1785:, and failure of vital organs. Over the last several decades, the overall anesthesia related mortality rate improved significantly for anesthetics administered. Advancements in monitoring equipment, anesthetic agents, and increased focus on perioperative safety are some reasons for the decrease in perioperative mortality. In the United States, the current estimated anesthesia-related mortality is about 1.1 per million population per year. The highest death rates were found in the geriatric population, especially those 85 and older. A review from 2018 examined perioperative anesthesia interventions and their impact on anesthesia-related mortality. Interventions found to reduce mortality include pharmacotherapy, ventilation, transfusion, nutrition, glucose control, dialysis and medical device. Interestingly, a randomized controlled trial from 2022 demonstrated that there is no significant difference in mortality between patient receiving handover from one clinician to another compared to the control group.
794:. Minimizing sensory stimulation or distraction by video games may help to reduce anxiety prior to or during induction of general anaesthesia. Larger high-quality studies are needed to confirm the most effective non-pharmacological approaches for reducing this type of anxiety. Parental presence during premedication and induction of anaesthesia has not been shown to reduce anxiety in children. It is suggested that parents who wish to attend should not be actively discouraged, and parents who prefer not to be present should not be actively encouraged to attend.
1278:(i.e. halothane or sevoflurane) which is called a gas or inhalational induction. Spontaneous ventilation can also be maintained using intravenous anaesthesia (e.g. propofol). Intravenous anaesthesia to maintain spontaneous respiration has certain advantages over inhalational agents (i.e. suppressed laryngeal reflexes) however it requires careful titration. Spontaneous Respiration using Intravenous anaesthesia and High-flow nasal oxygen (STRIVE Hi) is a technique that has been used in difficult and obstructed airways.
803:
injury if anesthesia is used on a concussed person. Concussions create ionic shifts in the brain that adjust the neuronal transmembrane potential. In order to restore this potential more glucose has to be made to equal the potential that is lost. This can be very dangerous and lead to cell death. This makes the brain very vulnerable in surgery. There are also changes to cerebral blood flow. The injury complicates the oxygen blood flow and supply to the brain.
1696:(e.g., one milligram of morphine). The PCA device then "locks out" for a preset period to allow the drug to take effect, and also prevent the patient from overdosing. If the patient becomes too sleepy or sedated, they make no more requests. This confers a fail-safe aspect that is lacking in continuous-infusion techniques. If these medications cannot effectively manage the pain, local anesthetic may be directly injected to the nerve in a procedure called a
1645:
1521:(TCI), it involves using a computer-controlled syringe driver (pump) to infuse propofol throughout the duration of surgery, removing the need for a volatile anaesthetic and allowing pharmacologic principles to more precisely guide the amount of the drug used by setting the desired drug concentration. Advantages include faster recovery from anaesthesia, reduced incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting, and absence of a trigger for
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6102:
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36:
1506:(usually propofol or midazolam). Propofol can be used for total intravenous anaesthetia (TIVA), therefore supplementation by inhalation agents is not required. General anesthesia is usually considered safe; however, there are reported cases of patients with distortion of taste and/or smell due to local anesthetics, stroke, nerve damage, or as a side effect of general anesthesia.
390:, many patients chose certain death rather than undergo surgery. Although there has been a great deal of debate as to who deserves the most credit for the discovery of general anaesthesia, several scientific discoveries in the late 18th and early 19th centuries were critical to the eventual introduction and development of modern anaesthetic techniques.
142:
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limited accuracy, and other evaluations are routinely performed addition to the
Mallampati test including mouth opening, thyromental distance, neck range of motion, and mandibular protrusion. In a patient with suspected distorted airway anatomy, endoscopy or ultrasound is sometimes used to evaluate the airway before planning for the airway management.
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Enhanced
Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) is a society that provides up-to-date guidelines and consensus to ensure continuity of care and improve recovery and peri-operative care. Adherence to the pathway and guidelines has been shown to associate with improved post-operative outcomes and lower costs to
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General anaesthesia can also be induced with the patient spontaneously breathing and therefore maintaining their own oxygenation which can be beneficial in certain scenarios (e.g. difficult airway or tubeless surgery). Spontaneous ventilation has been traditionally maintained with inhalational agents
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Paralysis is most easily monitored by means of a peripheral nerve stimulator. This device intermittently sends short electrical pulses through the skin over a peripheral nerve while the contraction of a muscle supplied by that nerve is observed. The effects of muscle relaxants are commonly reversed
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Anesthesia has little to no effect on brain function, unless there is an existing brain disruption. Barbiturates, or the drugs used to administer anesthesia, do not affect auditory brain stem response. An example of a brain disruption would be a concussion. It can be risky and lead to further brain
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may also be used; it works by directly binding muscle relaxants and removing it from the neuromuscular junction. Sugammadex was approved for use in the United States in 2015, and rapidly gained popularity. A study from 2022 has shown that
Sugammadex and neostigmine are likely similarly safe in the
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and requires ventilation until the drugs wear off and spontaneous breathing starts. In other words, ventilation may be required for both induction and maintenance of general anaesthesia or just during the induction. However, mechanical ventilation can provide ventilatory support during spontaneous
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The duration of action of intravenous induction agents is generally 5 to 10 minutes, after which spontaneous recovery of consciousness will occur. In order to prolong unconsciousness for the duration of surgery, anaesthesia must be maintained. This is achieved by allowing the patient to breathe a
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around the patient's arm, forearm, or leg. A machine takes blood pressure readings at regular, preset intervals throughout the surgery. The second method is invasive blood pressure (IBP) monitoring, which allows beat to beat monitoring of blood pressure. This method is reserved for patients with
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Prior to a planned procedure, the anesthesiologist reviews medical records, interviews the patient, and conducts a physical examination to obtain information regarding their medical history and current physical state, and to determine an appropriate anesthetic plan, including what combination of
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Prior to administration of a general anaesthetic, the anaesthetist may administer one or more drugs that complement or improve the quality or safety of the anaesthetic or simply provide anxiolysis. Premedication also often has mild sedative effects and may reduce the amount of anaesthetic agent
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technologies allow for a controlled induction of, maintenance of, and emergence from general anaesthesia. Standard for basic anesthetic monitoring is a guideline published by the ASA, which describes that the patient's oxygenation, ventilation, circulation and temperature should be continually
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are checked, and neck flexibility and head extension are observed. The most commonly performed airway assessment is the
Mallampati classification, which evaluates the airway base on the ability to view airway structures with the mouth open and the tongue protruding. Mallampati tests alone have
4407:
Orbach-Zinger S, Bizman I, Firman S, Lev S, Gat R, Ashwal E, et al. (October 2019). "Perioperative noninvasive cardiac output monitoring in parturients undergoing cesarean delivery with spinal anesthesia and prophylactic phenylephrine drip: a prospective observational cohort study".
830:, is the period between the administration of induction agents and loss of consciousness. During this stage, the patient progresses from analgesia without amnesia to analgesia with amnesia. Patients can carry on a conversation at this time, and may complain about visual disturbance.
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At the end of surgery, administration of anaesthetic agents is discontinued. Recovery of consciousness occurs when the concentration of anaesthetic in the brain drops below a certain level (this occurs usually within 1 to 30 minutes, mostly depending on the duration of surgery).
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drugs and dosages will likely be needed for the patient's comfort and safety during the procedure. A variety of non-invasive and invasive monitoring devices may be necessary to ensure a safe and effective procedure. Key factors in this evaluation are the patient's age, gender,
4991:
Meersch, Melanie; Weiss, Raphael; Küllmar, Mira; Bergmann, Lars; Thompson, Astrid; Griep, Leonore; Kusmierz, Desiree; Buchholz, Annika; Wolf, Alexander; Nowak, Hartmuth; Rahmel, Tim; Adamzik, Michael; Haaker, Jan Gerrit; Goettker, Carina; Gruendel, Matthias (28 June 2022).
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Boet, Sylvain; Etherington, Cole; Nicola, David; Beck, Andrew; Bragg, Susan; Carrigan, Ian D.; Larrigan, Sarah; Mendonca, Cassandra T.; Miao, Isaac; Postonogova, Tatyana; Walker, Benjamin; De Wit, José; Mohamed, Karim; Balaa, Nadia; Lalu, Manoj Mathew (30 November 2018).
656:. However, a randomized controlled trial from 2021 demonstrated that clonidine is less effective at providing anxiolysis and more sedative in children of preschool age. Oral clonidine can take up to 45 minutes to take full effect, The drawbacks of clonidine include
612:. Commonly used medications can also interact with anaesthetics, and failure to disclose such usage can increase the risk during the operation. Inaccurate timing of last meal can also increase the risk for aspiration of food, and lead to serious complications.
596:, medical and surgical history, current medications, exercise capacity, and fasting time. Thorough and accurate preoperative evaluation is crucial for the effective safety of the anesthetic plan. For example, a patient who consumes significant quantities of
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in 1937, describes four stages of anaesthesia. Despite newer anaesthetic agents and delivery techniques, which have led to more rapid onset of—and recovery from—anaesthesia (in some cases bypassing some of the stages entirely), the principles remain.
1269:. Generally, full mechanical ventilation is only used if a very deep state of general anaesthesia is to be induced for a major procedure, and/or with a profoundly ill or injured patient. That said, induction of general anaesthesia usually results in
3874:
Ruetzler K, Li K, Chhabada S, Maheshwari K, Chahar P, Khanna S, et al. (May 2022). "Sugammadex Versus
Neostigmine for Reversal of Residual Neuromuscular Blocks After Surgery: A Retrospective Cohort Analysis of Postoperative Side Effects".
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could result in involuntary responses from the patient (such as movement or muscle contractions) that may make an operation extremely difficult. Thus, for many procedures, general anaesthesia is required from a practical perspective.
583:(PA). The signaling molecule activated TWIK-related K+ channels (TREK-1), a channel involved in anesthesia. PLD fruit flies were shown to resist anesthesia, the results established a membrane mediated target for inhaled anesthetics.
735:, which reduce the burden of arrhythmias after cardiac surgery. However, evidence also has shown an association of increased adverse events with beta-blockers in non-cardiac surgery. Anaesthesiologists may administer one or more
664:, but these can be advantageous in patients with hypertension and tachycardia. Another commonly used alpha-2 adrenergic agonist is dexmedetomidine, which is commonly used to provide a short term sedative effect (<24 hours).
