-0-691-21448-1
1670:www.gemstones.com
1625:978-0-307-45135-4
1102:diamond simulants
1088:oxide, synthetic
1037:thus threatening
998:natural resources
513:(star effects).
507:optical phenomena
446:double refraction
5403:
4802:Britannia silver
4751:
4560:
4382:
4375:
4368:
4359:
4344:
4343:
4342:
4331:
4330:
4307:List of diamonds
4065:
3841:
3813:
3806:
3799:
3790:
3781:
3767:
3755:
3743:
3728:
3723:
3719:
3713:
3712:
3710:
3687:
3678:
3672:
3671:
3669:
3667:
3648:
3639:
3633:
3627:
3626:
3586:
3580:
3579:
3577:
3575:
3569:
3546:
3537:
3531:
3530:
3490:
3481:
3480:
3452:
3446:
3445:
3443:
3441:
3421:
3412:
3411:
3393:
3384:
3383:
3357:
3340:
3339:
3337:
3335:
3287:
3276:
3275:
3235:
3229:
3228:
3226:
3224:
3209:
3200:
3199:
3197:
3195:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3104:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3093:
3087:
3080:
3071:
3056:
3055:
3053:
3051:
3036:
3030:
3029:
3020:
3014:
3013:
3001:
2995:
2994:
2962:
2956:
2955:
2932:Resources Policy
2923:
2917:
2916:
2898:
2892:
2891:
2859:
2853:
2852:
2820:
2814:
2813:
2805:
2796:
2795:
2793:
2787:. Archived from
2778:
2758:
2749:
2743:
2733:
2732:
2728:
2726:
2724:
2704:
2698:
2697:
2691:
2689:
2683:
2662:
2651:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2631:
2625:. Archived from
2614:
2603:
2597:
2596:
2595:on 20 June 2016.
2591:. Archived from
2585:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2574:
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2110:
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2090:
2089:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2058:www.gemporia.com
2050:
2044:
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2031:
2017:
2011:
2010:
2008:
2006:
1992:
1986:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1968:
1967:
1965:
1963:
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1653:
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1636:
1630:
1629:
1614:. New York, NY:
1605:
1599:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1565:
1535:List of diamonds
1237:Verneuil furnace
1221:Creation process
1213:Synthetic spinel
1204:Synthetic quartz
1195:Synthetic beryls
1168:refractive index
950:Fracture filling
917:jewelry industry
715:faceting machine
448:. They may have
426:specific gravity
414:refractive index
337:
336:
335:
327:
326:
313:) and rubies of
312:
100:) is a piece of
72:crystal cluster.
5411:
5410:
5406:
5405:
5404:
5402:
5401:
5400:
5361:
5360:
5359:
5354:
5313:
5271:
5260:Spondylus shell
5218:
5140:
4911:
4897:Stainless steel
4848:
4832:Sterling silver
4792:Precious metal
4787:
4755:Precious metals
4738:
4702:
4604:
4551:
4391:
4386:
4356:
4351:
4340:
4338:
4321:
4290:
4174:
4116:
4060:
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3534:
3492:
3491:
3484:
3461:Current Science
3454:
3453:
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3423:
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3408:
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3372:
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3333:
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3232:
3222:
3220:
3211:
3210:
3203:
3193:
3191:
3133:
3132:
3128:
3109:Current Science
3106:
3105:
3101:
3091:
3089:
3085:
3078:
3073:
3072:
3059:
3049:
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3038:
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2701:
2687:
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2667:. p. 170.
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2222:
2221:
2217:
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2188:
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2140:
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2135:
2118:
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2062:
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2018:
2014:
2004:
2002:
1994:
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1989:
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1971:
1961:
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1765:
1754:Precious Stones
1750:
1749:
1745:
1735:
1733:
1732:. March 1, 2024
1728:
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1618:. p. 136.
