Human sex ratio - Knowledge (XXG)

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changes in sex ratio over 250 years in Finland. This scientific team evaluated whether Finnish long-term data are compatible with the hypothesis that the decrease in the ratio of male to female births in industrial countries is caused by environmental factors. They analyzed the sex ratio of births from the files of Statistics Finland and all live births in Finland from 1751 to 1997. They found an increase in the proportion of males from 1751 to 1920; this was followed by a decrease and interrupted by peaks in births of males during and after World War I and World War II. None of the natural factors such as paternal age, maternal age, age difference of parents or birth order could explain the time trends. The scientists found that the peak sex ratio precedes the period of industrialization and the introduction of pesticides or hormonal drugs, rendering a causal association between environmental chemicals and human sex ratio at birth unlikely. Moreover, these scientists claim that the trends they found in Finland are similar to those observed in other countries with higher levels of pollution and much greater pesticide use.

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sex ratio should have been lower than expected in 1991, when East Germany's economy collapsed, than in previous years. The hypothesis further suggests that, over time, East German birth sex ratios should generally be lower than the observed sex ratios found in West Germany for the same years. According to Catalano's study, the birth sex ratio data from East Germany and West Germany over 45 years support the hypothesis. The sex ratio in East Germany was also at its lowest in 1991. According to Catalano's study, assuming women in East Germany did not opt to abort male fetuses more than female fetuses, the best hypothesis is that a collapsing economy lowers the human birth sex ratio, while a booming economy raises the birth sex ratio. Catalano notes that these trends may be related to the observed trend of an elevated occurrence of very

663:, a predominantly Muslim society. Since their independence from the Soviet Union, the birth sex ratio in these Caucasus countries has risen sharply, to between 1.11 and 1.20, among the world's highest. Mesle et al. consider the hypothesis that the high birth sex ratio may be because of the social trend of more than two children per family, and birth order possibly affects the sex ratio in this region of the world. They also consider the hypothesis that sons are preferred in these countries of the Caucasus, the spread of scans and there being a practice of sex-selective abortion; however, the scientists admit that they do not have definitive proof that sex-selective abortion is actually happening or that there are no natural reasons for the persistently high birth sex ratios. 577:

However, during this period, there were also shifts in demographics that influence the sex ratio. Controlling for birth order, parents' age, and race/ethnicity, different trends emerged. White births (which account for over 80%) continued to show a statistically significant decline, while other racial groups showed non-statistically significant declines (Japanese-American, Native American, other), with little or no change (Black American), or an increase (Chinese-American). Finally, when the white births were divided into Hispanic and non-Hispanic (possible since 1982), it was found that both white subgroups suggest an increase in male births." They concluded "that the decline in male births in California is largely attributable to changes in demographics."

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ratio in the 0–6 age bracket at 1.088. The 2011 birth sex ratios for China and India are significantly above the mean ratio recorded in the United States from 1940 through 2002 (1.051); however, their birth sex ratios are within the 0.98–1.14 range observed in the United States for major ethnic groups over the same time period. Along with Asian countries, a number of European, Middle Eastern, and Latin American countries have recently reported high birth sex ratios in the 1.06 to 1.14 range. High birth sex ratios, according to some studies, can be caused in part by social factors.

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environmental factors affect the probabilities of a baby being conceived male or female. It has been proposed that these environmental factors also explain sex differences in mortality. In most populations, adult males tend to have higher death rates than adult females of the same age (even after allowing for causes specific to females such as death in childbirth), due to both natural causes such as heart attacks and strokes, which account for by far the majority of deaths, and also violent causes, such as homicide and warfare. Thus females have a higher

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of variables and larger population set suggests human sex ratio shows substantial variation for various reasons and different trend effects of length of gestation than those reported by Ein-Mor. In another study, James has offered the hypothesis that human sex ratios, and mammalian sex ratios in general, are causally related to the hormone levels of both parents at the time of conception. This hypothesis is yet to be tested and proven true or false over large population sets.

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ages on birth sex ratios. Similarly, Jacobsen et al. have studied 820,000 births in Denmark with the same goal. These scientists find that maternal age has no statistically significant role on the human birth sex ratio. However, they report a significant effect of paternal age. Significantly more male babies were born per 1000 female babies to younger fathers than to older fathers. These studies suggest that social factors such as

477: 356:, gestation weeks, race, parent's health history, and parent's psychological stress. Remarkably, the trends in human sex ratio are not consistent across countries at a given time, or over time for a given country. In economically developed countries, as well as developing countries, these scientific studies have found that the human sex ratio at birth has historically varied between 0.94 and 1.15 for natural reasons. 633: 4455: 793: 729: 4443: 348:

and death records in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Australia, and Europe. A few of these studies extend to over 100 years of yearly human sex ratio data for some countries. These studies suggest that the human sex ratio, both at birth and as a population matures, can vary significantly according to a large number of factors, such as paternal age, maternal age,

675:), extremely premature newborns (less than 28 weeks gestational age, or less than 1000 grams in weight, or less than 35 centimeters in length) were not counted as a live birth until they had survived for seven days; if that infant died in those first 168 hours it, would not be counted as an infant death. This led to serious underreporting of the 788:

for the most severely affected age cohort (those between 21 and 23 years old in 1946). This same study found that out-of-wedlock births spiked from approximately 10–15% during the inter-war years up to 22% at the end of the war. This increase in out-of-wedlock births was attributed to a change in the

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Helle et al. studied 138 years of human birth sex ratio data, from 1865 to 2003. They find an increased excess of male births during periods of exogenous stress (World War II) and during warm years. In the warmest period over the 138 years, the birth sex ratio peaked at about 1.08 in Northern Europe.

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seem to affect the male-to-female ratio. However, there is a significant association of sex ratio with the length of gestation. These Ein-mor conclusions have been disputed. For example, James suggested that Ein-Mor results are based on some demographic variables and a small data set, a broader study

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High ratios of males have a positive effect on marital fertility and women's share of household consumption, and negative effects on non-marital cohabitation and fertility and women's labor supply. It has been shown that the labor supply of married women in the U.S., over time, varies inversely with

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and global warming. Several studies show that high temperature raises proportion of male births, but the reasons for this are disputed. Catalano et al. report that cold weather is an environmental stressor, and women subjected to colder weather abort frail male fetuses in greater proportion, thereby

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A 2009 research paper published by Branum et al. reports the sex ratio derived from data in United States birth records over a 25-year period (1981–2006). This paper reports that the sex ratio at birth for the white ethnic group in the United States was 1.04 when the gestational age was 33–36 weeks,

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In the United States, the sex ratios at birth over the period 1970–2002 were 1.05 for the white non-Hispanic population, 1.04 for Mexican Americans, 1.03 for African Americans and Indians, and 1.07 for mothers of Chinese or Filipino ethnicity. Among Western European countries around 2001, the ratios

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Human sex ratios, either at birth or in the population as a whole, can be reported in any of four ways: the ratio of males to females, the ratio of females to males, the proportion of males, or the proportion of females. If there are 108,000 males and 100,000 females the ratio of males to females is

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In a study around 2002, the natural sex ratio at birth was estimated to be within a narrow range of 1.07 to 1.03 males/female. Some scholars suggest that countries considered to have significant practices of prenatal sex-selection are those with birth sex ratios of 1.08 and above (selection against

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Some countries have a significant disparity between males and females in their population. As stated above, males usually exceed females at birth but subsequently experience different mortality rates due to many possible causes such as differential natural death rates, and increased accidental and

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from which both birth rates and death rates are calculated from the household's reporting of births and deaths in the 18 months preceding the census. To the extent that this underreporting of births or deaths is sex-selective, both fertility surveys and censuses may inaccurately reflect the actual

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are thought to significantly skew the naturally occurring ratio in some populations, such as China, where the introduction of ultrasound scans in the late 1980s has led to a birth sex ratio (males to females) of 1.181 (2010 official census data for China). The 2011 India census reports India's sex

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Catalano has examined the hypothesis that population stress induced by a declining economy reduces the human sex ratio. He compared the sex ratio in East and West Germany for the years 1946 to 1999, with genetically similar populations. The population stressors theory predicts that the East German

