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25:
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Ma Qi besieged
Labrang numerous times but the Tibetans and Mongols fiercely resisted his Hui forces until Ma Qi gave it up in 1927. However, that was not the last Labrang saw of General Ma. The Hui forces looted and ravaged the monastery again. In revenge Tibetan nomads skinned alive many Hui soldiers. One of the most common practices was to slice open the stomach of a living soldier and then put hot rocks inside the stomach. Many Hui women were sold to the ethnic
451:, killing thousands of Ngolok Tibetans. Ma and his army, having established an Islamic state-within-a-state in Qinghai, exterminated many Ngolok Tibetans in northeastern and eastern Qinghai. During one such attack in 1941 Ma Bufang sent Hui troops to destroy Sekar Gompa monastery, killing their highest ranking Lama and 300 tapas. They sacked the compound, burning it to the ground, and sold all of the property for gold and silver.
478:
levied taxes in 1939–1941, but they were crushed by Ma cavalry forces' "suppression campaigns" and massacred, which caused a major influx of 2,000 households of
Tibetan refugees into Tibet from Qinghai. This exodus triggered a crisis when Central Tibetan authorities feared that Ma Bufang might attack to pursue the refugees, but Ma resolved the matter by granting "amnesty" to "his Tibetan subjects".
493:, close to the border with Tibet, to prevent Tibetan separatists from seeking independence. Chiang also ordered Ma Bufang to put his Hui soldiers on alert for an invasion of Tibet in 1942. Ma Bufang complied, and moved several thousand troops to the border with Tibet. Chiang also threatened the Tibetans with aerial bombardment if they did not comply.
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soldier named Aten who fought Ma Bufang's forces gave an account of a battle. He described the Hui as "fierce". After he and his troops were ambushed by 2,000 of Ma Bufang's
Chinese Muslim cavalry, he was left with bullet wounds and "had no illusions as to the fate of most of our group", the majority
383:
in 1917, the first time non-Tibetans had seized it. Ma Qi defeated the
Tibetan forces with his Hui Chinese troops. His forces were praised by foreigners who traveled through Qinghai for their fighting abilities. The Labrang monastery had strong connections to the unpacified Ngolok Tibetan tribals who
391:
erupted in 1918, Ma Qi defeated the
Tibetans. He heavily taxed the town for eight years. In 1925 a rebellion broke out, and thousands of Tibetans drove out the Hui. Ma Qi responded with 3,000 Hui Chinese troops, who retook Labrang and machine-gunned thousands of Tibetan monks as they tried to flee.
477:
Ma Bufang succeeded in acquiring a personal monopoly on the
Qinghai economy such as gold, wool, furs, animal skins, herbs. He also established trade relations and trade offices with Lhasa and Japanese-controlled Inner Mongolia. Tibetan tribals in southern Qinghai revolted against Ma Bufang's newly
415:
near
Labrang, severed Tibetan heads were used as ornaments by Chinese Muslim troops in their camp, 154 in total. Rock described how the heads of "young girls and children" were staked around the encampment. Ten to fifteen heads were fastened to the saddle of every Muslim cavalryman. The heads were
513:
The Golog tribes were deeply resentful of the Muslim Ma warlords of
Qinghai due to the brutality of the conflict. In response, in 1939, 1942 and 1949 Golog chieftains frequently sent appeals to Chinese central government representatives, including Tibetan communist leaders outside of Qinghai, to
454:
From 1918 to 1942 the Ma warlords waged intensive, violent war against the Ngolok tribal inhabitants of Golog. Ma Bufang also manufactured conflicts by giving pasture to
Tibetan and Mongolian groups at the same time, which spread internal conflicts. Ma established the Kunlun middle school, which
514:
transfer the Golog lands from
Qinghai province to Xikang (Kham) province and hence evade the Ma warlords' suppression. These requests were not acted upon, however, although the Golog in the early period People's Republic did not rebel as they perceived it as an improvement over the Ma warlords.