1607:
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1597:Wayback Machine
1588:
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1567:
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1495:
1388:
1363:
1309:
1307:Characteristics
1300:
1291:
1282:
1231:
1223:
1215:
1206:
1197:
1188:
1180:
1067:
986:
969:
952:
936:
921:nuclear reactor
913:
907:
852:
844:Pliny the Elder
839:Natural History
833:
824:
756:
689:
612:
596:energy medicine
552:and cat's eye (
500:mnemonic device
470:
334:
331:
330:
329:
325:
322:
321:
320:
318:
315:aluminium oxide
310:
301:. For example,
192:
157:aesthetic value
80:(also called a
40:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5409:
5407:
5399:
5398:
5393:
5388:
5383:
5378:
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5362:
5356:
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5332:
5327:
5322:
5321:Related topics
5318:
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4708:
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4703:
4701:
4700:
4695:
4693:Wire sculpture
4690:
4685:
4680:
4675:
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4665:
4660:
4655:
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4645:
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4407:
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4393:
4392:
4387:
4385:
4384:
4377:
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4362:
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4326:
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4322:
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4309:
4304:
4298:
4296:
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4288:
4274:
4260:
4252:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4226:
4221:
4215:
4205:
4203:Petrified wood
4200:
4192:
4186:
4184:
4180:
4179:
4176:
4175:
4173:
4172:
4166:
4160:
4155:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4126:
4124:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4094:
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4084:
4079:
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4071:
4062:
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4055:
4052:
4051:
4049:
4048:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4011:
4006:
4000:
3990:
3989:, polychromous
3984:
3977:
3975:
3969:
3968:
3966:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3948:
3943:
3937:
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3910:
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3900:
3894:
3892:
3886:
3885:
3883:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3851:
3849:
3838:
3831:
3830:
3827:
3824:
3823:
3818:
3816:
3815:
3808:
3801:
3793:
3787:
3786:
3775:
3761:
3749:
3735:
3734:External links
3732:
3730:
3729:
3714:
3696:(2): 135–138.
3673:
3640:
3638:, p. 206.
3628:
3601:. SPIE: 1–11.
3581:
3532:
3505:(4): 324–332.
3482:
3447:
3413:
3406:
3385:
3370:
3341:
3277:
3230:
3201:
3146:(4487): 1156.
3126:
3099:
3057:
3031:
3015:
2996:
2957:
2918:
2911:
2893:
2854:
2835:(4): 735–760.
2815:
2797:
2744:
2699:
2673:
2643:
2621:
2598:
2580:
2547:
2532:
2511:
2478:
2471:
2453:
2423:
2398:
2393:"Seeing Color"
2384:
2377:
2359:
2352:
2330:
2316:
2299:
2273:
2255:
2241:
2215:
2201:
2181:
2155:
2133:
2111:
2091:
2070:
2045:
2032:
2012:
1987:
1978:
1969:
1944:
1937:
1919:
1912:
1892:
1885:
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1840:
1815:
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1770:
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1332:
1308:
1305:
1299:
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1230:
1227:
1222:
1219:
1214:
1211:
1205:
1202:
1196:
1193:
1187:
1184:
1179:
1176:
1164:color spectrum
1084:, composed of
1082:cubic zirconia
1066:
1063:
985:
982:
968:
965:
951:
948:
935:
932:
926:Virtually all
909:Main article:
906:
903:
851:
848:
832:
829:
823:
820:
755:
752:
743:faceted stones
723:
722:
711:
688:
685:
677:
676:
674:Eduard GĂĽbelin
670:
664:
658:
655:
652:
649:
646:
643:
640:
634:
628:
622:
611:
608:
469:
466:
401:(yellow), and
340:crystal system
332:
323:
224:ancient Greeks
191:
188:
90:precious stone
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5408:
5397:
5396:Stone objects
5394:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5377:
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5366:
5351:
5348:
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5343:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5325:Body piercing
5323:
5320:
5319:
5316:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5299:
5296:
5293:
5290:
5288:
5285:
5284:
5282:
5278:
5268:
5265:
5261:
5258:
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5256:
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5248:
5246:
5243:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5228:
5227:
5225:
5221:
5215:
5214:Tortoiseshell
5212:
5210:
5207:
5205:
5202:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5187:
5183:
5180:
5178:
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5170:
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5150:
5149:
5147:
5143:
5137:
5134:
5132:
5129:
5127:
5124:
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5119:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5107:
5104:
5102:
5099:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5084:
5082:
5079:
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5069:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5039:
5037:
5034:
5032:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4967:
4964:
4962:
4959:
4957:
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4951:
4947:
4944:
4942:
4939:
4937:
4934:
4932:
4929:
4927:
4924:
4923:
4921:
4919:
4914:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4859:
4857:
4855:
4851:
4845:
4842:
4838:
4835:
4834:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
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4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4799:
4797:
4795:
4790:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
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4756:
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4749:
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4735:
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4727:
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4715:
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4709:
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4696:
4694:
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4676:
4674:
4671:
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4637:
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4629:
4627:
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4607:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4570:Bench jeweler
4568:
4567:
4565:
4561:
4558:
4554:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
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4508:
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4503:
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4264:
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4147:
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4141:
4138:
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4133:
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4128:
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4125:
4123:
4119:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4102:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
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4075:
4074:
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4070:
4066:
4063:
4057:
4047:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4004:
4001:
3998:
3994:
3991:
3988:
3985:
3982:
3979:
3978:
3976:
3974:
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3961:
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3949:
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3942:
3939:
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3934:
3930:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3898:Pink sapphire
3896:
3895:
3893:
3891:
3887:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3870:Blue Sapphire
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3852:
3850:
3848:
3847:
3842:
3839:
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3825:
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3814:
3809:
3807:
3802:
3800:
3795:
3794:
3791:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3774:at Wiktionary
3773:
3772:
3766:
3762:
3759:
3754:
3750:
3747:
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3738:
3737:
3733:
3726:
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3600:
3596:
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3496:
3489:
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3478:
3474:
3470:
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3462:
3458:
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3448:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3409:
3407:9780470871683
3403:
3399:
3392:
3390:
3386:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3371:0-7506-4411-7
3367:
3363:
3356:
3354:
3352:
3350:
3348:
3346:
3342:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
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3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3286:
3284:
3282:
3278:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
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3215:
3208:
3206:
3202:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3130:
3127:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3103:
3100:
3084:
3077:
3070:
3068:
3066:
3064:
3062:
3058:
3045:
3041:
3035:
3032:
3027:
3026:
3019:
3016:
3011:
3010:Research Gate
3007:
3000:
2997:
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2958:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2922:
2919:
2914:
2912:9978-40-971-8
2908:
2904:
2897:
2894:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2874:(2): 99–115.
2873:
2869:
2865:
2858:
2855:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2819:
2816:
2811:
2804:
2802:
2798:
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2777:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2763:
2755:
2748:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2703:
2700:
2695:
2680:
2676:
2674:0-471-52667-3
2670:
2666:
2659:
2658:
2650:
2648:
2644:
2628:
2624:
2618:
2611:
2610:
2602:
2599:
2594:
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2584:
2581:
2565:
2558:
2551:
2548:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2533:9780750617970
2529:
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2408:
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2399:
2394:
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2385:
2380:
2378:9780917646096
2374:
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2355:
2353:9780801972669
2349:
2344:
2343:
2334:
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2326:
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2317:
2312:
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2300:
2287:
2283:
2277:
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2259:
2256:
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2245:
2242:
2229:
2225:
2219:
2216:
2204:
2202:9780924700248
2198:
2194:
2193:
2185:
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2169:
2165:
2159:
2156:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2115:
2112:
2108:
2102:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2082:
2074:
2071:
2059:
2055:
2049:
2046:
2042:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2029:0-9728223-8-0
2026:
2022:
2016:
2013:
2001:
1997:
1991:
1988:
1982:
1979:
1973:
1970:
1958:
1954:
1948:
1945:
1940:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1920:
1915:
1909:
1905:
1904:
1896:
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1869:
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1854:
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1844:
1841:
1829:
1825:
1819:
1816:
1813:
1812:0-9728223-8-0
1809:
1805:
1799:
1796:
1784:
1783:www.leysen.eu
1780:
1774:
1771:
1766:
1764:9780486219103
1760:
1756:
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1744:
1731:
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1538:
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1533:
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1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1515:Assembled gem
1513:
1512:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1499:Nolwenn Leroy
1492:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1467:Grandidierite
1465:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1453:
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1428:
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1343:
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1218:
1212:
1210:
1203:
1201:
1194:
1192:
1185:
1183:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1172:birefringence
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1144:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
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1103:
1099:
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1083:
1078:
1076:
1070:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1056:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1027:deforestation
1023:
1018:
1016:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
994:
992:
983:
981:
973:
966:
964:
956:
949:
947:
945:
941:
934:Waxing/oiling
933:
931:
929:
924:
922:
918:
912:
904:
902:
899:
895:
891:
886:
884:
880:
876:
871:
869:
865:
861:
857:
849:
847:
845:
841:
840:
831:Early history
830:
828:
821:
819:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
791:
789:
785:
780:
772:
765:
760:
753:
751:
748:
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738:
736:
732:
728:
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709:
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703:
698:
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686:
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566:
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547:
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531:
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519:
514:
512:
508:
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501:
496:
494:
485:
479:
474:
467:
465:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
418:birefringence
415:
410:
408:
404:
400:
397:(colorless),
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
363:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
316:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
283:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
232:semi-precious
229:
225:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
196:
189:
187:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
164:
160:
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150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
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118:
114:
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99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
5350:Wearable art
5345:Phaleristics
5340:Metalworking
5245:Gutta-percha
5021:Lapis lazuli
4917:
4807:Colored gold
4688:Stonesetting
4337:
4281:Pyrophyllite
4250:Serpentinite
4231:(green mica)
4121:
4101:Baltic amber
4068:
3972:
3932:
3889:
3844:
3819:
3770:
3748:at Wikiquote
3717:
3693:
3689:
3676:
3664:. Retrieved
3655:
3631:
3598:
3594:
3584:
3572:. Retrieved
3555:(1): 50–63.
3552:
3548:
3535:
3502:
3498:
3464:
3460:
3450:
3438:. Retrieved
3429:
3424:Arem, Joel.
3397:
3361:
3332:. Retrieved
3299:
3295:
3247:
3243:
3233:
3221:. Retrieved
3217:
3192:. Retrieved
3143:
3139:
3129:
3112:
3108:
3102:
3090:. Retrieved
3048:. Retrieved
3034:
3024:
3018:
3009:
2999:
2977:(1): 35–50.
2974:
2970:
2960:
2935:
2931:
2921:
2902:
2896:
2871:
2867:
2857:
2832:
2828:
2818:
2789:the original
2766:
2760:
2747:
2723:November 12,
2721:. Retrieved
2702:
2692:– via
2686:. Retrieved
2656:
2634:. Retrieved
2627:the original
2608:
2601:
2593:the original
2583:
2571:. Retrieved
2550:
2523:
2502:. Retrieved
2493:
2462:
2456:
2444:. Retrieved
2435:
2426:
2414:. Retrieved
2410:
2401:
2387:
2368:
2362:
2341:
2333:
2319:
2290:. Retrieved
2276:
2268:Bangkok Post
2267:
2258:
2244:
2232:. Retrieved
2218:
2206:. Retrieved
2191:
2184:
2172:. Retrieved
2158:
2145:
2136:
2123:
2114:
2106:
2086:the original
2080:
2073:
2061:. Retrieved
2057:
2048:
2040:
2035:
2020:
2015:
2003:. Retrieved
1999:
1990:
1981:
1972:
1960:. Retrieved
1956:
1947:
1928:
1922:
1902:
1895:
1875:
1868:
1856:. Retrieved
1852:
1843:
1831:. Retrieved
1827:
1818:
1803:
1798:
1788:February 10,
1786:. Retrieved
1782:
1773:
1753:
1746:
1734:. Retrieved
1724:
1710:
1698:. Retrieved
1694:
1685:
1673:. Retrieved
1669:
1660:
1648:. Retrieved
1643:
1634:
1616:Random House
1610:
1603:
1585:
1577:the original
1572:
1563:
1502:
1496:
1473:Poudretteite
1427:Jeremejevite
1380:
1376:
1372:
1351:
1340:
1326:
1310:
1301:
1292:
1283:
1252:
1247:
1244:
1240:
1224:
1216:
1207:
1198:
1189:
1181:
1145:
1114:
1109:
1079:
1071:
1068:
1059:
1055:supply chain
1051:
1043:biodiversity
1031:soil erosion
1019:
995:
987:
978:
961:
937:
925:
914:
887:
872:
853:
837:
834:
825:
792:
781:
777:
739:
724:
701:
682:
678:
613:
604:
593:
589:
562:
558:
515:
504:
497:
490:
450:luminescence
411:
374:
370:
366:
364:
305:are made of
284:
260:translucency
231:
227:
221:
202:of gemstone
165:
161:
149:brazilianite
121:lapis lazuli
97:
96:, or simply
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
75:
49:
41:
5287:Art jewelry
5111:Tiger's eye
5016:Labradorite
4966:Chrysocolla
4961:Chrysoberyl
4877:Mokume-gane
4854:Base metals
4626:centrifugal
4595:Silversmith
4470:Ferronnière
4420:Belt buckle
4415:Belly chain
4263:Ophicalcite
4144:Colorless,
4107:Chrysoprase
4018:Spessartine
3983:– Verdelite
3875:Alexandrite
3722:(in French)
3636:Hansen 2022
3302:(1): 1–12.