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The natural factors that affect the human sex ratio are an active area of scientific research. Over 1000 articles have been published in various journals. Two of the often cited reviews of scientific studies on human sex ratio are by W. H. James. The scientific studies are based on extensive birth

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Infant mortality is significantly higher in boys than girls in most parts of the world. Often this is explained as due to biological and genetic sex differences, with boys more biologically vulnerable to premature death and disease. Recent studies have found that numerous preconception or prenatal

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Several studies have examined human birth sex ratio data to determine whether there is a natural relationship between the age of the mother or father and the birth sex ratio. For example, Ruder has studied 1.67 million births in 33 states in the United States to investigate the effect of parents'

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The effects of gestational environment on human sex ratio are complicated and unclear, with numerous conflicting reports. For example, Oster et al. examined a data set of 67,000 births in China, 15 percent of whom were Hepatitis B carriers. They found no effect on birth sex ratio from Hepatitis B

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and infanticide, large-scale migration, and behavioral factors statistically linked with sex ratio, such as excessive drinking and violence. Gender imbalance may result in the threat of social unrest, especially in the case of an excess of low-status young males unable to find spouses, and being

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Other scientific studies suggest that environmental effects on human sex ratio at birth are either limited or not properly understood. For example, a research paper published in 1999, by scientists from Finland's National Public Health Institute, reports the effect of environmental chemicals and

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supported such views. Other researchers argue that an unbalanced sex ratio should not be automatically held as evidence of prenatal sex selection; Michel Garenne reports that many African nations have, over decades, had birth sex ratios below 1.00: that is, more girls are born than boys. Angola,

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tend to have a 'natural' ratio of about 1.05 at birth but a very high ratio of males for those over 65 (Saudi Arabia 1.14, Arab Emirates 2.73, Qatar 2.84), indicating either an above-average mortality rate for females or a below-average mortality for males, or, more likely in this case, a large

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As an example of how the social composition of a human population may produce unusual changes in sex ratios, in a study in several counties of California where declining sex ratios had been observed, Smith and Von Behren observe "In the raw data, the male birth proportion is indeed declining.

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James cautions that available scientific evidence stands against the above assumptions and conclusions. He reports that there is an excess of males at birth in almost all human populations, and the natural sex ratio at birth is usually between 1.02 and 1.08. However, the ratio may deviate

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but 1.15 for gestational ages of less than 28 weeks, 28–32 weeks, and 37 or more weeks. This study also found that the sex ratios at birth in the United States, between 1981 and 2006, were lower in both black and Hispanic ethnic groups when compared with non-Hispanic white ethnic group.

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lowering birth sex ratios. Cold weather stressors also extend male longevity, thereby raising the human sex ratio at older ages. The Catalano team found that a 1 °C increase in annual temperature predicts one more male than expected for every 1,000 females born in a year.

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in 3165 U.S. cities and counties. The sex ratio ranged from 40% men to 60% men in the data. Rates of violence were lowest in places with a 51% male ratio. For lower and higher proportions of males, the more the ratio deviated from the average, the higher was the violence.

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Helle et al., 2009, p. 1228: "an increase of 1 °C in ambient temperature anomaly was related to a 0.06% increase in annual birth sex ratio". Sex ratio in this work is defined as boys/(boys+girls); this increase corresponds to 1.2 additional males for every 1,000

884:(OSR), is the ratio of sexually competing males that are ready to mate to sexually competing females that are ready to mate, or alternatively the local ratio of fertilizable females to sexually active males at any given time. This is different from the physical 3266:

Xinhua, China (16 August 2011) – "Li Bin, director of the National Population and Family Planning Commission, made the remarks at a press conference (...). China's sex ratio at birth was 118.08 males for every 100 females in 2010, according to census data, Li

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Countries with significant imbalances tend to have three characteristics in common. First, a rapid decline in fertility, either because of preference for smaller families or to comply with their nation's population control measures. Second, there is

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It has been shown on a sample of 86,436 human births from a US population-based survey that 51.4% boys were born among together living married parents, 52.2% among together living unmarried parents and only 49.9% boys among apart living parents.

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and regression analysis. The secondary sex ratio decreased with increasing number of children per plural birth and with paternal age, whereas no significant independent effect was observed for maternal age, birth order, or other natural factors.

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ranged from 1.04 in Belgium to 1.07 in Switzerland, Italy, Ireland and Portugal. In the aggregated results of 56 demographic and health surveys in African countries, the ratio is 1.03, not with considerable country-to-country variation.

919:, Peru at the time of the Spanish conquest was stressed by an imbalance in the sex ratio between men and women. Analyses of how sex ratio imbalances affect personal consumption and intra-household distribution were pioneered by 187:

There is controversy about whether sex ratios outside the 1.03–1.07 range are due to sex selection, as suggested by some scholars, or due to natural causes. Some scholars argue that strong socioeconomic factors such as the

168:. For example, in the United States, as of 2006, an adult non-elderly male was 3 to 6 times more likely to become a victim of a homicide and 2.5 to 3.5 times more likely to die in an accident than a female of the same age. 3353:

For example, the number of births reported to family planning and other administrative agencies has been significantly lower than the number determined in population surveys and the census. See Zhang, Guangyu (April 2004)

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registration system, studies of sex ratios at birth have relied either on special fertility surveys, whose accuracy depends on full reporting of births and survival of both male and female infants, or on the national

288:. He considered the statistics of almost half a million births; the statistics showed an excess of boys compared to girls. He concluded by calculation of a p-value that the excess was a real, but unexplained, effect. 3786:

Heer, David M.; Grossbard-Shechtman, Amyra (1981). "The Impact of the Female Marriage Squeeze and the Contraceptive Revolution on Sex Roles and the Women's Liberation Movement in the United States, 1960 to 1975".

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Botswana and Namibia have reported birth sex ratios between 0.94 and 0.99, which is quite different from the presumed "normal" sex ratio, meaning that significantly more girls have been born in such countries.

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Causes of stress during gestation, such as maternal malnutrition, generally appear to increase fetal deaths, particularly among males, resulting in a lower sex ratio at birth. A higher incidence of

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Whether the mother has a partner may have a small effect on sex ratio, with one study of 84,500 births finding 51.5% male births among women living with a partner, and 49.9% in women who were not.

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An analysis study from 2015 showed that human sex ratio at conception is roughly 50%, but rises due to total mortality surplus of female embryos. A dataset of 139,704 embryos derived from

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section below, it is important to exclude alternative explanations, including social ones, when examining large human populations whose composition by ethnicity and race may be changing.

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A 1999 scientific paper published by Jacobsen reported the sex ratio for 815,891 children born in Denmark between 1980 and 1993. They studied the birth records to identify the effects of

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The sex ratios at birth and of the total population are affected by various factors including natural factors, exposure to pesticides and environmental contaminants, war casualties,

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at birth is slightly biased towards the male sex. It is estimated to be about 1.05 or 1.06 or within a narrow range from 1.03 to 1.06 males per female. The sex ratio for the entire

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for women to give birth to sons, often because of a cultural preference for male heirs. Third, families have widespread access to technology to selectively abort female foetuses.

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1.08 and the proportion of males is 51.9%. Scientific literature often uses the proportion of males. This article uses the ratio of males to females, unless specified otherwise.

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Orzack, Steven Hecht; Stubblefield, J. William; Akmaev, Viatcheslav R.; Colls, Pere; Munné, Santiago; Scholl, Thomas; Steinsaltz, David; Zuckerman, James E. (21 April 2015).

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There are several social consequences of an imbalanced sex ratio. It may also become a factor in societal and demographic collapse. For example, the native population of

512:. These chemicals are believed to have accumulated in the tissues of fish and animals that make up the bulk of these populations' diets. However, as noted in the 204:

In an extensive study, carried out around 2005, of sex ratio at birth in the United States from 1940 over 62 years, statistical evidence suggested the following:

1407:"National, regional, and global sex ratios of infant, child, and under-5 mortality and identification of countries with outlying ratios: a systematic assessment" 857:, Ukraine, Russia) tend to have a 'normal' ratio at birth but a very low ratio of males among those over 65 (Russia 0.46, Latvia 0.48, Ukraine 0.52); similarly, 2952: 3461: 2584:

Davis DL, Gottlieb MB, Stampnitzky JR (April 1998). "Reduced ratio of male to female births in several industrial countries: a sentinel health indicator?".

