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the marriage in Haiti. Because of confusion about the provision, Article 5 was modified by the legislature on 10 October 1884, clarifying that a
Haitian woman who married a foreigner automatically lost her Haitian nationality and could repatriate only upon the death of her spouse and following the procedures for naturalization. She could not own property in Haiti under any circumstances. For foreign women who married Haitian men, the article provided that they automatically derived the nationality of the spouse. These provisions were carried through to the 1889 revision to the constitution, which also stipulated that Haitian birthright nationality was granted to children born anywhere to a Haitian father; to children born anywhere to a Haitian mother, only if they were not legally recognized by their father; or to children born in the territory to foreigners if they were descended of Africans.
188:
administrators created a new public sphere in by which people were unfit for civil life based on their constructed racial sexual stereotypes; those that were unfit were not allowed to practice their citizenship rights. Resentful of black success, the colonial elite segregated themselves from their counterparts, the wealthy Creole and ex-slave families, by using race instead of wealth to classify their high level of society. For example, everyone, regardless of wealth, who had one
African grandparent had to identify themselves as "quarteron," a person of color. Colonial administration used racism as a tool in developing a Saint-Domingue identity. The French law of colonial citizenship being fully "white" was influenced by the enlightenment's emphasis on the purity of ‘whiteness". The French Constitution of 1791 specifically left out French territories:
459:
amended in 1942. After the amendment, Article 9 no longer required married women to lose their nationality and allowed them to repatriate. The new process did not require them to naturalize as a foreigner, allowing them to simply make a declaration in the prosecutor's office of the place of residence stating her desire to retrieve
Haitian nationality. The Constitutions of 1964 and 1971 granted derivative nationality by choice to foreign women marrying Haitian men, but required that the marriage certificate renounce any other nationality. Haitian women were unable to pass on nationality to children legally recognized by their fathers until passage of the Nationality Law of 6 November 1984. Between 1984 and the passage of the 1987 Constitution, children born abroad to Haitian parents were considered foreigners unless both parents were Haitians.
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as long as the parents did not recognize them before their majority. If a child was of
African descent and born to foreigners in Haiti it was recognized as having Haitian nationality if it was legitimate or legally recognized by the father, or illegitimate and unrecognized by the father. A child born in Haiti to foreigners who were not of African descent could claim birthright nationality by declaring in the year of reaching majority the desire to have Haitian nationality and renouncing any foreign nationality. Naturalization or relinquishment of nationality by a Haitian father did not automatically affect his children. Women had no ability to change the nationality of their children while married.
598:"By the 1970s…had begun to think of their homeland in terms that transcended mere nostalgic attachment to a particular outpost of empire. The new… nationalism precipitates strong tensions between conservative and radical elements within local intelligentsias. Here too, the Haitian experience of the early 1900s, with its armed conflict…Finally, the accelerated urbanization and migration experienced in Haiti, which resulted from the centralizing tendencies of the state, import-dependency, and the extreme exploitation of labor, …trends in the global economy created the impetus for a massive population exodus after World War II."
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husband. To regain nationality lost by marriage, a
Haitian woman had to apply for naturalization as if she were a foreigner, if her marriage existed. Upon termination of the marriage, she could repatriate by denouncing her foreign nationality and declaring her intent before the proper authorities. A foreign woman who had obtained Haitian nationality upon marriage could renounce it upon termination of the marriage by acquiring another nationality. The wife of a foreign man who naturalized as Haitian automatically derived his new nationality. The wife of a naturalized Haitian was unable to independently change her nationality.
671:; yet while feelings have begun to lean towards acceptance of dual citizenship, policy has yet to change. Legally, the 1987 constitution still stands, which states, "Dual Haitian and foreign nationality is in no case permitted." The constitution also automatically negates Haitian citizenship with the acquisition of foreign citizenship, which strongly affects today's Haitian diaspora. However, there is an exception. A child with Haitian parents born outside of Haiti may dually acquire the citizenship of their birth country. At the age of 18, the child must renounce one of their nationalities.
418:, but had significant differences. In the Haitian version, only people with African or indigenous blood could be naturalized. It conferred nationality upon anyone born in Haiti, regardless of legitimacy, or born abroad to a Haitian. Foreigners were prohibited from owning property in Haiti, except moveable assets, thus if a foreigner inherited property, they had to pay its value to the heirs. Haitian wives who married foreigners were required to sell any real property that they owned, if by marriage they acquired the nationality of their husband.
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citizenship included naturalization in another country or working in a political position in the service of a foreign government (Haiti 1987, Art. 13). The constitutional amendments were originally approved by legislators in May 2011 and some media sources suggested at the time that dual citizenship had been immediately legalized (TVA nouvelles 9 May 2011; Haiti libre 9 May 2011). However, the amendments did not become law until they were published in the national gazette on 19 June 2012 (JURIST 20 June 2012; The
Huffington Post 19 June 2012).
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58:'s arrival. The Taino were nearly wiped out due to diseases that the Europeans brought with them and because of cruel practices, including slavery. The Tainos fled to the mountains just before the Africans arrived on the island. Mixing between the remaining Tainos and some of the Africans occurred and it is believed that many Haitians in present-day have some ancestral links to the indigenous Tainos.