870:, the skeletal muscles relax, vomiting stops. Respiratory depression and cessation of eye movements are the hallmarks of this stage. The patient is unconscious and ready for surgery. This stage is divided into four planes:
856:. Because the combination of spastic movements, vomiting, and irregular respiration may compromise the patient's airway, rapidly acting drugs are used to minimize time in this stage and reach Stage 3 as fast as possible.
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significant heart or lung disease, the critically ill, and those undergoing major procedures such as cardiac or transplant surgery, or when large blood loss is expected. It involves placing a special type of plastic
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and mortality. An outgrowth of this committee, the
Anesthesia Patient Safety Foundation, was created in 1985 as an independent, nonprofit corporation with the goal "that no patient shall be harmed by anesthesia".
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that renders a patient unarousable even with painful stimuli. This effect is achieved by administering either intravenous or inhalational general anaesthetic medications, which often act in combination with an
4743:
Zhang X, Wang D, Shi M, Luo Y (April 2017). "Efficacy and Safety of
Dexmedetomidine as an Adjuvant in Epidural Analgesia and Anesthesia: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials".
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and mechanical ventilation in critically ill patients. Depending on the procedure, general anaesthesia may be optional or required. Regardless of whether a patient may prefer to be unconscious or not, certain
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The rare but major complication of general anaesthesia is malignant hyperthermia. All major hospitals should have a protocol in place with an emergence drug cart near the OR for this potential complication.
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release, risk for hypothermia, and induce lactic acidosis. A number of techniques are used to reduce shivering, such as warm blankets, or wrapping the patient in a sheet that circulates warmed air, called a
4510:"Effectiveness of active and passive warming for the prevention of inadvertent hypothermia in patients receiving neuraxial anesthesia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials"
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receptors. General anesthesia was hypothesized to either enhance the inhibitory transmission or reduce the excitatory transmission of neuro signaling. Most volatile anesthetics have been found to be a GABA
1416:, causes muscles to contract when it is released from nerve endings. Muscle paralytic drugs work by preventing acetylcholine from attaching to its receptor. Paralysis of the muscles of respiration—the
3751:"SponTaneous Respiration using IntraVEnous anaesthesia and Hi-flow nasal oxygen (STRIVE Hi) maintains oxygenation and airway patency during management of the obstructed airway: an observational study"
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Emergence is the return to baseline physiologic function of all organ systems after the cessation of general anaesthetics. This stage may be accompanied by temporary neurologic phenomena, such as
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is still controversial. Theories need to explain the function of anaesthesia in animals and plants. To induce unconsciousness, anaesthetics have myriad sites of action and affect the
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1386:, introduced in the 1940s, which has now been superseded by drugs with fewer side effects and, generally, shorter duration of action. Muscle relaxation allows surgery within major
4177:
Rajpal S, Gordon DB, Pellino TA, Strayer AL, Brost D, Trost GR, et al. (April 2010). "Comparison of perioperative oral multimodal analgesia versus IV PCA for spine surgery".
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and intubation are both very stimulating. The process of induction blunts the response to these maneuvers while simultaneously inducing a near-coma state to prevent awareness.
246:. Spontaneous ventilation is often inadequate during the procedure and intervention is often necessary to protect the airway. General anaesthesia is generally performed in an
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3961:"Guidelines for the safe practice of total intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA): Joint Guidelines from the Association of Anaesthetists and the Society for Intravenous Anaesthesia"
1612:. The proposed mechanism is based on the observation that the spinal cord recovers at a faster rate than the brain. This results in uninhibited spinal reflexes manifested as
1316:. Some of the methods to prevent eye injury during general anesthesia includes taping the eyelids shut, use of eye ointments, and specially designed eye protective goggles.
1163:: Almost all circuits have an alarm in case oxygen delivery to the patient is compromised. The alarm goes off if the fraction of inspired oxygen drops below a set threshold.
4323:
Olsen RM, Aasvang EK, Meyhoff CS, Dissing
Sorensen HB (October 2018). "Towards an automated multimodal clinical decision support system at the post anesthesia care unit".
1110:: There are two methods of measuring the patient's blood pressure. The first, and most common, is non-invasive blood pressure (NIBP) monitoring. This involves placing a
879:
The pupillary light reflex is lost; and the process is marked by complete relaxation of abdominal and intercostal muscles. Ideal level of anesthesia for most surgeries.
464:
General anaesthesia has many purposes and is routinely used in almost all surgical procedures. An appropriate surgical anesthesia should include the following goals:
4994:"Effect of Intraoperative Handovers of Anesthesia Care on Mortality, Readmission, or Postoperative Complications Among Adults: The HandiCAP Randomized Clinical Trial"
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may be chosen when intravenous access is difficult to obtain (e.g., children), when difficulty maintaining the airway is anticipated, or when the patient prefers it.
2250:
Dote K, Ikemune K, Desaki Y, Nandate H, Konisi A, Yorozuya T, Makino H (January 2017). "Two
Japanese Pioneers in Anesthesiology: Seishū Hanaoka and Gendai Kamada".
3221:"Effect of preoperative oral midazolam sedation on separation anxiety and emergence delirium among children undergoing dental treatment under general anesthesia"
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typically have monitors to measure the percentage of inhalational anaesthetic agents used as well as exhalation concentrations. These monitors include measuring
2837:"Institutional preparedness to prevent and manage anaesthesia-related 'can't intubate, can't oxygenate' events in Australian and New Zealand teaching hospitals"
1304:(incomplete eye closure) in 59% of people. In addition, tear production and tear-film stability are reduced, resulting in corneal epithelial drying and reduced
904:
depression, resulting in a cessation of respiration and potential cardiovascular collapse. This stage is lethal without cardiovascular and respiratory support.
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Baldini G (2022). Enhanced recovery protocols & optimization of perioperative outcomes. Butterworth IV J.F., & Mackey D.C., & Wasnick J.D.(Eds.),
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Pre-oxygenation or denitrogenation to fill lungs with 100% oxygen to permit a longer period of apnea during intubation without affecting blood oxygen levels
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mechanism that could account for the activation of an ion channel remained elusive until recently. A study from 2020 demonstrated that inhaled anesthetics (
6037:
5329:
4557:
Alderson P, Campbell G, Smith AF, Warttig S, Nicholson A, Lewis SR, et al. (Cochrane
Anaesthesia, Critical and Emergency Care Group) (June 2014).
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Woll, Kellie A.; Zhou, Xiaojuan; Bhanu, Natarajan V.; Garcia, Benjamin A.; Covarrubias, Manuel; Miller, Keith W.; Eckenhoff, Roderic G. (August 2018).
790:, pre-operative preparation video, and guided imagery relaxation therapy, etc. These techniques are particularly useful for children and patients with
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5689:
5605:
5434:
4271:"The Effect of Transversus Abdominis Plane Block for Analgesia in Patients Undergoing Liver Transplantation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"
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properties. Recovery is more rapid after premedication with melatonin than with midazolam, and there is also a reduced incidence of post-operative
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1313:
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1312:(in which the eyeball turns upward during sleep, protecting the cornea) is also lost. Careful management is required to reduce the likelihood of
6006:
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Schnabel A, Reichl SU, Weibel S, Zahn PK, Kranke P, Pogatzki-Zahn E, Meyer-Frießem CH, et al. (Cochrane Anaesthesia Group) (October 2019).
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and delirium. Melatonin has been shown to have a similar effect in reducing perioperative anxiety in adult patients compared to benzodiazepine.
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Instead of receiving continuous deep sedation, such as via benzodiazepines, dying patients may choose to be completely unconscious as they die.
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1525:. At present, TCI is not permitted in the United States, but a syringe pump delivering a specific rate of medication is commonly used instead.
564:
531:
496:
2886:"Comparison of forces acting on maxillary incisors during tracheal intubation with different laryngoscopy techniques: a blinded manikin study"
1684:. The patient presses a button to activate a syringe device and receive a preset dose or "bolus" of the drug, usually a strong opioid such as
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stimulant, is somewhat effective in abolishing postoperative shivering. Cardiovascular events such as increased or decreased blood pressure,
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are placed on the patient's skin to monitor heart rate and rhythm. This may also help the anaesthesiologist to identify early signs of heart
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53:
5653:
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Roth, Dominik; Pace, Nathan L.; Lee, Anna; Hovhannisyan, Karen; Warenits, Alexandra-Maria; Arrich, Jasmin; Herkner, Harald (15 May 2018).
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5888:
5471:
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Wattchow D, Heitmann P, Smolilo D, Spencer NJ, Parker D, Hibberd T, et al. (May 2021). "Postoperative ileus-An ongoing conundrum".
3180:
Manning, Alexander N.; Bezzo, Leah K.; Hobson, Jamie K.; Zoeller, Justine E.; Brown, Courtney A.; Henderson, Kristin J. (October 2020).
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Zhang, Youyi; Ye, Fei; Zhang, Tongtong; Lv, Shiyun; Zhou, Liping; Du, Daohai; Lin, He; Guo, Fei; Luo, Cheng; Zhu, Shujia (August 2021).
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immediately after surgery can help accelerate the timing of hospital discharge, but does not reduce the development of paralytic ileus.
1673:
4368:"Perioperative hyperoxia and post-operative cardiac complications in adults undergoing non-cardiac surgery: Systematic review protocol"
1636:. Responding and following verbal command, is a criterion commonly utilized to assess the patient's readiness for tracheal extubation.
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Two enormous leaps occurred in the late 19th century, which together allowed the transition to modern surgery. An appreciation of the
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Moody, Olivia A.; Zhang, Edlyn R.; Vincent, Kathleen F.; Kato, Risako; Melonakos, Eric D.; Nehs, Christa J.; Solt, Ken (1 May 2021).
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or in a dedicated anaesthetic room adjacent to the theatre. General anaesthesia may also be conducted in other locations, such as an
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and arousal circuits linked with unconsciousness, and some anaesthetics potentially able to activate specific sleep-active regions.
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of surgery to a far more acceptable rate than in previous eras. Concurrent with these developments were the significant advances in
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4686:"Dexmedetomidine as a neuraxial adjuvant for prevention of perioperative shivering: Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials"
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Approved by the ASA House of Delegates on October 21, 1986, last amended on October 20, 2010, and reaffirmed on December 13, 2020
896:, occurs when too much anaesthetic medication is given relative to the amount of surgical stimulation and the patient has severe
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to prevent postoperative nausea and vomiting. NSAIDs are commonly used analgesic premedication agent, and often reduce need for
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1808:. In 1984, after a television programme highlighting anaesthesia mishaps aired in the United States, American anaesthesiologist
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Most general anaesthetics are induced either intravenously or by inhalation. Commonly used intravenous induction agents include
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840:, is the period following loss of consciousness and marked by excited and delirious activity. During this stage, the patient's
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Eger, Edmond I II; Saidman, Lawrence J.; Westhorpe, Rod N., eds. (2014). The Wondrous Story of Anaesthesia. Springer. p. 438.