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Another contributory factor is an aging population, given that due to higher differential mortality rates, the ratio of males to females declines with age.

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virus in a population is believed to increase the sex ratio, while some unexplained environmental health hazards are thought to have the opposite effect.

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One study used 2021 National Archive of Criminal Justice Data and 2016 U.S. Census Bureau data to show the impact of different gender ratios on

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Various scientists have examined the question whether human birth sex ratios have historically been affected by environmental stressors such as

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Mendl M, Zanella AJ, Broom DM, Whittemore CT (1995). "Maternal social status and birth sex ratio in domestic pigs: an analysis of mechanisms".

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Social status of the mother, known to be a factor in influencing the sex ratio of certain animals such as swine, but apparently not in humans.

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The increase in the sex ratio for each 1 °C increase in temperature was approximately the same as the result found by the Catalano team.

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A research group led by Ein-Mor reported that sex ratio does not seem to change significantly with either maternal or paternal age. Neither

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and higher male mortality as a result of higher Soviet-era deaths; it may also be related to the enormous (by western standards) rate of

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mothers who were below the age of 15 or above 40 had babies with a sex ratio ranging between 0.94 and 1.11, and a total sex ratio of 1.05

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Very high sex ratios were common in even late medieval Europe, which may indicate sex-selective infanticide. Josiah Cox Russell, 1958,

1105:"Systematic assessment of the sex ratio at birth for all countries and estimation of national imbalances and regional reference levels" 64: 2671: 702:, though alternative explanations are now generally more widely accepted, including, above all, the use of ultrasound technology and 4269: 3319:

Anderson, Barbara A.; Silver, Brian D. (1986). "Infant Mortality in the Soviet Union: Regional Differences and Measurement Issues".

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because it does not take into account sexually inactive or non-competitive individuals (individuals that do not compete for mates).

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Kobayashi, Kazuya; Hasegawa, Eisuke; Yamamoto, Yuuka; Kazutaka, Kawatsu; Vargo, Edward L.; Yoshimura, Jin; Matsuura, Kenji (2013).

32: 4023: 2031:"Extraordinary Sex Ratios: A Sex-ratio Theory for Sex Linkage and Inbreeding Has New Implications in Cytogenetics and Entomology" 1837: 829:

is 1.01 males/female, with 1.07 at birth, 1.06 for those under 15, 1.02 for those between 15 and 64, and 0.78 for those over 65.

381: 2446:"Evolutionary ecology of human birth sex ratio under the compound influence of climate change, famine, economic crises and wars" 4418: 4352: 2403: 492:

A 2007 survey by the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program noted abnormally low sex ratios in Russian Arctic villages and

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For mothers having babies after the first, this ratio consistently decreased with each additional baby from 1.07 towards 1.03.

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has an above average male ratio at birth (1.17), and a below-average male ratio above 65 (0.67). The latter may be caused by

309: 240: 904: 896: 866: 815: 3378:"Are births underreported in rural China? Manipulation of statistical records in response to China's population policies" 3427: 3358: 924: 4447: 404:, birth order, age of parents and the sexes of preceding siblings on the proportion of males using contingency tables, 4392: 4382: 4295: 4201: 784:

One study found that the male-to-female sex ratio in the German state of Bavaria fell as low as 0.60 after the end of

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species as a worldwide phenomenon, possibly leading to a decline in the sex ratio in humans and a possible decline in

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in his 1930 book, it is an argument in terms of parental expenditure. Essentially he argues that the 1:1 ratio is the

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and males siring their children at a young age may play a role in raising birth sex ratios in certain societies.

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Andersson R, Bergström S (December 1998). "Is maternal malnutrition associated with a low sex ratio at birth?".

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Ellis L, Bonin S (2002). "Social status and the secondary sex ratio: new evidence on a lingering controversy".

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Sen, Amartya (1990), More than 100 million women are missing, New York Review of Books, 20 December, pp. 61–66

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females) and 1.02 and below (selection against males). This assumption has been questioned by some scholars.

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industries, have also contributed to an imbalance toward males in some areas dependent on these industries.

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in the last 25 years to the underreporting of the births of female children after the implementation of the

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For mothers having their first baby, the total sex ratio at birth was 1.06 overall, with some years at 1.07.

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Kvarnemo, C.; Ahnesjo, I. (1996). "The dynamics of operational sex ratios and competition for mates".

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Mathews TJ, et al. (June 2005). "Trend Analysis of the Sex Ratio at Birth in the United States".

1207:"Reduced ratio of male to female births in several industrial countries: A sentinel health indicator?" 1206: 4387: 4342: 4310: 4305: 4231: 4206: 4162: 3705: 3576: 3356:"Very Low Fertility in China in the 1990s: Reality or An Illusion Arising from Birth Underreporting?" 2501: 2100: 2045: 1976: 1825: 1405:

Alkema, Leontine; Chao, Fengqing; You, Danzhen; Pedersen, Jon; Sawyer, Cheryl C. (1 September 2014).

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Another hypothesis has been inspired by the recent and persistent high birth sex ratios observed in

312:. Many species deviate from an even sex ratio, either periodically or permanently. Examples include 4458: 4236: 4067: 4018: 3961: 3696:

Emlen, S.T.; Oring, L.W. (1977). "Ecology, Sexual Selection, and the Evolution of Mating Systems".

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therefore any variation of sex ratio at birth is due to sex selection between conception and birth.

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Garenne M (December 2002). "Sex ratios at birth in African populations: a review of survey data".

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In a scientific paper published in 2008, James states that conventional assumptions have been:

4337: 4211: 4104: 4013: 3939: 3760: 3721: 3635: 3592: 3513: 3505: 3407: 3299: 3298:. Committee for International Cooperation in National Research in Demography. pp. 73–89. 3246: 3205: 3156: 3115: 3074: 3008: 2906: 2857: 2808: 2800: 2743: 2654: 2601: 2566: 2529: 2467: 2423: 2384: 2340: 2295: 2254: 2236: 2190: 2159: 2128: 2069: 2036: 1984: 1972: 1966: 1866: 1833: 1821: 1794: 1770: 1699: 1695: 1613: 1522: 1469: 1428: 1378: 1337: 1291: 1229: 1144: 1082: 900: 833: 811: 716: 652: 426: 17: 3741:"Dynamics of Indigenous Demographic Fluctuations: Lessons from Sixteenth-Century Cusco, Peru" 2812: 4413: 4408: 4194: 4189: 4072: 4028: 3929: 3888: 3880: 3796: 3752: 3713: 3662: 3627: 3584: 3389: 3328: 3236: 3195: 3187: 3146: 3135:"Studies in The Human Sex Ratio 5. A Genetic Explanation of the Wartime Secondary Sex Ratio" 3105: 3064: 2998: 2990: 2933: 2896: 2888: 2847: 2839: 2790: 2782: 2735: 2700: 2593: 2519: 2509: 2457: 2415: 2374: 2330: 2285: 2244: 2226: 2118: 2108: 2053: 2011: 1737: 1687: 1647:

Michel Garenne, Southern African Journal of Demography, Vol. 9, No. 1 (June 2004), pp. 91–96

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are tied for the highest male-to-female ratio with 1.13 males/female (according to the 2006

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has the highest male-to-female ratio, with 2.87 males/female. For the group aged below 15,

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is an explanation of why the sex ratio of most species is approximately 1:1. Outlined by

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Michel Garenne, Southern African Journal of Demography, Vol. 9, No. 1 (June 2004), p. 95

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For studies reveal underreporting or delayed reporting of female births in China, see

2877:"Environmental chemicals and changes in sex ratio: analysis over 250 years in finland" 1675:. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics. 1423: 1406: 1286: 1261: 1077: 1052: 632: 531:

counts. Out of over 100,000 recently introduced chemicals, 99% are poorly regulated.

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Ein-Mor E, Mankuta D, Hochner-Celnikier D, Hurwitz A, Haimov-Kochman R (April 2010).