896:
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witnessed the carnage and aftermath of one of the battles around 1929. The Ma Muslim army left Tibetan skeletons scattered over a wide area, and the Labrang monastery was decorated with severed Tibetan heads. After the 1929 Battle of
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The soldiers were the fierce Hui Hui, or Chinese Muslim horsemen (formerly soldiers of the warlord, Ma Pu Fang), and were mounted on the sleek, powerful horses from the grasslands of Sining. I lay there in the gully drowsing
333:. The campaigns lasted between 1917 and 1949. The conflict was spurred by multiple factors, notably for economic and socio-political reasons (including intertribal tensions) rather than by any racial or religious enmity.
1313:
455:
recruited mainly Han and Hui but also Tibetan students who were subjected to a harsh military life. Ma wanted to use them as translators as he expanded his military domain over land inhabited by Tibetans.
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http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rls=com.microsoft%3Aen-us&q=chiang+ma+bufang+qinghai+troops+sino+tibetan+border+site%3Ajournals.cambridge.org&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&oq=&gs_rfai=
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Wulsin, Frederick Roelker; Alonso, Mary Ellen; Fletcher, Joseph; Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology; National Geographic Society; Peabody Museum of Salem; Pacific Asia Museum (1979).
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China's Inner Asian Frontier: Photographs of the Wulsin Expedition to Northwest China in 1923: From the Archives of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University, and the National Geographic Society
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Horlemann, Bianca (2015). "Victims of Modernization? Struggles between the Goloks and the Muslim Ma Warlords in Qinghai, 1917-1942".
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back into the Republic by force. With the backing of the Kuomintang government, Ma Bufang launched seven expeditions into
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901:. The White Horse Press for the Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit at the University of Cambridge. p. 203
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Warriors of Tibet: The Story of Aten, and the Khampas' Fight for the Freedom of Their Country
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Warriors of Tibet: The Story of Aten, and the Khampas' Fight for the Freedom of their Country
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fought a series of military campaigns between 1917 and 1949 against unconquered Amchok and
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China's Campaign to "Open up the West": National, Provincial, and Local Perspectives
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1076:"War or Stratagem? Reassessing China's Military Advance Towards Tibet, 1942–1943"
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The Violence of Liberation: Gender and Tibetan Buddhist Revival in Post-Mao China
569:
357:
in 1927–1928. His forces were composed entirely of Hui Chinese, organized in the
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Dilemmas The Mongols at China's Edge: History and the Politics of National Unity
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987:"Tibetan Range Wars: Spatial Politics and Authority on the Grasslands of Amdo"
428:
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326:
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Labrang: A Tibetan Buddhist Monastery at the Crossroads of Four Civilizations
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Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928–49
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318:
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278:
212:
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The Cultural Monuments of Tibet's Outer Provinces: The Qinghai Part of Kham
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Kingdom of Ten Thousand Things: An Impossible Journey from Kabul to Chiapas
416:"strung about the walls of the Moslem garrison like a garland of flowers".
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of whom were wiped out. Aten also asserted that "the Tibetan province of
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China in the Anti-Japanese War, 1937-1945: Politics, Culture and Society
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University of Cambridge. Mongolia & Inner Asia Studies Unit (2002).
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University of Cambridge. Mongolia & Inner Asia Studies Unit (2002).
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chinese muslim General Ma pu fang occupied tibetan province amdo.
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1169:. Information Office, Central Tibetan Secretariat. p. 134
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Horseman in the Snow: The Story of Aten, an Old Khampa Warrior
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Muslims in Amdo Tibetan Society: Multidisciplinary Approaches
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Chinese Awakenings: Life Stories from the Unofficial China
57:
and tools are available to assist in formatting, such as
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Hartley, Lauran R.; Schiaffini-Vedani, Patricia (2008).
799:
Peoples of the Buddhist World: A Christian Prayer Diary
1270:
Conflicting Memories: Tibetan History under Mao Retold
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Robert Barnett, Benno Weiner, Françoise Robin (2020).