3074:Weldon, R.
2711:. The U.S.
2688:November 4,
2636:October 21,
2494:www.gia.edu
2446:January 19,
2411:geology.com
2174:October 27,
2000:www.gia.edu
1828:geology.com
1479:Serendibite
1433:Chambersite
873:Nearly all
816:aquamarine.
577:clinohumite
573:cassiterite
458:first water
442:pleochroism
360:octahedrons
287:gemologists
276:archaeology
272:art history
252:translucent
184:diamantaire
5386:Mineralogy
5365:Categories
5121:Tourmaline
5066:Prasiolite
4941:Aventurine
4812:Crown gold
4714:Draw plate
4663:Metal clay
4600:Watchmaker
4590:Lapidarist
4575:Clockmaker
4450:Collar pin
4445:Chatelaine
4267:Serpentine
4255:Aventurine
4229:Listwanite
4020:(malaya),
3987:Indicolite
3981:Tourmaline
3954:(Imperial)
3946:Aquamarine
3250:(1): 1–4.
3050:January 7,
2938:: 102947.
2694:LibreTexts
1569:"Gemstone"
1556:References
1485:Zektzerite
1461:Black opal
1445:Musgravite
1090:moissanite
1039:ecosystems
928:blue topaz
890:boric acid
868:Aquamarine
796:impurities
565:andalusite
546:aquamarine
462:inclusions
422:dispersion
387:aquamarine
352:monoclinic
256:Mohs scale
212:tourmaline
200:collection
172:lapidarist
168:gemologist
115:. Certain
113:adornments
5381:Materials
5371:Gemstones
5267:Toadstone
5204:Operculum
5131:Variscite
5126:Turquoise
5106:Tanzanite
5041:Moonstone
5036:Marcasite
5031:Malachite
4956:Carnelian
4931:Amazonite
4918:gemstones
4892:Pinchbeck
4837:Argentium
4827:Shibuichi
4768:Palladium
4747:Materials
4683:Soldering
4673:Polishing
4648:Engraving
4643:Enameling
4609:Processes
4580:Goldsmith
4515:Tie chain
4490:Neck ring
4480:Lapel pin
4389:Jewellery
4258:quartzite
4210:(Porouse
4208:Cacholong
4170:feldspars
4140:Rhodonite
4135:Amazonite
4122:2nd order
4092:Malachite
4069:1st order
4046:Turquoise
4026:Almandine
4022:Rhodolite
3973:4th order
3933:3rd order
3923:Tanzanite
3908:Tsavorite
3903:Demantoid
3890:2nd order
3846:1st order
3820:Gemstones
3771:gemstones
3758:Gemstones
3666:March 31,
3623:109528895
3574:April 15,
3527:129031255
3519:1993-0364
3440:March 30,
3380:807757024
3362:Gemmology
3334:April 15,
3324:0022-0248
3272:140031745
3264:2524-3470
3223:March 15,
3194:April 15,
3184:239860410
3160:0036-8075
3092:April 14,
2991:0020-7233
2952:0301-4207
2888:0959-6526
2849:0012-155X
2785:0016-626X
2573:March 31,
2504:March 31,
2234:March 17,
1903:Gemmology
1849:"Diamond"
1439:Taaffeite
1421:Red beryl
1398:Tanzanite
1141:abrasives
1125:sapphires
1086:zirconium
967:Bleaching
905:Radiation
894:sapphires