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Brian, Éric; Jaisson, Marie (2007). "Physico-Theology and Mathematics (1710–1794)".

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Great Britain after World War I & II: Studying the post-war sex-ratio imbalance

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of female fetuses and, probably to a more limited degree, neglect or in some cases

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caused by policies that restrict female spouses and children of immigrant workers

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Chao, Fengqing; Gerland, Patrick; Cook, Alex R.; Alkema, Leontine (7 May 2019).

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of China are responsible for prenatal sex selection. In a widely cited article,

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Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Population Association of America.

792: 728: 3984: 3884: 3653:

Emlen, S.T. (1976). "Lek organization and mating strategies in the bullfrog".

1554: 1464: 1447: 1373: 1356: 1277: 1068: 778: 660: 524: 128: 105: 97: 3943: 3764: 3428:"China's Missing Girls: Numerical Estimates and Effects on Population Growth" 2994: 2597: 2240: 1225: 547:, with countries near the equator producing more females than near the poles. 4154: 3588: 3355: 3241: 3224: 2514: 2335: 2231: 1262:"Unexplained differences in sex ratios at birth in Europe and North America" 1129: 1053:"Unexplained differences in sex ratios at birth in Europe and North America" 885: 556: 497: 481: 422: 248: 231:

The human sex ratio at birth has been an object of study since early in the

109: 3934: 3918:"Patterning of Sexual Violence against Women across US Cities and Counties" 3917: 3717: 3639: 3596: 3411: 3276: 3250: 3225:"Sex ratios in the two Germanies: a test of the economic stress hypothesis" 3209: 3191: 3160: 3119: 3012: 2910: 2861: 2843: 2804: 2786: 2747: 2533: 2471: 2427: 2388: 2344: 2299: 2258: 2132: 1742: 1617: 1526: 1473: 1432: 1382: 1341: 1295: 1148: 1086: 1051:

Grech, Victor; Savona-Ventura, Charles; Vassallo-Agius, P (27 April 2002).

694:

Some researchers have, in part, attributed the high sex ratios reported in

4110: 3510:

Bare Branches: The Security Implications of Asia's Surplus Male Population

3078: 2937: 2605: 2570: 2194: 2163: 2073: 1609: 1233: 4226: 4149: 3725: 3180:

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences

2892: 2319:"Trends in US sex ratio by plurality, gestational age and race/ethnicity" 1168:. The Central Intelligence Agency of the United States. 29 November 2021. 774: 758: 624:

babies from maternal stress, during certain macroeconomic circumstances.

544: 217:

the overall ratio was 1.05 for mothers aged 25 to 35 at the time of birth

183:: "It is forbidden to discriminate against, abuse or abandon baby girls." 3446: 1332: 1315: 3893: 3674: 3666: 3403: 3340: 2113: 2088: 2065: 2030: 858: 854: 797: 733: 656: 336: 244: 180: 3847:

Grossbard-Shechtman, Shoshana and Granger, Clive W. (September 1998).

3823:

On the Economics of Marriage – A Theory of Marriage, Labor and Divorce

3808: 3053:"Paternal-Age and Birth-Order Effect on the Human Secondary Sex Ratio" 2655:

Man-made chemicals blamed many more girls than boys are born in Arctic

2123: 1971:. Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 36:

Sex ratio by country for the population below age 15. Blue represents

4131: 2179:"The human sex ratio. Part 2: A hypothesis and a program of research" 1968:

The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900

1818:

The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty Before 1900

761:

factors such as male-majority industries and activities, such as the

560: 93: 3394: 3377: 3332: 2318: 810:

has the lowest female-to-male ratio with 0.96 males/female, and the

3800: 3756: 3567:

Clutton-Brock, T. (2007). "Sexual Selection in Males and Females".

916: 895: 803: 791: 752:

Some of the factors suggested as causes of this sex imbalance are

727: 685: 631: 528: 493: 384:

showed a male sex ratio of 50.2%. A dataset of 4,999 embryos from

317: 174: 85: 3292:

A Sharp Increase in Sex Ratio at Birth in the Caucasus. Why? How?

2089:"Sex ratio biases in termites provide evidence for kin selection" 710:

of females. In the case of China, because of deficiencies in the

363:

there are equal numbers of X and Y chromosomes in mammalian sperm

68:

Sex ratio by country for the over-65 population. Blue represents

3032:(Master's thesis). Stockholm University, Department of Sociology 534:

Other factors that could possibly affect the sex ratio include:

324: 284:(1778) used human sex ratio as an example in his development of 272:(1713), in which an unequal sex ratio is a natural example of a 89: 3957: 3916:

Pabst, Jennifer; Walfield, Scott M.; Schacht, Ryan (May 2022).

2444:

Helle, Samuli; Helama, Samuli; Lertola, Kalle (November 2009).

1670:"Trend Analysis of the Sex Ratio at Birth in the United States" 757:

recruited into the service of militaristic political factions.

262:

Human sex at birth was also analyzed and used as an example by

3739:

Covey, R. Alan; Childs, Geoff; Kippen, Rebecca (1 June 2011).

3556:. The Institute of Economic Research, Korea University. 07-30. 2624:"Hepatitis B Does Not Explain Male-Biased Sex Ratios in China" 1309: 1307: 1305: 509: 332: 328: 3953: 1582: 369:

therefore equal numbers of male and female zygotes are formed

3551:"World War II, Missing Men, and out-of-wedlock childbearing" 3289:

Mesle, France; Vallin, Jacques; Badurashvili, Irina (2007).

2490:"Ambient temperature predicts sex ratios and male longevity" 555:

Some studies have found that certain kinds of environmental

500:

and Canada, and attributed this imbalance to high levels of

3460:

Jian Lee, Deborah; Subramanian, Sushma (15 November 2011).

2953:"Pollution debate born of Chemical Valley's girl-baby boom" 52:

Sex ratio by country for total population. Blue represents

1205:

Davis, D. L.; Gottlieb, M. B.; Stampnitzky, J. R. (1998).

1180:"How pollution may be changing the ratio of girls to boys" 1011:

List of states and union territories of India by sex ratio

690:

A poster from 1982 showing a Chinese family with one child

2979:"Trends in the sex ratio of California births, 1960–1996" 2148:"The human sex ratio. Part 1: A review of the literature" 1729:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

679:(by 22% to 25%) relative to standards recommended by the 585:

Increased sex ratio during and after a war is called the

3869:"Marriage Markets and Women's Labor Force Participation" 3849:"Women's Jobs and Marriage, Baby-Boom versus Baby-Bust," 2010:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 141–143 – via 789:

marriage market caused by the decline in the sex ratio.

589:. There is still no clear explanation of its mechanics. 116:

is approximately 101 males to 100 females (2020 est.).

1260:

Grech, V; Savona-Ventura, C; Vassallo-Agius, P (2002).

4348:

International Conference on Population and Development

3462:"A Single Man: One Chinese Bachelor's Search for Love" 519:

A 2008 report provides further evidence of effects of

480:

A comparison of the structures of the natural hormone

3549:

Kvasnicka, Michael; Bethmann, Dirk (1 October 2007).