728:, "Baby Doc," (1971–86). This migration phenomenon known as "the Haitian Diaspora" has developed to describe the thousands of Haitian nationals living outside of their territory. Generally losing their Haitian citizenship, these long distance nationals have come to act like "transborder citizens," members to some degree of both states. There are legal, political, and social repercussions to this "
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with the development of globalization has re-framed, not destroyed, the state; institutional practices and national identities are changing to adapt to the globalization of their people. Since the 1950s, there has been an increase in
Haitian migration to places such as the United States to escape the political and economic repression of the Duvalier presidencies under
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to be
Haitians. Seeking to repeal the 1843 provisions and legalize relationships between foreign men and Haitian women, a law was passed on 30 October 1860 stating that marriage did not alter a woman's nationality, but it still provided that foreign husbands had to sell any property they might have inherited.
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In 1843, a new constitution was written, which for the first time had explicit rules as to whether women married to foreigners kept their
Haitian nationality. Haitian women married to foreigners were denationalized and dispossessed of their property, though the children of such unions were considered
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By the twentieth century, this view had shifted to focus on the slave rebellion and its ex-slave leaders like
Louverture and Dessalines. This "black" Revolutionary narrative served to promote Haitian national identity, focusing on the strength of a colonial repressed society rather than its leaders.
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Until 1915, Haiti followed an isolationist policy. However, in 1915 the United States invaded Haiti and kept occupation until 1934. During this time, interest in Haitian nationality broadened to embrace the rural majority's "black" culture. A Haitian historical society was founded in 1924, with a
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Adopted during US occupation, this Constitution focused on property rights of foreigners. Previously, to ensure against foreign white domination, no white foreigner was permitted to own real estate. Contrastingly, all black foreigners could easily acquire Haitian nationality. In 1918, foreigners,
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The 1907 Law required that married women who married foreigners automatically lost their Haitian nationality, even in the event that they did not acquire the nationality of their husband and became stateless. It provided that foreign women who married Haitian men derived their nationality from their
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or illegitimate children legally recognized by a Haitian father, were birthright nationals. Only an illegitimate child of a Haitian mother, who had not been legally recognized by the father, had Haitian nationality. Children of unknown parentage born in Haiti were recognized as birthright nationals,
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The 1874 Constitution stated in Article 6 that a Haitian woman married to a foreigner acquired the nationality of her husband and the Constitution of 1879 allowed her to retain any property she had owned prior to losing her nationality through marriage. She was forbidden to obtain any property after
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Louverture's 1801 Constitution freed all slaves, but required their presence on the island as workers. It addressed succession and marriage without detailing nationality requirements, though it banned slavery and included all inhabitants of Hispaniola. Dessaline's 1805 constitution held racial laws:
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This merchant and professional class dominates urban society. They speak French as well as Creole (the national language) and are sent to institutions of higher learning abroad. Catholicism is the principal religion, so most marriages are religiously affiliated, thus "western" and "modern". This
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Recognizing Haiti as a nation was difficult for those countries that did not want to be associated with a free slave society. In dealing with foreign policy, Haiti wanted to be seen as an equal nation. Haiti granted automatic citizenship to anyone of African or Amerindian origin, and even went so
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of slaves. Though it did not prohibit the marriage of blacks and whites, it carried substantial fines for owners who produced illegitimate children with slaves, decreeing that the father had to give the child to a hospital as a slave who was ineligible for future emancipation, unless he married his
83:
and the inequality of slavery's distribution of freedom and wealth excluded all blacks from the civil, public sphere of society. However, those with little or no official power were able to use public law to fight for their security in liberty and justice. For example, many slaves were able to use
44:
Haiti has a unique history of racial ideology. During its colonial period, class structure shifted from one based on wealth, to divisions distinguished by race. Once accepted as elite, families of African descent were rejected because of racist stereotypes. This regression shaped the evolution of
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The Ministry for Haitian Communities Abroad created a database in 2000 recording the technical skills of those Haitians residing abroad. The idea is that Haitians' loyalty and sense of belonging to the state — even as emigrants — will impel them to contribute to Haiti's national development. The
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Transnationalism defies the common view of a state's populations remaining within its territorial boundaries. Similarly, cultural nationality is determined by a shared language, culture, believed ethnicity, etc., transcending mere residence of a geographic locality. The growth of transnationalism
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Haitian society has been sharply divided since its independence in 1804. The rural agricultural sector, composing as much as 95% of the population, makes up the base of this society. The elite are then left to dominate national institutions and the governmental apparatus. These two sections are
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Lasting until 1843, this constitution leveled the power of the three branches and brought in civil ideas from the French declaration in 1789 of fundamental rights. It defined Haitians in Article 44 as all Africans, indigenous people, and their children born in the colonies or abroad who resided in
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This ended the authoritative regime of Dessalines, creating three separate branches of government. This changed the relationship between the citizen and the state, empowering the citizen. However, the legislative branch represented by the Senate remained the most powerful. Like its predecessor, it