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Blessberger H, Kammler J, Domanovits H, Schlager O, Wildner B, Azar D, et al. (Cochrane Anaesthesia Group) (March 2018).
2641:"Anesthetic considerations for lung resection: preoperative assessment, intraoperative challenges and postoperative analgesia"
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Attempts at producing a state of general anaesthesia can be traced throughout recorded history in the writings of the ancient
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3082:"Preoperative anxiety in preschool children: A randomized clinical trial comparing midazolam, clonidine, and dexmedetomidine"
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57:
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Absalom, Anthony R.; Glen, John Iain B.; Zwart, Gerrit J. C.; Schnider, Thomas W.; Struys, Michel M. R. F. (January 2016).
503:(CNS) at multiple levels. General anaesthesia commonly interrupts or changes the functions of CNS components including the
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Elterman KG, Mallampati SR, Kaye AD, Urman RDPostoperative alterations in taste and smell. Anesth Pain Med. 2014;4:e18527
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is common. Apart from causing discomfort and exacerbating pain, shivering has been shown to increase oxygen consumption,
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4864:. McGraw Hill. https://accessmedicine-mhmedical-com.ezproxy.med.ucf.edu/content.aspx?bookid=3194§ionid=266524617
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2984:"Clonidine in paediatric anaesthesia: review of the literature and comparison with benzodiazepines for premedication"
386:. However, despite all this progress, surgery remained a treatment of last resort. Largely because of the associated
86:
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Bromfalk, Åsa; Myrberg, Tomi; Walldén, Jakob; Engström, Åsa; Hultin, Magnus (November 2021). Cravero, Joseph (ed.).
2927:"Airway physical examination tests for detection of difficult airway management in apparently normal adult patients"
1913:"Preoperative Interventions for Alcohol and Other Recreational Substance Use: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"
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Baker JJ, Öberg S, Rosenberg J (December 2017). "Loss of Smell and Taste After General Anesthesia: A Case Report".
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prepared with medications that are expected to be used during an operation under general anaesthesia maintained by
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characteristics also contributed to this trend. Finally, standardized training programs for anaesthesiologists and
425:, a Japanese surgeon, became the first person on record to successfully perform surgery using general anaesthesia.
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Henry RG, Raybould TP, Romond K, Kouzoukas DE, Challman SD (March 2018). "Clonidine as a preoperative sedative".
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The eyes roll, then become fixed; eyelid and swallow reflexes are lost. Still have regular spontaneous breathing;
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Rasouli, Mohammed R.; Kavin, Michelle; Stache, Stephen; Mahla, Michael E.; Schwenk, Eric S. (February 2020).
2743:"Incidences and factors associated with perioperative cardiac arrest in trauma patients receiving anesthesia"
1733:, or other α2-agonists, anticholinergics, central nervous system stimulants, or corticosteroids may be used.
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of the chest—requires that some form of artificial respiration be implemented. Because the muscles of the
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has been found to be effective as an anaesthetic premedication in both adults and children because of its
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are the most commonly used class of drugs for premedication. The most commonly utilized benzodiazepine is
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is often used, although there are alternative devices that can assist respiration, such as face masks or
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from ordered lipid domains in the plasma membrane, which led to the production of the signaling molecule
299:. The optimal combination of anesthetics for any given patient and procedure is typically selected by an
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1494:). Inhaled anaesthetic agents are also frequently supplemented by intravenous analgesic agents, such as
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could be undermedicated during the procedure if they fail to disclose this fact, and this could lead to
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1096:(SpO2): A device is placed, usually on a finger, to allow for early detection of a fall in a patient's
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In the 20th century, the safety and efficacy of general anaesthesia was improved by the routine use of
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2460:"Identification of binding sites contributing to volatile anesthetic effects on GABA type A receptors"
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5194:"The anaesthetist, opioid analgesic drugs, and serotonin toxicity: a mechanistic and clinical review"
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Other medications are occasionally used to treat side effects or prevent complications. They include
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Schieren M, Kleinschmidt J, Schmutz A, Loop T, Staat M, Gatzweiler KH, et al. (December 2019).
1588:(impaired production or comprehension of speech), or focal impairment in sensory or motor function.
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exhaled by the patient in percent or mmHg, allowing the anaesthesiologist to assess the adequacy of
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3033:"Premedication with clonidine is superior to benzodiazepines. A meta analysis of published studies"
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1859:"General anaesthesia in end-of-life care: extending the indications for anaesthesia beyond surgery"
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1680:. Sometimes, opioid medication is administered by the patient themselves using a system called a
1222:, or other systems may be used to verify the depth of anaesthesia. This reduces the likelihood of
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which led to the development of general anaesthesia and the control of pain. On 14 November 1804,
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is the most commonly used agent for inhalational induction, because it is less irritating to the
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682:, which is characterized by a rapid onset and short duration. Midazolam is effective in reducing
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519:. Current theories on the anaesthetized state identify not only target sites in the CNS but also
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to allow surgical procedures that would otherwise be intolerably painful for a patient, or in an
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are also common during emergence from general anaesthesia, as are respiratory symptoms such as
5960:
5787:
5782:
5673:
5600:
5506:
5299:
5250:
5215:
5121:
5072:
5031:
5013:
4973:
4955:
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4725:
4666:
4625:
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4539:
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4159:
4109:
4083:
4075:
4025:
3982:
3941:
3892:
3858:
3780:
3692:
3651:
3634:
Hedenstierna G, Edmark L (September 2015). "Effects of anesthesia on the respiratory system".
3616:
3598:
3559:
3551:
3512:
3458:
3440:
3399:
3350:
3301:
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3054:
3005:
2964:
2946:
2907:
2858:
2809:
2792:
Mushambi MC, Jaladi S (June 2016). "Airway management and training in obstetric anaesthesia".
2774:
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2621:
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2546:
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2401:
2383:
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914:
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624:
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580:
453:
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304:
247:
168:
152:
3959:
Nimmo AF, Absalom AR, Bagshaw O, Biswas A, Cook TM, Costello A, et al. (February 2019).
5950:
5739:
5699:
5412:
5320:
5289:
5242:
5205:
5111:
5103:
5062:
5021:
5005:
4963:
4945:
4903:
4887:
4827:
4753:
4715:
4705:
4656:
4645:"Comparison of two convective warming systems during major abdominal and orthopedic surgery"
4615:
4574:
4566:
4529:
4521:
4480:
4464:
4417:
4379:
4332:
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3232:
3146:
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2954:
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2611:
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2092:
Approved by the House of Delegates on October 25, 2005, and last amended on October 17, 2018
2034:
1990:
1982:
1934:
1924:
1880:
1870:
1834:
1816:. This committee was tasked with determining and reducing the causes of anaesthesia-related
1409:
1111:
764:
449:
445:
360:
300:
5278:"Safe duration of postoperative monitoring for malignant hyperthermia susceptible patients"
1788:
Mortality directly related to anaesthetic management is very uncommon but may be caused by
5704:
5579:
5539:
4222:"Adductor canal blocks for postoperative pain treatment in adults undergoing knee surgery"
3483:"Non-pharmacological interventions for assisting the induction of anaesthesia in children"
1730:
1565:
1561:
1469:
1441:
1250:
691:
665:
593:
576:
504:
437:
296:
276:
5233:
Kim KS, Kriss RS, Tautz TJ (December 2019). "Malignant Hyperthermia: A Clinical Review".
3579:"Anesthesia for the patient with a recently diagnosed concussion: think about the brain!"
3031:
Dahmani S, Brasher C, Stany I, Golmard J, Skhiri A, Bruneau B, et al. (April 2010).
1592:
is also fairly common and can be clinically significant because it causes an increase in
619:, involving inspection of the mouth opening and visualisation of the soft tissues of the
4701:
4579:
4558:
4108:
Basics of Anesthesia, 5th Edition Authors: Robert K. Stoelting & Ronald D. Miller
2597:
2534:
5812:
5807:
5719:
5374:
5116:
5091:
5026:
4993:
4968:
4933:
4908:
4875:
4874:
Li, Guohua; Warner, Margaret; Lang, Barbara H.; Huang, Lin; Sun, Lena S. (April 2009).
4720:
4685:
4534:
4509:
4485:
4452:
4295:
4270:
4246:
4221:
4154:
4129:
3775:
3750:
3611:
3578:
3507:
3482:
3453:
3418:
3394:
3369:
3345:
3320:
3255:
3220:
2959:
2926:
2769:
2742:
2718:
2691:
2667:
2640:
2616:
2581:
2494:
2459:
2396:
2363:
2311:
2286:
2227:
2202:
1995:
1970:
1939:
1912:
1885:
1858:
1707:
1609:
1601:
1597:
1444:
drugs to minimize side effects. Examples of skeletal muscle relaxants in use today are
1324:
1187:
1142:
1124:
1092:
768:
721:
675:
520:
410:
348:
157:
1382:, is an integral part of modern anaesthesia. The first drug used for this purpose was
6130:
5934:
5822:
5724:
5549:
5262:
4847:
4796:
4336:
3904:
3687:
3670:
3547:
3296:
3279:
3123:
3066:
3049:
3032:
3000:
2983:
2870:
2566:
2187:
1721:
1677:
1537:
1457:
1405:
1301:
1254:
1150:
1120:
748:
620:
542:
368:
344:
264:
234:
4352:
4095:
3994:
3704:
3370:"Perioperative beta-blockers for preventing surgery-related mortality and morbidity"
3017:
2821:
1087:. Typically lead II and V5 are monitored for arrhythmias and ischemia, respectively.
615:
An important aspect of pre-anaesthetic evaluation is an assessment of the patient's
5797:
5625:
5610:
4773:
4570:
4525:
4437:
4237:
4206:
3498:
3385:
3336:
3166:
2942:
1553:
1549:
1053:
1004:
731:
Another example of anaesthetic premedication is the preoperative administration of
609:
493:
414:
352:
4421:
3831:
Nair PN, White E (2014). "Care of the eye during anaesthesia and intensive care".
3531:
2171:
1729:. If the shivering cannot be managed with external warming devices, drugs such as
848:
may become irregular. In addition, there may be uncontrolled movements, vomiting,
206:
17:
5326:
An article at University of Bristol providing interesting facts about chloroform.