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Military history of the Republic of China (1912–1949)
443:'s control over all of Qinghai, as well as bringing
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596:
458:During the pacification, a war broke out between
766:Unbound: A True Story of War, Love, and Survival
835:(illustrated ed.). Sterling. p. 175.
481:Under orders from the Kuomintang government of
462:. Tibet attempted to capture parts of southern
109:
16:Conflict between Golok people and the Ma Clique
431:warlord who dominated Qinghai. He served as a
1130:Barrett, David P.; Shyu, Lawrence N. (2001).
8:
1292:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
38:, which are uninformative and vulnerable to
1014:Modern Tibetan Literature and Social Change
53:and maintains a consistent citation style.
925:. Cambridge University Press. p. 72.
769:(illustrated ed.). Hachette Digital.
603:. University of California Press. p.
106:
400:. Children were adopted by the Tibetans.
95:Learn how and when to remove this message
1163:Rab-brtan-rdo-rje (Ñag-roṅ-pa) (1979).
868:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 54.
667:. Harvard University Press. p. 43.
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277:(right) meets with Hui commanders Gen.
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1017:. Duke University Press. p. 36.
574:. Lexington Books. pp. 153–168.
387:After ethnic rioting between Hui and
7:
1324:Wars involving the Republic of China
802:. William Carey Library. p. 4.
375:Muslim conflict in Gansu (1927–1930)
384:refused to submit to Chinese rule.
45:Please consider converting them to
1044:Lin, Hsaio-ting (1 January 2011).
466:province, following contention in
14:
958:. White Lotus Press. p. 77.
898:Inner Asia, Volume 4, Issues 1-2
640:Inner Asia, Volume 4, Issues 1-2
544:"西北马家军阀史_ 第39章 马步芳称霸西北(8)_全本小说网"
524:Outline of the Chinese Civil War
301:(Golok) tribal Tibetan areas of
206:
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182:
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23:
700:. Westview Press. p. 123.
694:James Tyson; Ann Tyson (1995).
505:" was "occupied" by Ma Bufang.
361:, which was then turned into a
1272:. BRILL. pp. 94–97, 104.
730:Nietupski, Paul Kocot (1999).
168:Amchok and Golok Amdo Tibetans
49:to ensure the article remains
1:
919:Goodman, David S. G. (2004).
862:Bulag, Uradyn Erden (2002).
281:(second from left) and Gen.
1349:Military history of Qinghai
595:Charlene E. Makley (2007).
437:National Revolutionary Army
363:National Revolutionary Army
232:National Revolutionary Army
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1136:. Peter Lang. p. 98.
1050:. UBC Press. p. 113.
952:Gruschke, Andreas (2004).
427:, the son of Ma Qi, was a
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110:Amdo - Ma clique conflicts
1319:Military history of Tibet
1092:10.1017/S0305741006000233
736:. Snow Lion. p. 90.
485:, Ma Bufang repaired the
439:and sought to expand the
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349:commander who joined the
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1364:20th-century rebellions
1226:Norbu, Jamyang (1986).
1195:. Wisdom. p. 146.
1187:Norbu, Jamyang (1986).
796:Paul Hattaway (2004).
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250:Tribal Ngolok fighters
173:Commanders and leaders
829:Geddes, Gary (2008).
420:Ma Bufang's campaigns
309:), undertaken by two
285:(first from left) in
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255:Casualties and losses
1369:Rebellions in China
1080:The China Quarterly
763:King, Dean (2010).
369:Battles for Labrang
355:Northern Expedition
329:governments of the
321:, on behalf of the
1234:. Wisdom. p.
291:
1354:Chinese Civil War
1057:978-0-7748-5988-2
1024:978-0-8223-4277-9
842:978-1-4027-5344-2
776:978-0-316-16708-6
614:978-0-520-25059-8
581:978-0-7391-7530-9
496:A former Tibetan
460:Qinghai and Tibet
441:Republic of China
404:Austrian-American
381:Labrang Monastery
331:Republic of China
313:commanders, Gen.
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