875:tanzanite
822:Treatment
812:morganite
804:manganese
735:variscite
731:turquoise
708:cabochons
697:Amsterdam
585:red beryl
554:cymophane
526:sapphires
403:morganite
395:goshenite
391:red beryl
385:(green),
375:varieties
280:hardstone
268:tsavorite
176:gemcutter
119:(such as
111:or other
5391:Minerals
5335:Gemology
5309:Fineness
5300:(purity)
5235:Bog-wood
5182:Precious
5162:Ammolite
5101:Sunstone
5091:Sodalite
5086:Sapphire
5046:Obsidian
4986:Fluorite
4976:Diopside
4936:Amethyst
4916:Mineral
4907:Tungsten
4902:Titanium
4817:Electrum
4773:Platinum
4658:Kazaziye
4653:Filigree
4631:lost-wax
4530:Toe ring
4520:Tie clip
4495:Pectoral
4485:Necklace
4460:Cufflink
4435:Bracelet
4430:Bolo tie
4410:Barrette
4277:Pagodite
4245:Fluorite
4240:Selenite
4224:Obsidian
4158:Hematite
4112:Charoite
4087:Nephrite
4077:Lazurite
4035:Amethyst
3997:Heliodor
3783:Gemstone
3746:Gemstone
3706:Archived
3660:Archived
3565:Archived
3477:Archived
3473:24104848
3434:Archived
3328:Archived
3188:Archived
3176:17755153
3121:24104849
3083:Archived
3044:Archived
2717:Archived
2679:Archived
2657:Gemology
2564:Archived
2542:28889342
2498:Archived
2440:Archived
2416:March 1,
2292:July 30,
2286:Archived
2228:Archived
2208:April 6,
2168:Archived
2150:Archived
2128:Archived
2063:March 1,
2005:March 1,
1962:March 1,
1858:March 1,
1833:March 1,
1736:March 1,
1700:March 1,
1695:gem5.com
1675:March 1,
1650:March 1,
1593:Archived
1520:Gemology
1509:See also
1405:Hibonite
1323:gemstone
1160:strength
1152:hardness
1133:corundum
1129:emeralds
1117:diamonds
1094:corundum
879:sapphire
864:ametrine
860:amethyst
808:chromium
784:corundum
602:powers.
542:amethyst
530:emeralds
518:diamonds
438:fracture
434:cleavage
430:hardness
399:heliodor
389:(blue),
379:corundum
348:trigonal
342:such as
303:diamonds
295:gemology
244:sapphire
228:precious
216:abrasive
208:tumbling
206:made by
129:obsidian
82:fine gem
78:gemstone
70:amethyst
64:, uncut
58:sapphire
5330:Fashion
5304:Finding
5152:Abalone
5061:Peridot
5026:Larimar
5011:Kyanite
4996:Howlite
4981:Emerald
4971:Diamond
4844:Tumbaga
4822:ShakudĹŤ
4778:Rhodium
4729:Mandrel
4668:Plating
4621:Casting
4616:Carving
4525:Tie pin
4500:Pendant
4475:Genital
4465:Earring
4295:Related
4271:Calcite
4217:Marble
4198:granite
4195:Graphic
4162:Common
4082:Jadeite
4040:Citrine
4014:Garnets
4009:Peridot
3958:Elbaite
3950:Orange
3865:Emerald
3855:Diamond
3835:Jewelry
3603:Bibcode
3304:Bibcode
3168:1685235
3140:Science
1401:heated.