3464:. Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. Archived from 3176:"Partnership status and the human sex ratio at birth" 2771:"Partnership Status and the Human Sex Ratio at Birth" 1006:

List of Chinese administrative divisions by sex ratio

659:—both predominantly Orthodox Christian societies—and 1765:

Conover, W.J. (1999), "Chapter 3.4: The Sign Test",

4401: 4326: 4278: 4257: 4140: 4086: 4037: 3991: 2828:"Humans at tropical latitudes produce more females" 1894:

Mémoires de l'Académie royale des sciences de Paris

377:significantly from this range for natural reasons. 155:

World map of birth sex ratios, 2012. Gray = no data

2875:Vartiainen, T; Kartovaara, L; Tuomisto, J (1999). 2488:Catalano R, Bruckner T, Smith KR (February 2008). 2029: 1694:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 366:X and Y stand equal chance of achieving conception 3264:China's sex ratio declines for two straight years 3489:"A story of drinkers, genocide and unborn girls" 3277:India at Glance – Population Census 2011 – Final 903:seize wives from Shiloh in this 1860 woodcut by 671:For most of the 20th century in Russia (and the 3532:"A singles map of the United States of America" 2219:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1160: 1158: 1109:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 316:species, periodically mating organisms such as 3834:Guttentag, Marcia and Secord, Paul F. (1983), 2672:"It's official: Men really are the weaker sex" 2622:; Chen, Gang; Yu, Xinsen; Lin, Wenyao (2008). 2404:"The Inconstancy of Human Sex Ratios at Birth" 2215:"The human sex ratio from conception to birth" 2208: 2206: 2204: 1811: 1809: 1098: 1096: 3969: 2439: 2437: 2272:Jacobsen, R; Møller, H; Mouritsen, A (1999). 1569:"Sex ratio at birth (per 100 female newborn)" 8: 76:than the world average of 0.81 males/female. 60:than the world average of 1.01 males/female. 44:than the world average of 1.07 males/female. 4373:United Nations world population conferences 3279:Census of India, Government of India (2013) 2483: 2481: 1853:Bellhouse, P. (2001), "John Arbuthnot", in 1769:(Third ed.), Wiley, pp. 157–176, 4286:Population and housing censuses by country 3976: 3962: 3954: 3094:"Natural Variation in the Human Sex Ratio" 2665: 2663: 2356: 2354: 2274:"Natural variation in the human sex ratio" 214:The age of the mother affected the ratio: 3933: 3892: 3393: 3240: 3199: 3150: 3109: 3068: 3002: 2951:Mittelstaedt, Martin (15 November 2005). 2900: 2851: 2794: 2523: 2513: 2461: 2378: 2334: 2289: 2248: 2230: 2122: 2112: 2007:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection 1791:Applied Nonparametric Statistical Methods 1741: 1463: 1422: 1372: 1331: 1285: 1138: 1128: 1076: 1028: 1026: 563:, are associated with a lower sex ratio. 27:Ratio of males to females in a population 4009:Estimates of historical world population 2329:(11): 2936–2944 (see p. 2941 Figure 2). 1928:"Mémoire sur les probabilités (XIX, XX)" 1543:. Switzerland Federal Statistics Office. 927:, and Marcia Guttentag and Paul Secord. 475: 150: 63: 47: 31: 2977:Smith D, Von Behren J (December 2005). 1793:(Second ed.), Chapman & Hall, 1690:The Descent of Human Sex Ratio at Birth 1664: 1662: 1022: 867:alcoholism in the former Soviet states. 504:in the blood of inhabitants, including 468:presence in either mothers or fathers. 392:and 55.9% for the last two trimesters. 239:(1710), who in modern terms, performed 3836:Too Many Women: The Sex Ratio Question 3376:Merli MG, Raftery AE (February 1990). 1947: 1937: 1034:"World Health Organization, Sex Ratio" 724:Countries with imbalances in sex ratio 628:Sex-selective abortion and infanticide 3821:Shoshana Grossbard-Shechtman (1993), 1820:. Harvard University Press. pp. 1557:. United Nations Population Division. 1248:Late Ancient and Medieval Population, 991:List of sovereign states by sex ratio 523:on male development in each class of 388:showed a rate of 51.1% for the first 292:Factors affecting sex ratio in humans 7: 4442: 3873:Review of Economics of the Household 892:Consequences of different sex ratios 667:Data sources and data quality issues 4378:Voluntary Human Extinction Movement 3655:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 3426:Cai, Yong; Lavely, William (2003). 1446:Pongou, Roland (14 November 2012). 513: 3838:. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications 3789:Journal of Marriage and the Family 3530:Florida, Richard (30 March 2008). 3139:American Journal of Human Genetics 3057:American Journal of Human Genetics 2670:Lean, Geoffrey (7 December 2008). 2657:, The Guardian, 12 September 2007. 2363:"Sex ratio is remarkably constant" 1767:Practical Nonparametric Statistics 137:sex differences in life expectancy 25: 4270:Population and Development Review 3620:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 3321:Population and Development Review 2881:Environmental Health Perspectives 1863:in Statisticians of the Centuries 1515:National Vital Statistics Reports 996:Lost boys (Mormon fundamentalism) 4454: 4453: 4441: 4318:Population concern organizations 4024:Projections of population growth 3825:. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 3174:Norberg, K. (22 November 2004). 2926:"Pollution makes for more girls" 2924:Check, Erika (21 October 2005). 2775:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 2769:Norberg, Karen (November 2004). 2463:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2009.01598.x 2420:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.05.044 2380:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.12.036 1934:. Vol. 9. pp. 429–438. 741:violent deaths (including war). 456:Effects of gestation environment 382:assisted reproductive technology 4419:Human impact on the environment 4353:Population Action International 3508:and den Boer, Andrea M. (2004) 1571:. United Nations Data Division. 593:Early marriage and parents' age 488:(right), an endocrine disruptor 4368:United Nations Population Fund 3867:; Grossbard, Shoshana (2007). 3092:Jacobsen; et al. (1999). 1887:"Mémoire sur les probabilités" 310:evolutionarily stable strategy 241:statistical hypothesis testing 18:Gender mortality differentials 1: 3487:Bauer, David (January 2015). 2777:. NBER Working Paper Series. 2740:10.1080/19485565.2002.9989047 1424:10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70280-3 905:Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld 472:Effects of chemical pollution 3632:10.1016/0169-5347(96)10056-2 2983:J Epidemiol Community Health 2705:10.1016/0003-3472(95)80051-4 2494:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 2317:; Schoendorf, K. C. (2009). 2058:10.1126/science.156.3774.477 1965:Stigler, Stephen M. (1986). 1932:Oeuvres complètes de Laplace 1865:, Springer, pp. 39–42, 1816:Stigler, Stephen M. (1986). 1057:BMJ: British Medical Journal 936:men's violence against women 925:Shoshana Grossbard-Shechtman 4393:World Population Foundation 4383:World Population Conference 4296:World population milestones 1266:BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) 841:. Conversely, countries of 4506: 4265:Population and Environment 1541:"Sex ratio in Switzerland" 816:People's Republic of China 4437: 4175:Human population planning 3999:Demographics of the world 3885:10.1007/s11150-007-9014-1 3865:Amuedo-Dorantes, Catalina 3133:Bernstein, M. E. (1958). 3111:10.1093/humrep/14.12.3120 2826:Navara KJ (August 2009). 