5147:
4891:
4710:
4190:
4070:
4053:
4021:
3888:
3671:"Neurocirculatory responses to sevoflurane in humans. A comparison to desflurane"
2805:
2379:
2302:
2039:
2022:
1812:
appointed the Anesthesia Patient Safety and Risk Management Committee within the
192:
6001:
5709:
5663:
5451:
5339:
4468:
4145:
3844:
2690:
Izumo W, Higuchi R, Yazawa T, Uemura S, Shiihara M, Yamamoto M (December 2019).
2436:
1797:
1726:
1665:
1661:
1625:
1569:
1557:
1445:
1387:
1348:
1332:
1245:, and sometimes a regular breathing pattern due to the effects of anaesthetics,
1201:
1182:
1016:
977:
740:
717:
661:
657:
516:
375:
364:
307:(depending on local practice and law), in consultation with the patient and the
200:
35:
5294:
5277:
4934:"Anesthesia interventions that alter perioperative mortality: a scoping review"
3936:
3816:
3799:
2708:
2586:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2542:
2263:
141:
5749:
5544:
5370:
5246:
5210:
5193:
4950:
4876:"Epidemiology of Anesthesia-related Mortality in the United States, 1999–2005"
4757:
3647:
3435:
3419:"Non-pharmacologic Approaches in Preoperative Anxiety, a Comprehensive Review"
2144:
1605:
1541:
1473:
1465:
1461:
1453:
1449:
1362:
1154:
1097:
945:
930:
845:
776:
760:
744:
736:
709:
572:
441:
418:
398:
5017:
4959:
4899:
4476:
4079:
3945:
3602:
3555:
3444:
3246:
3237:
3197:
3107:
2950:
2550:
2485:
2444:
2387:
1929:
4286:
2657:
2606:
1748:
1693:
1533:
1428:
are also paralysed, the airway usually needs to be protected by means of an
1357:
1344:
1080:
1000:
926:
918:
897:
701:
679:
641:
406:
336:
292:
284:
239:
5303:
5254:
5219:
5125:
5076:
5067:
5050:
5035:
5009:
4977:
4917:
4839:
4765:
4729:
4670:
4629:
4588:
4543:
4494:
4429:
4393:
4344:
4304:
4255:
4198:
4163:
4087:
4029:
3986:
3896:
3784:
3655:
3620:
3516:
3462:
3403:
3354:
3305:
3264:
3205:
3181:
3158:
3115:
3058:
3009:
2968:
2911:
2862:
2813:
2778:
2741:
Siriphuwanun V, Punjasawadwong Y, Saengyo S, Rerkasem K (18 October 2018).
2727:
2692:"Evaluation of preoperative risk factors for postpancreatectomy hemorrhage"
2676:
2625:
2558:
2518:
2503:
2405:
2320:
2271:
2236:
2203:"Asepsis and bacteriology: a realignment of surgery and laboratory science"
2179:
2048:
2004:
1986:
1948:
1894:
1736:
In many cases, opioids used in general anaesthesia can cause postoperative
1241:
Anaesthetized patients lose protective airway reflexes (such as coughing),
882:
Full diaphragm paralysis and irregular shallow abdominal respiration occur.
5107:
3696:
3563:
2476:
5694:
5393:
5330:
Australian & New Zealand College of Anaesthetists Monitoring Standard
4620:
4604:"Predicting the efficacy of convection warming in anaesthetized children"
4603:
4602:
Stanger R, Colyvas K, Cassey JG, Robinson IA, Armstrong P (August 2009).
4559:"Thermal insulation for preventing inadvertent perioperative hypothermia"
3766:
2759:
1793:
1778:
1689:
1685:
1617:
1572:
are sometimes given to prevent inflammation and infection, respectively.
1513:
In the 1990s, a novel method of maintaining anaesthesia was developed in
1503:
1499:
1491:
1353:
1338:
1305:
1084:
1039:
1033:
1008:
992:
938:
756:
713:
705:
653:
553:
508:
5276:
Pollock N, Langtont E, Stowell K, Simpson C, McDonnell N (August 2004).
5170:
3225:
Journal of International Society of Preventive & Community Dentistry
2218:
1911:
Budworth L, Prestwich A, Lawton R, Kotzé A, Kellar I (4 February 2019).
1194:. MmHg is usually used to allow the provider to see more subtle changes.
563:
The chemical structure and properties of anesthetics, as first noted by
4661:
4644:
3977:
3960:
2902:
2885:
2853:
2836:
1875:
1817:
1633:
1585:
1514:
1391:
1328:
1116:
787:
549:
402:
383:
379:
340:
308:
280:
5146:. Narberth, Pennsylvania: Physician's News Digest, Inc. Archived from
4831:
4384:
4367:
3920:"Pharmacology of anaesthetic agents I: intravenous anaesthetic agents"
3594:
3150:
3098:
3081:
216:
4789:"Post-operative shivering, causes, prevention and treatment (letter)"
1782:
1669:
1613:
1593:
1545:
1495:
1425:
1395:
1383:
1246:
1138:
752:
311:, dentist, or other practitioner performing the operative procedure.
3417:
Wang, Rulin; Huang, Xin; Wang, Yuan; Akbari, Masod (11 April 2022).
1174:
indicates failure of the circuit to achieve a given pressure during
944:
Anaesthetic agents may be administered by various routes, including
1857:
Takla, A; Savulescu, J; Wilkinson, DJC; Pandit, JJ (October 2021).
1398:, without the need for very deep anaesthesia, and also facilitates
941:
where extrication of the patient may be impossible or impractical.
480:
Paralysis (skeletal muscle relaxation and normal muscle relaxation)
1737:
1643:
1323:
1270:
1253:. To maintain an open airway and regulate breathing, some form of
849:
371:, while their European counterparts also made important advances.
332:
4684:
Zhang J, Zhang X, Wang H, Zhou H, Tian T, Wu A (22 August 2017).
4269:
Sharma A, Goel AD, Sharma PP, Vyas V, Agrawal SP (October 2019).
2580:
Pavel MA, Petersen EN, Wang H, Lerner RA, Hansen SB (June 2020).
367:, scientists and other scholars made significant advances in the
4453:"Postanaesthetic shivering – from pathophysiology to prevention"
4130:"Postanaesthetic shivering - from pathophysiology to prevention"
3321:"Melatonin for preoperative and postoperative anxiety in adults"
3182:"Dexmedetomidine Dosing to Prevent Pediatric Emergence Delirium"
1702:
In the recovery unit, many vital signs are monitored, including
1616:
activity (shivering). This theory is supported by the fact that
387:
5343:
782:
Non-pharmacologic preanaesthetic interventions include playing
552:, although the site of action on the receptor remains unknown.
6043:
American Society of Anesthesia Technologists & Technicians
3481:
Manyande A, Cyna AM, Yip P, Chooi C, Middleton P (July 2015).
29:
3804:
Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care & Pain
3319:
Madsen BK, Zetner D, Møller AM, Rosenberg J (December 2020).
2519:"Structural basis of ketamine action on human NMDA receptors"
2364:"The Neural Circuits Underlying General Anesthesia and Sleep"
2287:"General Anesthetics and Neurotoxicity: How Much Do We Know?"
1440:
drugs, which are administered in combination with muscarinic
534:
anesthesia. Potential protein-mediated molecular targets are
3924:
Continuing Education in Anaesthesia Critical Care & Pain
2023:"Anaphylaxis and anesthesia: controversies and new insights"
1490:
agent, or by administering intravenous medication (usually
6007:
Helsinki Declaration for Patient Safety in Anaesthesiology
5854:
Effects of early-life exposures to anesthesia on the brain
2639:
Lederman D, Easwar J, Feldman J, Shapiro V (August 2019).
401:
techniques in surgery. Antisepsis, which soon gave way to
6058:
Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland
5051:"Pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents in anaesthesia"
4508:
Shaw CA, Steelman VM, DeBerg J, Schweizer ML (May 2017).
5173:. Indianapolis, IN: Anesthesia Patient Safety Foundation
2021:
Dewachter P, Mouton-Faivre C, Emala CW (November 2009).
1740:, even after non-abdominal surgery. Administration of a
1257:
is inserted after the patient is unconscious. To enable
275:
may be administered, with the overall goal of achieving
5335:
Royal College of Anaesthetists Patient Information page
4643:
Wagner K, Swanson E, Raymond CJ, Smith CE (June 2008).
3749:
Booth AW, Vidhani K, Lee PK, Thomsett CM (March 2017).
3278:
Naguib M, Gottumukkala V, Goldstein PA (January 2007).
2982:
Bergendahl H, Lönnqvist PA, Eksborg S (February 2006).
1472:. Novel neuromuscular blockade reversal agents such as
6088:
European Society of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care
3636:
Best Practice & Research. Clinical Anaesthesiology
2158:
Toledo-Pereyra LH (June 2015). "Medical Renaissance".
4410:
The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine
1374:(here under trade name Robinul), reducing secretions
4366:
Petersen C, Wetterslev J, Meyhoff CS (August 2018).
146:
Equipment used for anaesthesia in the operating room
6073:
Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists
6030:
5994:
5943:
5897:
5831:
5763:
5682:
5646:
5593:
5532:
5381:
3536:
Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology
2421:"Mechanisms of action of general anaesthetic drugs"
672:agents may be also used in uncooperative children.
567:, suggest they could target the plasma membrane. A
199:
185:
174:
163:
151:
134:
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
4862:Morgan & Mikhail's Clinical Anesthesiology, 7e
4457:Romanian Journal of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care
4275:Turkish Journal of Anaesthesiology and Reanimation
4134:Romanian Journal of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care
3532:"Anesthesia effects: auditory brain-stem response"
3280:"Melatonin and anesthesia: a clinical perspective"
976:, the agents are transported to their biochemical
397:led rapidly to the development and application of
5137:
5135:
4054:"Target-Controlled Infusion: A Mature Technology"
1378:Paralysis, or temporary muscle relaxation with a
1045:Switching from oxygen to a mixture of oxygen and
2582:"Studies on the mechanism of general anesthesia"
1648:Anaesthetized patient in postoperative recovery.
3476:
3474:
3472:
2016:
2014:
1800:. These in turn may result from malfunction of
233:(US) is a method of medically inducing loss of
2129:(Ninth ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier.
1906:
1904:
5355:
1971:"The Stages and Signs of General Anaesthesia"
1486:carefully controlled mixture of oxygen and a
913:General anaesthesia is usually induced in an
690:in children. It also provides mild sedation,
8:
5735:Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring
4179:Journal of Spinal Disorders & Techniques
2336:"Plants, Like People, Succumb to Anesthesia"
1964:
1962:
1960:
1958:
468:Hypnosis/Unconsciousness (loss of awareness)
5049:Engelhardt T, Webster NR (September 1999).