1392:Painite
1361:History
1321:apatite
1156:density
1148:mineral
1098:spinels
1006:poverty
856:citrine
747:optical
610:Grading
600:healing
581:painite
569:axinite
550:peridot
511:asteria
393:(red),
383:emerald
371:species
264:garnets
248:diamond
236:emerald
214:, with
204:pebbles
180:diamond
133:organic
109:jewelry
105:crystal
102:mineral
66:emerald
54:diamond
5294:(mass)
5230:Bezoar
5136:Zircon
5096:Spinel
5071:Quartz
5006:Jasper
4991:Garnet
4887:Pewter
4872:Copper
4867:Bronze
4794:alloys
4783:Silver
4734:Pliers
4724:Hammer
4636:vacuum
4563:People
4556:Making
4540:pocket
4440:Brooch
4405:Anklet
4190:Jasper
4153:quartz
4061:stones
4030:Pyrope
3913:Spinel
3837:stones
3621:
3525:
3517:
3471:
3404:
3378:
3368:
3322:
3270:
3262:
3182:
3174:
3166:
3158:
3119:
2989:
2950:
2909:
2886:
2847:
2783:
2671:
2619:
2540:
2530:
2469:
2375:
2350:
2199:
2027:
1935:
1910:
1883:
1810:
1761:
1622:
1573:Lexico
1170:, and
1127:, and
1121:rubies
1110:higher
1075:spinel
1033:, and
1010:mining
1002:Miners
898:rubies
754:Colors
719:facets
534:pearls
528:, and
522:rubies
436:, and
373:, and
367:groups
307:carbon
153:luster
143:, and
127:, and
68:, and
31:,
27:,
23:,
5298:Carat
5292:Carat
5280:Terms
5255:Shell
5209:Pearl
5199:Nacre
5189:Ivory
5177:Black
5172:Coral
5167:Copal
5157:Amber
5116:Topaz
5075:smoky
4946:Beryl
4926:Agate
4862:Brass
4707:Tools
4545:strap
4535:Watch
4510:Tiara
4455:Crown
4425:Bindi
4397:Forms
4146:smoky
4130:Agate
4097:Amber
4044:Blue
4003:Topaz
3993:Beryl
3952:topaz
3709:(PDF)
3686:(PDF)
3619:S2CID
3568:(PDF)
3545:(PDF)
3523:S2CID
3469:JSTOR
3268:S2CID
3180:S2CID
3164:JSTOR
3117:JSTOR
3086:(PDF)
3079:(PDF)
2792:(PDF)
2757:(PDF)
2682:(PDF)
2661:(PDF)
2630:(PDF)
2613:(PDF)
2567:(PDF)
2560:(PDF)
1503:Gemme
1488:1976.
1248:boule
1178:Types
800:beryl
468:Value
407:beryl
356:habit
344:cubic
145:pearl
137:amber
117:rocks
86:jewel
5250:Hair
5081:Ruby
5056:Opal
5051:Onyx
5001:Jade
4763:Gold
4719:File
4505:Ring
4285:Talc
4219:onyx
4212:opal
4164:opal
4150:pink
4148:and
3860:Ruby
3668:2023
3599:5078
3576:2023
3515:ISSN
3442:2023
3402:ISBN
3376:OCLC
3366:ISBN
3336:2023
3320:ISSN
3260:ISSN
3225:2023
3196:2023
3172:PMID
3156:ISSN
3094:2023
3052:2011
2987:ISSN
2948:ISSN
2907:ISBN
2884:ISSN
2845:ISSN
2781:ISSN
2725:2022
2690:2022
2669:ISBN
2638:2022
2617:ISBN
2575:2023
2538:OCLC
2528:ISBN
2506:2023
2467:ISBN
2448:2018
2418:2024
2373:ISBN
2348:ISBN
2294:2010
2236:2022
2210:2020
2197:ISBN
2176:2021
2065:2024
2025:ISBN
2007:2024
1964:2024
1933:ISBN
1908:ISBN
1881:ISBN
1860:2024
1835:2024
1808:ISBN
1790:2024
1759:ISBN
1738:2024
1702:2024
1677:2024
1652:2024
1620:ISBN
1158:and
1154:and
1106:hard
1041:and
883:ruby
881:and
850:Heat
727:opal
583:and
538:opal
536:and
274:and
246:and
240:ruby
230:and
178:; a
125:opal
62:ruby
5194:Jet
4950:red
4235:Jet
3698:doi
3611:doi
3557:doi
3507:doi
3312:doi
3300:211
3252:doi
3148:doi
3144:211
2979:doi
2940:doi
2876:doi
2837:doi
2771:doi
1096:or
944:oil
942:or
940:wax
896:or
842:by
790:".
444:or
350:or
346:or
278:is
174:or
141:jet
98:gem
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