2450:Journal of Animal Ecology 2323:Reproductive Epidemiology 2291:10.1093/humrep/14.12.3120 1900:: 227–332. Archived from 1555:"UN Sex Ratio Statistics" 1465:10.1007/s13524-012-0161-5 1374:10.1007/s13524-012-0161-5 1278:10.1136/bmj.324.7344.1010 1069:10.1136/bmj.324.7344.1010 837:population of aging male 825:The value for the entire 681:World Health Organization 439:Effects of climate change 296: 179:A roadside sign in rural 108:. In humans, the natural 4180:Compulsory sterilization 3854:, 53: 731–52 (in French) 3223:Catalano, Ralph (2003). 3026:Sävfors, Ragnar (2016). 2995:10.1136/jech.2005.036970 2598:10.1001/jama.279.13.1018 1411:The Lancet Global Health 1320:Journal of Endocrinology 1314:James W.H. (July 2008). 1226:10.1001/jama.279.13.1018 959:Returning soldier effect 587:returning soldier effect 280:(1774) also studied it. 253:statistical significance 4122:Malthusian growth model 3589:10.1126/science.1133311 2515:10.1073/pnas.0710711104 2402:James W.H. (May 2010). 2232:10.1073/pnas.1416546112 1719:John Arbuthnot (1710). 1355:Pongou, Roland (2012). 1130:10.1073/pnas.1812593116 127:, infanticides, aging, 125:sex-selective abortions 4249:Zero population growth 4244:Sustainable population 4168:Malthusian catastrophe 4127:Overshoot (population) 4004:Demographic transition 3935:10.3390/socsci11050208 3718:10.1126/science.327542 3192:10.1098/rspb.2004.2857 3051:Ruder, Avima (1985f). 2844:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0069 2787:10.1098/rspb.2004.2857 2004:Fisher, R. A. (1930). 1743:10.1098/rstl.1710.0011 1001:Missing women of China 969:Sex-selective abortion 912: 800: 754:sex-selective abortion 737: 704:sex-selective abortion 691: 641:Sex-selective abortion 637: 572:Population composition 489: 484:(left) and one of the 184: 156: 147:Natural ratio at birth 77: 61: 45: 4358:Population Connection 4222:Mere addition paradox 4061:Physiological density 3242:10.1093/humrep/deg370 2938:10.1038/news051017-16 2336:10.1093/humrep/dep255 1610:10.1353/hub.2003.0003 954:Operational sex ratio 899: 882:operational sex ratio 795: 731: 720:sex ratios at birth. 689: 677:infant mortality rate 635: 479: 434:Environmental factors 251:), interpreted it as 233:history of statistics 190:dowry system in India 178: 154: 121:effects of war on men 67: 51: 35: 4388:World Population Day 4343:Church of Euthanasia 4232:Non-identity problem 4207:Political demography 4163:Human overpopulation 3745:Current Anthropology 2893:10.1289/ehp.99107813 1926:Laplace, P. (1778). 1885:Laplace, P. (1778). 1736:(325–336): 186–190. 874:evolutionary biology 521:feminizing chemicals 502:endocrine disruptors 282:Pierre-Simon Laplace 278:Willem 's Gravesande 58:more women and girls 4237:Reproductive rights 4068:Population dynamics 4019:Population momentum 3710:1977Sci...197..215E 3581:2007Sci...318.1882C 3575:(5858): 1882–1885. 3468:on 30 November 2016 3361:5 July 2021 at the 3186:(1555): 2403–2410. 2506:2008PNAS..105.2244C 2105:2013NatCo...4.2048K 2050:1967Sci...156..477H 1981:1986hsmu.book.....S 1830:1986hsmu.book.....S 1789:Sprent, P. (1989), 1333:10.1677/JOE-07-0446 1121:2019PNAS..116.9303C 1063:(7344): 1010–1011. 878:sexual reproduction 812:Republic of Georgia 413:Length of gestation 255:, and rejected the 4363:Population Matters 4078:Population pyramid 4056:Population density 4051:Population decline 3667:10.1007/bf00300069 3506:Hudson, Valerie M. 3229:Human Reproduction 3098:Human Reproduction 2957:The Globe and Mail 2636:on 18 January 2010 2278:Human Reproduction 2114:10.1038/ncomms3048 913: 820:CIA World Factbook 801: 738: 692: 638: 606:Partnership status 592: 490: 302:Fisher's principle 297:Fisher's principle 286:probability theory 276:with uneven odds. 185: 157: 133:birth registration 100:in the context of 78: 62: 46: 4485:Human populations 4467: 4466: 4338:7 Billion Actions 4212:Population ethics 4105:Carrying capacity 4014:Population growth 3704:(4300): 215–223. 3512:. The MIT Press. 3305:978-2-910053-29-1 3104:(12): 3120–3125. 2932:: news051017–16. 2781:(1555): 2403–10. 2284:(12): 3120–3125. 2177:James WH (1987). 2146:James WH (1987). 2044:(3774): 477–488. 1705:978-1-4020-6036-6 1585:. measuredhs.com. 1115:(19): 9303–9311. 834:Arabian Peninsula 832:Countries on the 796:Sex imbalance in 732:Sex imbalance in 717:population census 406:chi-squared tests 386:induced abortions 54:more men and boys 16:(Redirected from 4497: 4457: 4456: 4445: 4444: 4414:Green Revolution 4195:Two-child policy 4190:One-child policy 4113: 4073:Population model 4029:World population 3978: 3971: 3964: 3955: 3948: 3947: 3937: 3913: 3907: 3906: 3896: 3861: 3855: 3845: 3839: 3832: 3826: 3819: 3813: 3812: 3783: 3777: 3776: 3736: 3730: 3729: 3693: 3687: 3686: 3650: 3644: 3643: 3615: 3609: 3608: 3564: 3558: 3557: 3555: 3546: 3540: 3539: 3536:The Boston Globe 3527: 3521: 3503: 3497: 3496: 3484: 3478: 3477: 3475: 3473: 3457: 3451: 3450: 3435:The China Review 3432: 3423: 3397: 3372: 3366: 3351: 3345: 3344: 3316: 3310: 3309: 3297: 3286: 3280: 3274: 3268: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3244: 3235:(9): 1972–1975. 3220: 3214: 3213: 3203: 3171: 3165: 3164: 3154: 3130: 3124: 3123: 3113: 3089: 3083: 3082: 3072: 3048: 3042: 3041: 3039: 3037: 3023: 3017: 3016: 3006: 2974: 2968: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2948: 2942: 2941: 2921: 2915: 2914: 2904: 2872: 2866: 2865: 2855: 2823: 2817: 2816: 2798: 2766: 2760: 2759: 2723: 2717: 2716: 2693:Animal Behaviour 2688: 2682: 2681: 2667: 2658: 2652: 2646: 2645: 2643: 2641: 2635: 2629:. Archived from 2628: 2616: 2610: 2609: 2581: 2575: 2574: 2554: 2548: 2544: 2538: 2537: 2527: 2517: 2485: 2476: 2475: 2465: 2456:(6): 1226–1233. 2441: 2432: 2431: 2399: 2393: 2392: 2382: 2358: 2349: 2348: 2338: 2310: 2304: 2303: 2293: 2269: 2263: 2262: 2252: 2234: 2225:(16): E2102-11. 2210: 2199: 2198: 2174: 2168: 2167: 2143: 2137: 2136: 2126: 2116: 2084: 2078: 2077: 2033: 2022: 2016: 2015: 2012:Internet Archive 2001: 1995: 1994: 1962: 1956: 1955: 1949: 1945: 1943: 1935: 1923: 1917: 1916: 1914: 1912: 1907:on 27 April 2015 1906: 1891: 1882: 1876: 1875: 1850: 1844: 1843: 1813: 1804: 1803: 1786: 1780: 1779: 1762: 1756: 1755: 1745: 1725: 1716: 1710: 1709: 1693: 1683: 1677: 1676: 1674: 1666: 1657: 1654: 1648: 1645: 1639: 1636: 1630: 1629: 1593: 1587: 1586: 1579: 1573: 1572: 1565: 1559: 1558: 1551: 1545: 1544: 1537: 1531: 1530: 1510: 1504: 1503: 1492: 1486: 1485: 1467: 1443: 1437: 1436: 1426: 1417:(9): e521–e530. 1402: 1396: 1394: 1376: 1352: 1346: 1345: 1335: 1311: 1300: 1299: 1289: 1272:(7344): 1010–1. 1257: 1251: 1244: 1238: 1237: 1211: 1202: 1196: 1195: 1193: 1191: 1176: 1170: 1169: 1162: 1153: 1152: 1142: 1132: 1100: 1091: 1090: 1080: 1048: 1042: 1041: 1030: 909:Battle at Gibeah 827:world population 712:vital statistics 700:one-child policy 622:low birth-weight 615:Economic factors 243:, computing the 194:one child policy 131:, problems with 114:world population 75: 71: 59: 55: 43: 39: 21: 4505: 4504: 4500: 4499: 4498: 4496: 4495: 4494: 4480:Human sex ratio 4470: 4469: 4468: 4463: 4433: 4397: 4331: 4329: 4322: 4274: 4253: 4202:Overconsumption 4185:Family planning 4142: 4136: 4109: 4093: 4090: 4082: 4044: 4041: 4033: 3987: 3982: 3952: 3951: 3922:Social Sciences 3915: 3914: 3910: 3863: 3862: 3858: 3846: 3842: 3833: 3829: 3820: 3816: 3785: 3784: 3780: 3738: 3737: 3733: 3695: 3694: 3690: 3652: 3651: 3647: 3626:(10): 404–408. 3617: 3616: 3612: 3566: 3565: 3561: 3553: 3548: 3547: 3543: 3529: 3528: 3524: 3504: 3500: 3486: 3485: 3481: 3471: 3469: 3459: 3458: 3454: 3430: 3425: 3395:10.2307/2648100 3375: 3373: 3369: 3363:Wayback Machine 3352: 3348: 3333:10.2307/1973432 3318: 3317: 3313: 3306: 3295: 3288: 3287: 3283: 3275: 3271: 3262: 3258: 3222: 3221: 3217: 3173: 3172: 3168: 3132: 3131: 3127: 3091: 3090: 3086: 3050: 3049: 3045: 3035: 3033: 3025: 3024: 3020: 2989:(12): 1047–53. 