4563:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
4226:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
3719:"Standards for Basic Anesthetic Monitoring"
3487:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
3374:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
3325:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
2931:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1852:
1850:
1274:breathing to ensure adequate gas exchange.
1026:As an example sequence of induction drugs:
497:mechanism of action of general anaesthetics
6038:American Association of Nurse Anesthetists
5362:
5348:
5340:
3669:Ebert TJ, Muzi M, Lopatka CW (July 1995).
1204:or fever, and to allow early detection of
140:
6083:International Anesthesia Research Society
5690:ASA physical status classification system
5293:
5209:
5115:
5092:"Maternal death from aspiration asphyxia"
5066:
5025:
4967:
4949:
4907:
4719:
4709:
4660:
4619:
4578:
4533:
4484:
4383:
4294:
4245:
4153:
4069:
3976:
3935:
3833:Anaesthesia & Intensive Care Medicine
3815:
3774:
3686:
3610:
3506:
3452:
3434:
3393:
3344:
3295:
3254:
3236:
3097:
3048:
2999:
2958:
2901:
2852:
2768:
2758:
2717:
2707:
2666:
2656:
2615:
2605:
2493:
2475:
2425:Anaesthesia & Intensive Care Medicine
2395:
2310:
2226:
2038:
1994:
1938:
1928:
1884:
1874:
786:, music therapy, aromatherapy, hypnosis
623:. The condition of teeth and location of
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
5435:Combined spinal and epidural anaesthesia
3918:Khan KS, Hayes I, Buggy DJ (June 2014).
1036:for systemic analgesia during intubation
876:Corneal and laryngeal reflexes are lost;
526:Two non-exclusionary mechanisms include
6068:Association of Veterinary Anaesthetists
2285:Jevtovic-Todorovic V (September 2016).
2066:"Position on Monitored Anesthesia Care"
1846:
1314:eye injuries during general anaesthesia
1308:protection. The protection afforded by
1288:Eye injuries during general anaesthesia
27:Medically induced loss of consciousness
2120:
648:. It reduces postoperative shivering,
131:
6048:American Society of Anesthesiologists
4318:
4316:
4314:
4123:
4121:
3726:American Society of Anesthesiologists
3530:Smith, D.I.; Mills, J.H. (May 1989).
2747:Risk Management and Healthcare Policy
2118:
2116:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2100:
2073:American Society of Anesthesiologists
2060:
2058:
1814:American Society of Anesthesiologists
1674:non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
1652:Postoperative pain is managed in the
7:
6053:Anaesthesia Trauma and Critical Care
4451:Lopez, Maria Bermudez (April 2018).
1672:, as well as other medications like
1477:reversal of neuromuscular blockade.
1119:in an artery, usually in the wrist (
471:Analgesia (loss of response to pain)
436:techniques. Significant advances in
58:adding citations to reliable sources
6078:Australian Society of Anaesthetists
5986:Physicians' assistant (anaesthesia)
5889:Postoperative residual curarization
4372:Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica
3037:Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica
2988:Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica
2835:Rehak A, Watterson LM (June 2020).
640:One commonly used premedication is
477:Immobility (loss of motor reflexes)
212:
5966:Operating department practitioners
5192:Baldo BA, Rose MA (January 2020).
4820:Neurogastroenterology and Motility
1668:medication. Patients may be given
25:
5976:Certified anesthesia technologist
5884:Postoperative nausea and vomiting
5399:Procedural sedation and analgesia
4325:Computers in Biology and Medicine
3798:Contractor S, Hardman JG (2006).
2794:Current Opinion in Anesthesiology
937:, ambulance, or at the site of a
650:postoperative nausea and vomiting
6110:
6101:
6100:
5517:Transverse abdominis plane block
4337:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2018.07.018
3688:10.1097/00000542-199507000-00011
3583:Korean Journal of Anesthesiology
3297:10.1111/j.1600-079X.2006.00384.x
3219:El Batawi, Hisham Yehia (2015).
3050:10.1111/j.1399-6576.2009.02207.x
3001:10.1111/j.1399-6576.2006.00940.x
2696:Langenbeck's Archives of Surgery
2645:Annals of Translational Medicine
2419:Lambert, David G. (1 May 2020).
2160:Journal of Investigative Surgery
2125:Michael A. Gropper, ed. (2020).
1706:, heart rhythm and respiration,
1292:General anaesthesia reduces the
303:, or another provider such as a
34:
6111:
6017:History of neuraxial anesthesia
5971:Certified anesthesia technician
5793:Double-lumen endobronchial tube
5654:Blood–gas partition coefficient
5487:Intravenous regional anesthesia
4649:Canadian Journal of Anaesthesia
1131:Agent concentration measurement
575:and isoflurane) could displace
488:Biochemical mechanism of action
45:needs additional citations for
6063:Royal College of Anaesthetists
6022:History of tracheal intubation
5669:Minimum alveolar concentration
5606:Anesthesia provision in the US
5282:Anaesthesia and Intensive Care
5198:British Journal of Anaesthesia
5055:British Journal of Anaesthesia
4608:British Journal of Anaesthesia
4571:10.1002/14651858.CD009908.pub2
4526:10.1016/j.jclinane.2017.01.005
4514:Journal of Clinical Anesthesia
4238:10.1002/14651858.CD012262.pub2
3755:British Journal of Anaesthesia
3499:10.1002/14651858.CD006447.pub3
3386:10.1002/14651858.CD004476.pub3
3337:10.1002/14651858.CD009861.pub3
2943:10.1002/14651858.CD008874.pub2
1532:to treat high blood pressure;
1502:or a fentanyl derivative) and
327:History of tracheal intubation
1:
6012:History of general anesthesia
5524:Total intravenous anaesthesia
5472:Inferior alveolar nerve block
5418:Continuous wound infiltration
5144:"Improving anesthesia safety"
4422:10.1080/14767058.2018.1458835
2334:Frazier J (26 January 2018).
2252:Journal of Anesthesia History
2172:10.3109/08941939.2015.1054747
1802:anaesthesia-related equipment
1564:to treat allergic reactions.
1540:to treat low blood pressure;
1069:evaluated during anesthetic.
321:History of general anesthesia
5575:Neuromuscular-blocking drugs
4892:10.1097/aln.0b013e31819b5bdc
4711:10.1371/journal.pone.0183154
4191:10.1097/BSD.0b013e3181cf07ee
4071:10.1213/ANE.0000000000001009
4022:10.1213/XAA.0000000000000612
3889:10.1213/ANE.0000000000005842
3548:10.1016/0013-4694(89)90047-3
2806:10.1097/ACO.0000000000000309
2380:10.1213/ANE.0000000000005361
2303:10.1016/j.anclin.2016.04.001
2040:10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181bbd443
1777:from the operation, such as
1682:patient controlled analgesic
838:excitement or delirium stage
784:cognitive behavioral therapy
456:emerged during this period.
378:saw significant advances in
244:neuromuscular blocking agent
5910:Critical emergency medicine
4746:Clinical Drug Investigation
4469:10.21454/rjaic.7518.251.xum
4146:10.21454/rjaic.7518.251.xum
3845:10.1016/j.mpaic.2013.11.008
3800:"Injury during anaesthesia"
2437:10.1016/j.mpaic.2020.02.006
1049:once intubation is complete
1042:for sedation for intubation
836:Stage 2, also known as the
733:beta adrenergic antagonists
513:reticular activating system
6153:
5956:Anesthesiologist assistant
5818:Relative analgesia machine
5295:10.1177/0310057X0403200407
3423:Frontiers in Public Health
3284:Journal of Pineal Research
2709:10.1007/s00423-019-01830-w
2543:10.1038/s41586-021-03769-9
2264:10.1016/j.janh.2016.12.002
1762:
1584:(acute mental confusion),
1519:target controlled infusion
1285:
1234:
866:In Stage 3, also known as
646:alpha-2 adrenergic agonist
637:required during the case.
324:
318:
287:, loss of reflexes of the
6096:
5864:Local anesthetic toxicity
5247:10.1016/j.aan.2019.08.003
5211:10.1016/j.bja.2019.08.010
4951:10.1186/s13643-018-0863-x
4758:10.1007/s40261-016-0477-9
3648:10.1016/j.bpa.2015.08.008
3436:10.3389/fpubh.2022.854673
3139:Special Care in Dentistry
1654:anaesthesia recovery unit
1436:at the end of surgery by
1147:inhalational anaesthetics
1108:Blood pressure monitoring
792:intellectual disabilities
213:
139:
5879:Postanesthetic shivering
5745:Neuromuscular monitoring
5636:Rapid sequence induction
5565:Inhalational anesthetics
4058:Anesthesia and Analgesia
3937:10.1093/bjaceaccp/mkt039
3877:Anesthesia and Analgesia
3817:10.1093/bjaceaccp/mkl004
3238:10.4103/2231-0762.155728
2368:Anesthesia and Analgesia
1969:Hewer CL (August 1937).
1930:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00034
1755:the health care system.
1718:Postanesthetic shivering
1298:orbicularis oculi muscle
1168:circuit disconnect alarm
1100:saturation with oxygen (
1013:Inhalational anaesthesia
798:Anesthesia and the brain
558:NMDA receptor antagonist
474:Amnesia (loss of memory)
289:autonomic nervous system
5930:Oral sedation dentistry
5920:Intensive care medicine
5874:Perioperative mortality
5730:Guedel's classification
5477:Intercostal nerve block
5323:The molecular lifesaver
5096:British Medical Journal
5090:Parker RB (July 1956).
4287:10.5152/tjar.2019.60251
4128:Lopez MB (April 2018).
2658:10.21037/atm.2019.03.67
2607:10.1073/pnas.2004259117
2201:Schlich T (July 2012).
1975:British Medical Journal
1917:Frontiers in Psychology
1771:perioperative mortality
1765:Perioperative mortality
1759:Perioperative mortality
1610:systemic blood pressure
1400:endotracheal intubation
1198:Temperature measurement
1186:measures the amount of
1047:inhalational anesthetic
892:Stage 4, also known as
850:suspension of breathing
826:Stage 1, also known as
812:Guedel's classification
587:Preoperative evaluation
260:endotracheal intubation
5981:Anaesthetic technician
5869:Malignant hyperthermia
5235:Advances in Anesthesia
5010:10.1001/jama.2022.9451
2291:Anesthesiology Clinics
1987:10.1136/bmj.2.3996.274
1649:
1523:malignant hyperthermia
1414:neuromuscular junction
1375:
1372:Glycopyrronium bromide
1320:Neuromuscular blockade
1267:laryngeal mask airways
1259:mechanical ventilation
1213:Electroencephalography
1206:malignant hyperthermia
1176:mechanical ventilation
1060:Physiologic monitoring
972:. Once they enter the
670:atypical antipsychotic
501:central nervous system
405:, reduced the overall
395:germ theory of disease
167:Facilitating surgery,
5803:Laryngeal mask airway
5647:Scientific principles
5616:Dogliotti's principle
5492:Occipital nerve block
5457:Brachial plexus block
5169:Stoelting RK (2010).
5142:Guadagnino C (2000).
5108:10.1136/bmj.2.4983.16
4793:Update in Anaesthesia
2477:10.1096/fj.201701347R
1792:of gastric contents,
1712:core body temperature
1647:
1380:neuromuscular blocker
1327:
1224:anaesthesia awareness
1021:tracheobronchial tree
807:Stages of anaesthesia
773:histamine antagonists
606:anaesthesia awareness
556:is a non-competitive
325:Further information:
179:Anaesthesia awareness
69:"General anaesthesia"
5849:Drug-induced amnesia
5844:Anesthesia awareness
5778:Anesthetic vaporizer
5755:Thyromental distance
5659:Concentration effect
5533:Pharmacologic agents
5502:Pudendal nerve block
5171:"Foundation History"
5068:10.1093/bja/83.3.453
4795:(15). Archived from
4010:A&A Case Reports
3086:Pediatric Anesthesia
2760:10.2147/rmhp.s178950
1790:pulmonary aspiration
1630:cardiac dysrhythmias
1488:volatile anaesthetic
1135:anaesthetic machines
935:emergency department
868:surgical anaesthesia
816:Arthur Ernest Guedel
684:preoperative anxiety
291:, and in some cases
256:emergency department
54:improve this article
5773:Anaesthetic machine
5631:Tracheal intubation
5621:Intravenous therapy
5560:General anesthetics
5512:Sciatic nerve block
5467:Femoral nerve block
5462:Fascia iliaca block
5440:Epidural anesthesia
5406:Twilight anesthesia
4702:2017PLoSO..1283154Z
2598:2020PNAS..11713757P
2592:(24): 13757–13766.
2535:2021Natur.596..301Z
2341:Scientific American
2219:10.1017/mdh.2012.22
2127:Miller's anesthesia
2082:on 11 November 2022
1804:or, more commonly,
1773:is attributable to
1517:, Scotland. Called
1422:intercostal muscles
1367:neuromuscular block
1112:blood pressure cuff
1076:electrocardiography
1023:than other agents.
923:intensive care unit
696:anterograde amnesia
454:nurse anaesthetists
432:and other advanced
430:tracheal intubation
252:intensive care unit
227:General anaesthesia
135:General anaesthesia
5859:Emergence delirium
5839:Allergic reactions
5715:Entropy monitoring
5497:Paracervical block
5482:Interpleural block
5445:Spinal anaesthesia
5430:Neuraxial blockade
4938:Systematic Reviews
4787:English W (2002).
4662:10.1007/BF03021491
4621:10.1093/bja/aep160
3978:10.1111/anae.14428
3767:10.1093/bja/aew468
2903:10.1111/anae.14815
2854:10.1111/anae.14909
1876:10.1111/anae.15459
1658:regional analgesia
1650:
1640:Postoperative care
1582:agitated emergence
1438:anticholinesterase
1376:
1219:entropy monitoring
1172:low pressure alarm
1161:Oxygen measurement
974:circulatory system
854:pupillary dilation
688:separation anxiety
608:or intraoperative
442:anaesthetic agents
384:surgical technique
305:nurse anaesthetist
231:general anesthesia
18:General anæsthesia
6124:
6123:
5961:Nurse anesthetist
5788:Bronchial blocker
5783:Arterial catheter
5674:Second gas effect
5601:Airway management
5570:Local anesthetics
5507:Retrobulbar block
5150:on 15 August 2010
5004:(24): 2403–2412.
4832:10.1111/nmo.14046
4416:(19): 3153–3159.
4385:10.1111/aas.13123
4114:978-0-443-06801-0
3863:978-1-4614-8440-0
3595:10.4097/kja.19272
3151:10.1111/scd.12269
3099:10.1111/pan.14279
3092:(11): 1225–1233.
2896:(12): 1563–1571.
2529:(7871): 301–305.
2464:The FASEB Journal
2136:978-0-323-61264-7
1981:(3996): 274–276.
1869:(10): 1308–1315.
1835:Local anaesthesia
1810:Ellison C. Pierce
1704:oxygen saturation
1530:antihypertensives
1430:endotracheal tube
1310:Bell's phenomenon
1294:tonic contraction
1263:endotracheal tube
1237:Airway management
1231:Airway management
997:sodium thiopental
988:nervous systems.
915:operating theatre
581:phosphatidic acid
569:membrane-mediated
565:Meyer and Overton
528:membrane-mediated
434:airway management
248:operating theater
224:
223:
181:, overdose, death
169:terminal sedation
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
6144:
6114:
6113:
6104:
6103:
5951:Anesthesiologist
5740:Mallampati score
5700:Bispectral index
5540:Anticholinergics
5364:
5357:
5350:
5341:
5308:
5307:
5297:
5273:
5267:
5266:
5230:
5224:
5223:
5213:
5189:
5183:
5182:
5180:
5178:
5166:
5160:
5159:
5157:
5155:
5139:
5130:
5129:
5119:
5087:
5081:
5080:
5070:
5046:
5040:
5039:
5029:
4988:
4982:
4981:
4971:
4953:
4928:
4922:
4921:
4911:
4871:
4865:
4858:
4852:
4851:
4815:
4809:
4808:
4806:
4804:
4784:
4778:
4777:
4740:
4734:
4733:
4723:
4713:
4681:
4675:
4674:
4664:
4640:
4634:
4633:
4623:
4599:
4593:
4592:
4582:
4554:
4548:
4547:
4537:
4505:
4499:
4498:
4488:
4448:
4442:
4441:
4404:
4398:
4397:
4387:
4378:(7): 1014–1019.
4363:
4357:
4356:
4320:
4309:
4308:
4298:
4266:
4260:
4259:
4249:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4174:
4168:
4167:
4157:
4125:
4116:
4106:
4100:
4099:
4073:
4049:
4043:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4005:
3999:
3998:
3980:
3956:
3950:
3949:
3939:
3915:
3909:
3908:
3883:(5): 1043–1053.
3871:
3865:
3855:
3849:
3848:
3828:
3822:
3821:
3819:
3795:
3789:
3788:
3778:
3746:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3732:
3723:
3715:
3709:
3708:
3690:
3666:
3660:
3659:
3631:
3625:
3624:
3614:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3527:
3521:
3520:
3510:
3478:
3467:
3466:
3456:
3438:
3414:
3408:
3407:
3397:
3365:
3359:
3358:
3348:
3331:(12): CD009861.
3316:
3310:
3309:
3299:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3258:
3240:
3216:
3210:
3209:
3177:
3171:
3170:
3134:
3128:
3127:
3101:
3077:
3071:
3070:
3052:
3028:
3022:
3021:
3003:
2979:
2973:
2972:
2962:
2922:
2916:
2915:
2905:
2881:
2875:
2874:
2856:
2832:
2826:
2825:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2772:
2762:
2738:
2732:
2731:
2721:
2711:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2670:
2660:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2619:
2609:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2514:
2508:
2507:
2497:
2479:
2470:(8): 4172–4189.
2455:
2449:
2448:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2399:
2374:(5): 1254–1264.
2359:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2314:
2282:
2276:
2275:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2230:
2198:
2192:
2191:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2122:
2095:
2094:
2089:
2087:
2081:
2075:. Archived from
2070:
2062:
2053:
2052:
2042:
2033:(5): 1141–1150.
2018:
2009:
2008:
1998:
1966:
1953:
1952:
1942:
1932:
1908:
1899:
1898:
1888:
1878:
1854:
1626:rapid heart rate
1410:neurotransmitter
1251:muscle relaxants
1226:and of overdose.
652:, and emergence
577:phospholipase D2
532:protein-mediated
297:skeletal muscles
217:edit on Wikidata
209:
195:
144:
132:
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
62:
38:
30:
21:
6152:
6151:
6147:
6146:
6145:
6143:
6142:
6141:
6127:
6126:
6125:
6120:
6092:
6026:
5990:
5939:
5893:
5827:
5759:
5705:Body mass index
5678:
5642:
5589:
5555:Benzodiazepines
5528:
5377:
5368:
5317:
5312:
5311:
5275:
5274:
5270:
5232:
5231:
5227:
5191:
5190:
5186:
5176:
5174:
5168:
5167:
5163:
5153:
5151:
5141:
5140:
5133:
5102:(4983): 16–19.
5089:
5088:
5084:
5048:
5047:
5043:
4990:
4989:
4985:
4930:
4929:
4925:
4873:
4872:
4868:
4859:
4855:
4817:
4816:
4812:
4802:
4800:
4786:
4785:
4781:
4742:
4741:
4737:
4696:(8): e0183154.
4683:
4682:
4678:
4642:
4641:
4637:
4601:
4600:
4596:
4565:(6): CD009908.
4556:
4555:
4551:
4507:
4506:
4502:
4450:
4449:
4445:
4406:
4405:
4401:
4365:
4364:
4360:
4322:
4321:
4312:
4268:
4267:
4263:
4219:
4218:
4214:
4176:
4175:
4171:
4127:
4126:
4119:
4107:
4103:
4051:
4050:
4046:
4041:
4037:
4016:(12): 346–348.
4007:
4006:
4002:
3958:
3957:
3953:
3917:
3916:
3912:
3873:
3872:
3868:
3856:
3852:
3830:
3829:
3825:
3797:
3796:
3792:
3748:
3747:
3743:
3730:
3728:
3721:
3717:
3716:
3712:
3668:
3667:
3663:
3633:
3632:
3628:
3576:
3575:
3571:
3529:
3528:
3524:
3493:(7): CD006447.
3480:
3479:
3470:
3416:
3415:
3411:
3380:(3): CD004476.
3367:
3366:
3362:
3318:
3317:
3313:
3277:
3276:
3272:
3218:
3217:
3213:
3179:
3178:
3174:
3136:
3135:
3131:
3079:
3078:
3074:
3030:
3029:
3025:
2981:
2980:
2976:
2937:(5): CD008874.