2976: 2975: 2971: 2961: 2959: 2950: 2949: 2945: 2923: 2922: 2918: 2887:(10): 813–815. 2874: 2873: 2869: 2825: 2824: 2820: 2768: 2767: 2763: 2725: 2724: 2720: 2690: 2689: 2685: 2677:The Independent 2669: 2668: 2661: 2653: 2649: 2639: 2637: 2633: 2626: 2618: 2617: 2613: 2592:(13): 1018–23. 2583: 2582: 2578: 2556: 2555: 2551: 2545: 2541: 2487: 2486: 2479: 2443: 2442: 2435: 2401: 2400: 2396: 2360: 2359: 2352: 2313:Branum, A. M.; 2312: 2311: 2307: 2271: 2270: 2266: 2212: 2211: 2202: 2176: 2175: 2171: 2145: 2144: 2140: 2086: 2085: 2081: 2026:Hamilton, W. D. 2024: 2023: 2019: 2003: 2002: 1998: 1991: 1964: 1963: 1959: 1946: 1936: 1925: 1924: 1920: 1910: 1908: 1904: 1889: 1884: 1883: 1879: 1873: 1852: 1851: 1847: 1840: 1815: 1814: 1807: 1801: 1788: 1787: 1783: 1777: 1764: 1763: 1759: 1723: 1718: 1717: 1713: 1706: 1685: 1684: 1680: 1672: 1668: 1667: 1660: 1655: 1651: 1646: 1642: 1637: 1633: 1595: 1594: 1590: 1581: 1580: 1576: 1567: 1566: 1562: 1553: 1552: 1548: 1539: 1538: 1534: 1512: 1511: 1507: 1502:. 4 March 2019. 1494: 1493: 1489: 1445: 1444: 1440: 1404: 1403: 1399: 1354: 1353: 1349: 1313: 1312: 1303: 1259: 1258: 1254: 1245: 1241: 1220:(13): 1018–23. 1209: 1204: 1203: 1199: 1189: 1187: 1178: 1177: 1173: 1166:"CIA Fact Book" 1164: 1163: 1156: 1102: 1101: 1094: 1050: 1049: 1045: 1032: 1031: 1024: 1019: 945: 931:the sex ratio. 894: 747:social pressure 726: 669: 630: 617: 608: 595: 583: 574: 569: 559:, specifically 474: 458: 441: 436: 415: 398: 350:multiple births 345: 343:Natural factors 299: 294: 274:Bernoulli trial 269:Ars Conjectandi 264:Jacob Bernoulli 257:null hypothesis 229: 166:life expectancy 149: 82:human sex ratio 73: 69: 57: 53: 41: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4503: 4501: 4493: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4472: 4471: 4465: 4464: 4462: 4461: 4451: 4438: 4435: 4434: 4432: 4431: 4429:Sustainability 4426: 4421: 4416: 4411: 4405: 4403: 4402:Related topics 4399: 4398: 4396: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4360: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4334: 4332: 4327: 4324: 4323: 4321: 4320: 4315: 4314: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4293: 4291:Largest cities 4288: 4282: 4280: 4276: 4275: 4273: 4272: 4267: 4261: 4259: 4255: 4254: 4252: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4240: 4239: 4234: 4229: 4224: 4219: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4198: 4197: 4192: 4187: 4182: 4172: 4171: 4170: 4160: 4152: 4146: 4144: 4138: 4137: 4135: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4111:I = P × A × T 4107: 4102: 4096: 4094: 4087: 4084: 4083: 4081: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4064: 4063: 4053: 4047: 4045: 4038: 4035: 4034: 4032: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3995: 3993: 3989: 3988: 3983: 3981: 3980: 3973: 3966: 3958: 3950: 3949: 3908: 3879:(3): 249–278. 3856: 3840: 3827: 3814: 3801:10.2307/351416 3778: 3757:10.1086/660010 3751:(3): 335–360. 3731: 3688: 3661:(3): 283–313. 3645: 3610: 3559: 3541: 3522: 3498: 3479: 3452: 3367: 3346: 3311: 3304: 3281: 3269: 3256: 3215: 3166: 3125: 3084: 3063:(2): 362–372. 3043: 3018: 2969: 2943: 2916: 2867: 2818: 2761: 2734:(1–2): 35–43. 2718: 2699:(5): 1361–70. 2683: 2659: 2647: 2611: 2576: 2549: 2539: 2477: 2433: 2408:Fertil. Steril 2394: 2367:Fertil. Steril 2350: 2305: 2264: 2200: 2189:(6): 873–900. 2169: 2158:(5): 721–752. 2138: 2079: 2017: 1996: 1989: 1957: 1948:|journal= 1918: 1877: 1871: 1845: 1838: 1805: 1799: 1781: 1775: 1757: 1711: 1704: 1678: 1658: 1649: 1640: 1631: 1604:(6): 889–900. 1588: 1574: 1560: 1546: 1532: 1505: 1487: 1458:(2): 421–444. 1438: 1397: 1367:(2): 421–444. 1347: 1301: 1252: 1239: 1197: 1186:. 18 June 2014 1171: 1154: 1092: 1043: 1021: 1020: 1018: 1015: 1014: 1013: 1008: 1003: 998: 993: 982: 981: 976: 971: 966: 961: 956: 951: 944: 941: 893: 890: 847:Eastern Europe 725: 722: 696:mainland China 668: 665: 629: 626: 616: 613: 607: 604: 600:early marriage 594: 591: 582: 581:Effects of war 579: 573: 570: 568: 567:Social factors 565: 549: 548: 542: 539: 514:Social factors 473: 470: 457: 454: 445:climate change 440: 437: 435: 432: 414: 411: 402:multiple birth 397: 396:Multiple birth 394: 374: 373: 370: 367: 364: 344: 341: 298: 295: 293: 290: 237:John Arbuthnot 228: 225: 224: 223: 222: 221: 218: 212: 209: 148: 145: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4502: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4477: 4475: 4460: 4452: 4450: 4449: 4440: 4439: 4436: 4430: 4427: 4425: 4422: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4412: 4410: 4409:Bennett's law 4407: 4406: 4404: 4400: 4394: 4391: 4389: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4354: 4351: 4349: 4346: 4344: 4341: 4339: 4336: 4335: 4333: 4330:organizations 4325: 4319: 4316: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4298: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4283: 4281: 4277: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4262: 4260: 4256: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4238: 4235: 4233: 4230: 4228: 4225: 4223: 4220: 4218: 4215: 4214: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4196: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4177: 4176: 4173: 4169: 4166: 4165: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4157: 4153: 4151: 4148: 4147: 4145: 4139: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4117:Kaya identity 4115: 4112: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4097: 4095: 4092: 4085: 4079: 4076: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4066: 4062: 4059: 4058: 4057: 4054: 4052: 4049: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4036: 4030: 4027: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3996: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3979: 3974: 3972: 3967: 3965: 3960: 3959: 3956: 3945: 3941: 3936: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3912: 3909: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3860: 3857: 3853: 3850: 3844: 3841: 3837: 3831: 3828: 3824: 3818: 3815: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3782: 3779: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3735: 3732: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3692: 3689: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3649: 3646: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3614: 3611: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3563: 3560: 3552: 3545: 3542: 3537: 3533: 3526: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3502: 3499: 3494: 3490: 3483: 3480: 3467: 3463: 3456: 3453: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3429: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3396: 3391: 3388:(1): 109–26. 3387: 3383: 3379: 3371: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3357: 3350: 3347: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3327:(4): 705–37. 