2924:
2923:
2919:
2883:
2882:
2878:
2834:
2833:
2829:
2791:
2790:
2786:
2740:
2739:
2735:
2689:
2688:
2684:
2638:
2637:
2633:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2516:
2515:
2511:
2457:
2456:
2452:
2418:
2417:
2413:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2346:
2344:
2333:
2332:
2328:
2284:
2283:
2279:
2249:
2248:
2244:
2207:Medical History
2200:
2199:
2195:
2157:
2156:
2152:
2137:
2124:
2123:
2098:
2085:
2083:
2079:
2068:
2064:
2063:
2056:
2020:
2019:
2012:
1968:
1967:
1956:
1910:
1909:
1902:
1856:
1855:
1848:
1843:
1831:
1767:
1761:
1731:dexmedetomidine
1642:
1578:
1566:Glucocorticoids
1562:diphenhydramine
1483:
1470:succinylcholine
1442:anticholinergic
1369:
1360:
1351:
1342:
1336:
1322:
1290:
1284:
1239:
1233:
1062:
978:sites of action
911:
814:, described by
809:
800:
767:agents such as
739:agents such as
692:sympathicolysis
676:Benzodiazepines
666:Dexmedetomidine
634:
594:body mass index
589:
548:
539:
521:neural networks
505:cerebral cortex
490:
462:
450:pharmacodynamic
446:pharmacokinetic
329:
323:
317:
277:unconsciousness
220:
205:
191:
147:
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6150:
6148:
6140:
6139:
6129:
6128:
6122:
6121:
6119:
6118:
6108:
6097:
6094:
6093:
6091:
6090:
6085:
6080:
6075:
6070:
6065:
6060:
6055:
6050:
6045:
6040:
6034:
6032:
6028:
6027:
6025:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5998:
5996:
5992:
5991:
5989:
5988:
5983:
5978:
5973:
5968:
5963:
5958:
5953:
5947:
5945:
5941:
5940:
5938:
5937:
5932:
5927:
5922:
5917:
5912:
5907:
5905:Cardiothoracic
5901:
5899:
5898:Subspecialties
5895:
5894:
5892:
5891:
5886:
5881:
5876:
5871:
5866:
5861:
5856:
5851:
5846:
5841:
5835:
5833:
5829:
5828:
5826:
5825:
5820:
5815:
5813:Magill forceps
5810:
5808:Laryngeal tube
5805:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5769:
5767:
5761:
5760:
5758:
5757:
5752:
5747:
5742:
5737:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5720:Fick principle
5717:
5712:
5707:
5702:
5697:
5692:
5686:
5684:
5680:
5679:
5677:
5676:
5671:
5666:
5661:
5656:
5650:
5648:
5644:
5643:
5641:
5640:
5639:
5638:
5628:
5623:
5618:
5613:
5608:
5603:
5597:
5595:
5591:
5590:
5588:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5567:
5562:
5557:
5552:
5550:Butyrophenones
5547:
5542:
5536:
5534:
5530:
5529:
5527:
5526:
5521:
5520:
5519:
5514:
5509:
5504:
5499:
5494:
5489:
5484:
5479:
5474:
5469:
5464:
5459:
5449:
5448:
5447:
5442:
5437:
5427:
5426:
5425:
5420:
5410:
5409:
5408:
5403:
5402:
5401:
5385:
5383:
5379:
5378:
5375:anesthesiology
5369:
5367:
5366:
5359:
5352:
5344:
5338:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5316:
5315:External links
5313:
5310:
5309:
5288:(4): 502–509.
5268:
5225:
5184:
5161:
5131:
5082:
5061:(3): 453–460.
5041:
4983:
4923:
4886:(4): 759–765.
4880:Anesthesiology
4866:
4853:
4810:
4799:on 29 May 2011
4779:
4752:(4): 343–354.
4735:
4676:
4655:(6): 358–363.
4635:
4614:(2): 275–282.
4594:
4549:
4500:
4443:
4399:
4358:
4310:
4281:(5): 359–366.
4261:
4212:
4185:(2): 139–145.
4169:
4117:
4101:
4044:
4035:
4000:
3971:(2): 211–224.
3951:
3930:(3): 100–105.
3910:
3866:
3850:
3823:
3790:
3761:(3): 444–451.
3741:
3710:
3675:Anesthesiology
3661:
3642:(3): 273–284.
3626:
3569:
3542:(5): 422–428.
3522:
3468:
3409:
3360:
3311:
3270:
3211:
3192:(5): 359–364.
3172:
3129:
3072:
3043:(4): 397–402.
3023:
2994:(2): 135–143.
2974:
2917:
2876:
2847:(6): 767–774.
2827:
2800:(3): 261–267.
2784:
2733:
2702:(8): 967–974.
2682:
2631:
2572:
2509:
2450:
2431:(5): 235–237.
2411:
2354:
2326:
2297:(3): 439–451.
2277:
2242:
2213:(3): 308–334.
2193:
2166:(3): 127–130.
2150:
2135:
2096:
2054:
2027:Anesthesiology
2010:
1954:
1900:
1845:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1837:
1830:
1827:
1763:Main article:
1760:
1757:
1708:blood pressure
1641:
1638:
1602:cardiac output
1598:carbon dioxide
1577:
1574:
1482:
1479:
1390:, such as the
1321:
1318:
1286:Main article:
1283:
1282:Eye management
1280:
1255:breathing tube
1243:airway patency
1235:Main article:
1232:
1229:
1228:
1227:
1209:
1195:
1188:carbon dioxide
1179:
1164:
1158:
1143:carbon dioxide
1128:
1125:femoral artery
1105:
1093:pulse oximetry
1088:
1079:(ECG or EKG):
1061:
1058:
1051:
1050:
1043:
1037:
1031:
910:
907:
906:
905:
890:
886:
885:
884:
883:
880:
877:
874:
864:
858:
857:
834:
831:
824:
808:
805:
799:
796:
769:metoclopramide
722:anticonvulsant
633:
630:
588:
585:
546:
543:NMDA glutamate
537:
489:
486:
482:
481:
478:
475:
472:
469:
461:
458:
444:with improved
423:Hanaoka Seishū
363:. During the
319:Main article:
316:
313:
258:to facilitate
222:
221:
214:
211:
210:
203:
197:
196:
189:
183:
182:
176:
172:
171:
165:
161:
160:
155:
149:
148:
145:
137:
136:
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6149:
6138:
6135:
6134:
6132:
6117:
6109:
6107:
6099:
6098:
6095:
6089:
6086:
6084:
6081:
6079:
6076:
6074:
6071:
6069:
6066:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6051:
6049:
6046:
6044:
6041:
6039:
6036:
6035:
6033:
6031:Organizations
6029:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5999:
5997:
5993:
5987:
5984:
5982:
5979:
5977:
5974:
5972:
5969:
5967:
5964:
5962:
5959:
5957:
5954:
5952:
5949:
5948:
5946:
5942:
5936:
5935:Pain medicine
5933:
5931:
5928:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5916:
5913:
5911:
5908:
5906:
5903:
5902:
5900:
5896:
5890:
5887:
5885:
5882:
5880:
5877:
5875:
5872:
5870:
5867:
5865:
5862:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5852:
5850:
5847:
5845:
5842:
5840:
5837:
5836:
5834:
5832:Complications
5830:
5824:
5823:Tracheal tube
5821:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5770:
5768:
5766:
5762:
5756:
5753:
5751:
5748:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5725:Goldman index
5723:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5691:
5688:
5687:
5685:
5681:
5675:
5672:
5670:
5667:
5665:
5662:
5660:
5657:
5655:
5652:
5651:
5649:
5645:
5637:
5634:
5633:
5632:
5629:
5627:
5624:
5622:
5619:
5617:
5614:
5612:
5609:
5607:
5604:
5602:
5599:
5598:
5596:
5592:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5566:
5563:
5561:
5558:
5556:
5553:
5551:
5548:
5546:
5543:
5541:
5538:
5537:
5535:
5531:
5525:
5522:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5510:
5508:
5505:
5503:
5500:
5498:
5495:
5493:
5490:
5488:
5485:
5483:
5480:
5478:
5475:
5473:
5470:
5468:
5465:
5463:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5454:
5453:
5450:
5446:
5443:
5441:
5438:
5436:
5433:
5432:
5431:
5428:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5415:
5414:
5411:
5407:
5404:
5400:
5397:
5396:
5395:
5392:
5391:
5390:
5387:
5386:
5384:
5380:
5376:
5372:
5365:
5360:
5358:
5353:
5351:
5346:
5345:
5342:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5325:
5324:
5319:
5318:
5314:
5305:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5272:
5269:
5264:
5260:
5256:
5252:
5248:
5244:
5240:
5236:
5229:
5226:
5221:
5217:
5212:
5207:
5203:
5199:
5195:
5188:
5185:
5172:
5165:
5162:
5149:
5145:
5138:
5136:
5132:
5127:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5109:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5093:
5086:
5083:
5078:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5045:
5042:
5037:
5033:
5028:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4987:
4984:
4979:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4961:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4935:
4927:
4924:
4919:
4915:
4910:
4905:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4877:
4870:
4867:
4863:
4857:
4854:
4849:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4833:
4829:
4826:(5): e14046.
4825:
4821:
4814:
4811:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4783:
4780:
4775:
4771:
4767:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4739:
4736:
4731:
4727:
4722:
4717:
4712:
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4703:
4699:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4680:
4677:
4672:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4639:
4636:
4631:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4598:
4595:
4590:
4586:
4581:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4553:
4550:
4545:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4504:
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4496:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4447:
4444:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4403:
4400:
4395:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4362:
4359:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4319:
4317:
4315:
4311:
4306:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4265:
4262:
4257:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4216:
4213:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4180:
4173:
4170:
4165:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4124:
4122:
4118:
4115:
4111:
4105:
4102:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4048:
4045:
4039:
4036:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4004:
4001:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3955:
3952:
3947:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3914:
3911:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3870:
3867:
3864:
3860:
3854:
3851:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3827:
3824:
3818:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3794:
3791:
3786:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3745:
3742:
3738:
3727:
3720:
3714:
3711:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3665:
3662:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3630:
3627:
3622:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3573:
3570:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3526:
3523:
3518:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3477:
3475:
3473:
3469:
3464:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3413:
3410:
3405:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3364:
3361:
3356:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3315:
3312:
3307:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3274:
3271:
3266:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3215:
3212:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3176:
3173:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3133:
3130:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3076:
3073:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3027:
3024:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2978:
2975:
2970:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2921:
2918:
2913:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2880:
2877:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2831:
2828:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2788:
2785:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2737:
2734:
2729:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2686:
2683:
2678:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2635:
2632:
2627:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2576:
2573:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2513:
2510:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2454:
2451:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2415:
2412:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2358:
2355:
2343:
2342:
2337:
2330:
2327:
2322:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2281:
2278:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2246:
2243:
2238:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2197:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2154:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2132:
2128:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2078:
2074:
2067:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2050:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2017:
2015:
2011:
2006:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1907:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1853:
1851:
1847:
1840:
1836:
1833:
1832:
1828:
1826:
1822:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1786:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1775:complications
1772:
1766:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1750:
1746:
1743:
1739:
1734:
1732:
1728:
1723:
1722:catecholamine
1719:
1715:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1700:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1678:acetaminophen
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1646:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1596:consumption,
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1538:phenylephrine
1535:
1531:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1458:cisatracurium
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1412:found at the
1411:
1407:
1406:Acetylcholine
1403:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1388:body cavities
1385:
1381:
1373:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1355:
1350:
1347:, in case of
1346:
1341:, a hypnotic
1340:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1302:lagophthalmos
1299:
1295:
1289:
1281:
1279:
1275:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1238:
1230:
1225:
1221:
1220:
1215:
1214:
1210:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1184:
1180:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1152:
1151:nitrous oxide
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1122:
1121:radial artery
1118:
1113:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1094:
1089:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1077:
1072:
1071:
1070:
1067:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1048:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1018:
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235:consciousness
232:
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175:Complications
173:
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110:February 2015
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65:Find sources:
59:
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43:This article
41:
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5798:Gas cylinder
5683:Measurements
5626:Laryngoscopy
5611:Bronchoscopy
5388:
5322:
5321:Chloroform:
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2077:the original
2072:
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1974:
1920:
1916:
1866:
1862:
1823:
1794:asphyxiation
1787:
1768:
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1698:nerve block.
1656:(PACU) with
1651:
1600:production,
1579:
1554:bronchospasm
1550:laryngospasm
1527:
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1107:
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1054:Laryngoscopy
1052:
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962:subcutaneous
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933:department,
912:
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674:
668:and certain
639:
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610:hypertension
590:
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483:
463:
427:
415:pharmacology
392:
373:
330:
301:anaesthetist
270:
265:pain stimuli
230:
226:
225:
158:Anaesthetics
116:
107:
97:
90:
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76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
6002:ACE mixture
5944:Professions
5765:Instruments
5710:Capnography
5664:Fink effect
5545:Antiemetics
5452:Nerve block
5177:8 September
5154:8 September
4803:8 September
3965:Anaesthesia
3731:10 November
2890:Anaesthesia
2841:Anaesthesia
2753:: 177–187.
2651:(15): 356.
1863:Anaesthesia
1806:human error
1798:anaphylaxis
1779:haemorrhage
1727:bair hugger
1662:transdermal
1628:, or other
1570:antibiotics
1558:epinephrine
1481:Maintenance
1446:pancuronium
1349:hypotension
1333:sevoflurane
1202:hypothermia
1200:to discern
1192:ventilation
1183:Capnography
1091:Continuous
1074:Continuous
1017:Sevoflurane
954:intravenous
842:respiration
741:ondansetron
662:bradycardia
658:hypotension
530:and direct
517:spinal cord
494:biochemical
376:Renaissance
365:Middle Ages
337:Babylonians
201:MedlinePlus
6137:Anesthesia
5750:Pain scale
5594:Techniques
5371:Anesthesia
4944:(1): 218.
4520:: 93–104.
3589:(1): 3–7.
3429:: 854673.
2347:26 January
2145:1124935549
2086:6 November
1841:References
1745:antagonist
1666:parenteral
1606:heart rate
1542:salbutamol
1474:sugammadex
1466:mivacurium
1462:atracurium
1454:vecuronium
1450:rocuronium
1363:Atracurium
1300:, causing
1155:isoflurane
1102:hypoxaemia
1098:hemoglobin
1081:Electrodes
1066:monitoring
946:inhalation
931:cardiology
846:heart rate
777:famotidine
761:sufentanil
745:droperidol
737:antiemetic
710:anxiolytic
573:chloroform
438:monitoring
419:physiology
399:antiseptic
80:newspapers
5925:Obstetric
5915:Geriatric
5585:Sedatives
5263:207899269
5241:: 35–51.
5018:1538-3598
4960:2046-4053
4900:0003-3022
4848:227235118
4477:2392-7518
4331:: 15–21.
4080:1526-7598
3946:1743-1816
3905:245907059
3839:: 40–43.
3603:2005-7563
3556:0013-4694
3445:2296-2565
3247:2231-0762
3198:2162-5239
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3108:1155-5645
3067:205430269
2951:1469-493X
2871:207944753
2567:236496390
2551:1476-4687
2486:0892-6638
2445:1472-0299
2388:1526-7598
2188:207482973
1818:morbidity
1749:alvimopan
1694:oxycodone
1660:or oral,
1590:Shivering
1576:Emergence
1544:to treat
1534:ephedrine
1504:sedatives
1498:(usually
1418:diaphragm
1358:analgesia
1345:Ephedrine
1306:lysosomal
1085:ischaemia
1001:etomidate
986:autonomic
950:injection
927:radiology
919:endoscopy
909:Induction
902:medullary
898:brainstem
828:induction
726:agitation
718:analgesic
702:Melatonin
680:Midazolam
642:clonidine
411:mortality
407:morbidity
345:Egyptians
341:Assyrians
333:Sumerians
293:paralysis
285:analgesia
240:analgesic
153:Specialty
6131:Category
6106:Category
5695:Baricity
5394:Sedation
5304:15675210
5255:31677658
5220:31653394
5126:13329366
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4690:PLOS ONE
4671:18566199
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2180:26065591
2049:19858877
2005:20780832
1949:30778307
1895:33878803
1829:See also
1747:such as
1742:μ-opioid
1690:fentanyl
1686:morphine
1634:dyspnoea
1618:doxapram
1500:fentanyl
1492:propofol
1354:Fentanyl
1339:Propofol
1329:Syringes
1064:Several
1040:Propofol
1034:Fentanyl
1009:ketamine
993:propofol
939:disaster
894:overdose
775:such as
757:fentanyl
755:such as
714:sedative
706:hypnotic
654:delirium
554:Ketamine
509:thalamus
440:and new
229:(UK) or
6116:Outline
5995:History
5580:Opioids
5423:Topical
5389:General
5117:2034767
5027:9167439
4969:6267894
4909:2697561
4774:5512397
4721:5567500
4698:Bibcode
4535:5381733
4486:5931188
4438:5039625
4296:6756312
4247:6814953
4207:5319313
4155:5931188
3776:5409133
3697:7605024
3612:7000285
3564:2469566
3508:8935979
3454:9035831
3395:6494407
3346:8092422
3256:4415335
3167:3875130
2960:6404686
2770:6201994
2719:6935390
2668:6712248
2617:7306821
2594:Bibcode
2531:Bibcode
2495:6044061
2397:8054915
2312:5477636
2228:3426977
1996:2087073
1940:6369879
1886:8581983
1670:opioids
1586:aphasia
1515:Glasgow
1496:opioids
1392:abdomen
1296:of the
1247:opioids
1149:(e.g.,
1117:cannula
982:central
980:in the
921:suite,
889:Stage 4
863:Stage 3
833:Stage 2
823:Stage 1
788:massage
763:. Also
753:opioids
621:pharynx
598:alcohol
550:agonist
460:Purpose
403:asepsis
380:anatomy
361:Chinese
357:Indians
315:History
309:surgeon
281:amnesia
193:D000768
94:scholar
5302:
5261:
5253:
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1893:
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1783:sepsis
1710:, and
1614:clonic
1608:, and
1594:oxygen
1556:; and
1546:asthma
1468:, and
1426:larynx
1396:thorax
1384:curare
1365:, for
1356:, for
1145:, and
1139:oxygen
1007:, and
970:rectal
968:, and
852:, and
771:, and
720:, and
694:, and
617:airway
515:, and
359:, and
353:Romans
349:Greeks
207:007410
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
5413:Local
5382:Types
5259:S2CID
4844:S2CID
4770:S2CID
4434:S2CID
4349:S2CID
4203:S2CID
4092:S2CID
3991:S2CID
3901:S2CID
3722:(PDF)
3701:S2CID
3163:S2CID
3120:S2CID
3063:S2CID
3014:S2CID
2867:S2CID
2818:S2CID
2563:S2CID
2184:S2CID
2080:(PDF)
2069:(PDF)
1796:, or
1769:Most
1738:ileus
1692:, or
1664:, or
1552:, or
1335:gas:
1271:apnea
1261:, an
1249:, or
960:, or
747:, or
644:, an
541:,and
273:drugs
215:[
101:JSTOR
87:books
5373:and
5300:PMID
5251:PMID
5216:PMID
5179:2010
5156:2010
5122:PMID
5073:PMID
5032:PMID
5014:ISSN
4998:JAMA
4974:PMID
4956:ISSN
4914:PMID
4896:ISSN
4836:PMID
4805:2010
4762:PMID
4726:PMID
4667:PMID
4626:PMID
4585:PMID
4540:PMID
4491:PMID
4473:ISSN
4426:PMID
4390:PMID
4341:PMID
4301:PMID
4252:PMID
4230:2019
4195:PMID
4160:PMID
4110:ISBN
4084:PMID
4076:ISSN
4026:PMID
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3893:PMID
3859:ISBN
3781:PMID
3733:2022
3693:PMID
3652:PMID
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3560:PMID
3552:ISSN
3513:PMID
3491:2015
3459:PMID
3441:ISSN
3400:PMID
3378:2018
3351:PMID
3329:2020
3302:PMID
3261:PMID
3243:ISSN
3202:PMID
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2965:PMID
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2775:PMID
2724:PMID
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2349:2018
2317:PMID
2268:PMID
2233:PMID
2176:PMID
2141:OCLC
2131:ISBN
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2045:PMID
2001:PMID
1945:PMID
1891:PMID
1676:and
1620:, a
1420:and
1394:and
984:and
966:oral
844:and
660:and
536:GABA
492:The
448:and
417:and
409:and
388:pain
382:and
374:The
242:and
187:MeSH
164:Uses
73:news
5290:doi
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1991:PMC
1983:doi
1935:PMC
1925:doi
1881:PMC
1871:doi
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1568:or
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929:or
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600:or
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