3326: 3322: 3315: 3312: 3307: 3301: 3294: 3293: 3285: 3282: 3278: 3273: 3270: 3265: 3260: 3257: 3252: 3248: 3243: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3219: 3216: 3211: 3207: 3202: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3170: 3167: 3162: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3129: 3126: 3121: 3117: 3112: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3088: 3085: 3080: 3076: 3071: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3047: 3044: 3031: 3030: 3022: 3019: 3014: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2973: 2970: 2958: 2954: 2947: 2944: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2920: 2917: 2912: 2908: 2903: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2871: 2868: 2863: 2859: 2854: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2822: 2819: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2797: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2765: 2762: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2722: 2719: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2687: 2684: 2679: 2678: 2673: 2666: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2651: 2648: 2632: 2625: 2621: 2615: 2612: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2580: 2577: 2572: 2568: 2565:(6): 1101–6. 2564: 2560: 2553: 2550: 2543: 2540: 2535: 2531: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2500:(6): 2244–7. 2499: 2495: 2491: 2484: 2482: 2478: 2473: 2469: 2464: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2440: 2438: 2434: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2398: 2395: 2390: 2386: 2381: 2376: 2373:(6): 1961–5. 2372: 2368: 2364: 2357: 2355: 2351: 2346: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2315:Parker, J. D. 2309: 2306: 2301: 2297: 2292: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2268: 2265: 2260: 2256: 2251: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2233: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2201: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2183:Human Biology 2180: 2173: 2170: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2152:Human Biology 2149: 2142: 2139: 2134: 2130: 2125: 2120: 2115: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2083: 2080: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2038: 2032: 2027: 2021: 2018: 2013: 2009: 2008: 2000: 1997: 1992: 1990:0-674-40340-1 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1969: 1961: 1958: 1953: 1941: 1933: 1929: 1922: 1919: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1888: 1881: 1878: 1874: 1872:0-387-95329-9 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1849: 1846: 1841: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1812: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1800:0-412-44980-3 1796: 1792: 1785: 1782: 1778: 1776:0-471-16068-7 1772: 1768: 1761: 1758: 1753: 1749: 1744: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1730: 1722: 1715: 1712: 1707: 1701: 1697: 1692: 1691: 1682: 1679: 1671: 1665: 1663: 1659: 1653: 1650: 1644: 1641: 1635: 1632: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1592: 1589: 1584: 1578: 1575: 1570: 1564: 1561: 1556: 1550: 1547: 1542: 1536: 1533: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1509: 1506: 1501: 1497: 1491: 1488: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1442: 1439: 1434: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1401: 1398: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1351: 1348: 1343: 1339: 1334: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1310: 1308: 1306: 1302: 1297: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1256: 1253: 1249: 1243: 1240: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1208: 1201: 1198: 1185: 1181: 1175: 1172: 1167: 1161: 1159: 1155: 1150: 1146: 1141: 1136: 1131: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1099: 1097: 1093: 1088: 1084: 1079: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1047: 1044: 1039: 1035: 1029: 1027: 1023: 1016: 1012: 1009: 1007: 1004: 1002: 999: 997: 994: 992: 989: 988: 987: 986: 980: 979:Missing women 977: 975: 974:Surplus women 972: 970: 967: 965: 964:Sex selection 962: 960: 957: 955: 952: 950: 949:Gender parity 947: 946: 942: 940: 937: 932: 928: 926: 922: 918: 910: 906: 902: 898: 891: 889: 887: 883: 879: 875: 870: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 851:Baltic states 848: 844: 840: 839:guest workers 835: 830: 828: 823: 821: 817: 813: 809: 805: 799: 794: 790: 787: 782: 780: 776: 772: 768: 764: 763:petrochemical 760: 755: 750: 748: 742: 735: 730: 723: 721: 718: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 688: 684: 682: 678: 674: 666: 664: 662: 658: 654: 649: 646: 642: 634: 627: 625: 623: 614: 612: 605: 603: 601: 590: 588: 580: 578: 571: 566: 564: 562: 558: 553: 546: 543: 540: 537: 536: 535: 532: 530: 526: 522: 517: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 487: 486:nonyl-phenols 483: 478: 471: 469: 465: 463: 455: 453: 449: 446: 438: 433: 431: 428: 424: 419: 412: 410: 407: 403: 395: 393: 391: 387: 383: 378: 371: 368: 365: 362: 361: 360: 357: 355: 351: 342: 340: 338: 334: 330: 326: 323: 319: 315: 314:parthenogenic 311: 307: 306:Ronald Fisher 303: 291: 289: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 270: 265: 260: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 226: 219: 216: 215: 213: 210: 207: 206: 205: 202: 199: 195: 191: 182: 177: 173: 169: 167: 161: 153: 146: 144: 140: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 117: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 66: 50: 34: 30: 19: 4490:Demographics 4446: 4258:Publications 4217:Antinatalism 4155: 4132:World3 model 3992:Major topics 3925: 3921: 3911: 3876: 3872: 3859: 3851: 3843: 3835: 3830: 3822: 3817: 3795:(1): 49–65. 3792: 3788: 3781: 3748: 3744: 3734: 3701: 3697: 3691: 3658: 3654: 3648: 3623: 3619: 3613: 3572: 3568: 3562: 3544: 3535: 3525: 3509: 3501: 3492: 3482: 3470:. Retrieved 3466:the original 3455: 3441:(2): 13–29. 3438: 3434: 3385: 3381: 3370: 3349: 3324: 3320: 3314: 3291: 3284: 3272: 3259: 3232: 3228: 3218: 3183: 3179: 3169: 3145:(1): 68–70. 3142: 3138: 3128: 3101: 3097: 3087: 3060: 3056: 3046: 3034:. Retrieved 3028: 3021: 2986: 2982: 2972: 2960:. Retrieved 2956: 2946: 2929: 2919: 2884: 2880: 2870: 2838:(4): 524–7. 2835: 2831: 2821: 2778: 2774: 2764: 2731: 2727: 2721: 2696: 2692: 2686: 2675: 2650: 2638:. Retrieved 2631:the original 2620:Oster, Emily 2614: 2589: 2585: 2579: 2562: 2558: 2552: 2542: 2497: 2493: 2453: 2449: 2411: 2407: 2397: 2370: 2366: 2326: 2322: 2308: 2281: 2277: 2267: 2222: 2218: 2186: 2182: 2172: 2155: 2151: 2141: 2096: 2092: 2082: 2041: 2035: 2020: 2006: 1999: 1967: 1960: 1931: 1921: 1909:. 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Heyde 1452:Demography 1361:Demography 1250:pp. 13–17. 1184:Stir.ac.uk 1017:References 985:Countries: 863:emigration 779:technology 661:Azerbaijan 525:vertebrate 129:gendercide 106:demography 98:population 74:more women 42:more girls 4424:Migration 4301:6 billion 3944:2076-0760 3903:189952913 3765:0011-3204 2815:. w10920. 2559:Hum. Biol 2241:0027-8424 1950:ignored ( 1940:cite book 1859:E. Seneta 1752:186209819 1598:Hum. Biol 1190:6 January 886:sex ratio 557:pollution 498:Greenland 482:estradiol 423:gravidity 390:trimester 249:sign test 110:sex ratio 38:more boys 4459:Category 4227:Natalism 4150:Eugenics 3773:15702434 3683:10792384 3640:21237898 3597:18096798 3447:23461902 3420:41085573 3412:10748993 3359:Archived 3251:12923159 3210:15556894 3161:13520702 3120:10601107 3013:16286492 2962:7 August 2911:10504147 2862:19364717 2805:15556894 2756:39347627 2748:14652908 2728:Soc Biol 2713:53173184 2547:females. 2534:18250336 2472:19719518 2428:20598299 2389:19159875 2345:19654108 2300:10601107 2259:25825766 2133:23807025 2099:: 2048. 2028:(1967). 1861:(eds.), 1626:12297795 1618:12617497 1527:15974501 1482:24188622 1474:23151996 1433:25304419 1391:24188622 1383:23151996 1342:18577567 1296:11976243 1149:30988199 1087:11976243 943:See also 843:Northern 814:and the 775:military 759:Economic 545:Latitude 337:termites 322:eusocial 192:and the 70:more men 4448:Commons 4091:ecology 4042:biology 3706:Bibcode 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