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ruled in favor of the society, granting voting rights to free blacks, albeit limited voting rights. Unable to tolerate this decision as it would destabilize the slave regime, white colonialists reacted in violence, only to start a civil war with the free and enslaved black people of Haiti. It was
196:
By excluding Haiti in this Constitution, which contained the Declaration of the Rights of Man, Haiti was denied the same rights as other French subjects. As a new definition French Citizenship was developing with the progression of the French Revolution, elite men of color began to fight for their
187:
ended in 1763, a shift in French colonists' self-identity due to the ensuing political conflicts redefined a line between the races. In an effort to reaffirm their French identity politically and culturally, white colonists defined their bond with the metropole through race. Colonists and imperial
458:
In 1933, Justin Barau and Francis Salgado, Haitian delegates to the Pan-American Union's Montevideo conference, signed the Inter-American Convention on the Nationality of Women, which became effective in 1934, without legal reservations. The Nationality Law of 1907 remained effective until it was
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Prior to the Haitian Revolution, Haiti had been the United States' second largest trading partner, second only to Great Britain. However, in the early nineteenth century America was very much a slave society, and balked at the idea of supporting a slave revolt that took over a nation. The United
78:
with a significant population of free black planters. Unlike most colonial slave societies, status was based on economics rather than race, creating a unified master class of both races. "Whereas the freedmen in all other slave societies entered at the lowest ranks of free society, in the French
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This article is concerned with the principle of equality for all Haitians, including but not limited to freedom of speech (except during wartime), worship and peaceful assembly (excluding public assembly which must be authorized); with an overall umbrella of individual freedoms guaranteed by the
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In the first century after independence, descendants of the wealthy black planter elite ruled Haiti. These "mulatrist" historians supported a narrative of the Haitian Revolution that focused on the free colored revolutionaries. As their ancestors had been leaders of the revolution, it followed
205:
The development of Haitian nationality is marked by its declaration of independence on January 1, 1804. The Caribbean island won its independence from France after a period of harsh colonial rule in the first successful slave rebellion, making Haiti the first independent country in America. As
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We grant to manumitted slaves the same rights, privileges and liberties enjoyed by persons born free; desiring that they merit this acquired liberty and that it produce in them, both for their persons and for their property, the same effects that the good fortune of natural liberty causes in our
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Haitian Americans have different status positions in American society based on their citizenship status: refugee, student (student visa), citizen, immigrant, visitor, and the undocumented person. These legal statuses have their own boundaries, but are not subject to influence by income or race
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Haiti's national gazette, Le Moniteur, indicates that dual citizenship was legalized in Haiti in June 2012, when the 1987 constitution was amended to remove the prohibition against the holding of foreign citizenship by Haitians (19 June 2012, 7). Prior to this amendment, conditions for losing
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Naturalization is possible, yet can only be obtained after a continuous period of Haitian residence for five years. A naturalized citizen has the right to vote, but is not eligible to hold public office until five years after their date of naturalization, excluding those offices reserved for
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ruled that foreigners who could not be deported could not be held indefinitely, forcing the release of Baptiste. Baptiste was not issued a Haitian passport because by becoming a naturalized American, he had renounced his Haitian citizenship and thus was no longer considered Haitian.
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If any good reason exists why we should persevere longer in withholding our recognition of the sovereignty and independence of Haiti and Liberia, I am unable to discern it...It does not admit of doubt that important commercial advantages may be obtained by treaties with
230:, the Society of the Friends of the Blacks took the issue to trial. Instead of outright arguing against the slave trade, Raimond and the Society campaigned for the recognition of citizenship for mixed-race colonists. In 1791, the same Paris legislation who voted on the
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emigration of these potentially productive citizens emphasized Haiti's ambivalent attitude toward the diaspora. However, money from Haitians living abroad can be hugely beneficial; in the 1990s, Haitian remittances were equal to 39 percent of Haiti's national budget.
732:." Dual citizenship is out of the question; Haitians living in a foreign country cannot get involved lest their "Haitianism" is questioned, yet by remaining faithful to their homeland, they cannot fully enjoy the citizenry benefits of the country of their sojourn.
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slave woman in a church, automatically manumitting her and the children through the marriage. Children followed the status of the mother, regardless of the father's status, thus if she was a slave her children were slaves and if she was free her children were free.
35:
in the Caribbean. Haiti declared its independence from France in the aftermath of the first successful slave revolution in the Americas in 1804, and their identification as conquerors of a racially repressed society is a theme echoed throughout Haiti's history.
2019:"Santo Domingo. De la España Boba a la primera independencia (1809-1821). El canario Antonio M. de Pineda y su misión ante Bolívar [Santo Domingo: From the España Boba to the First Independence (1809-1821); Antonio M. Pineda's Mission at Bolívar]"
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unified Haiti, he abolished the law criminalizing Haitian and white foreign marriage. Two years later the Code of Civil Procedure, the Rural Code, and the Commercial Code were established; these are the foundations of Haiti's legal system today.
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naturally that the superior elite planters of mixed race should lead the new Haiti. "Mulatrists" went so far as to claim they could not be guilty of racism towards the darker skinned constituency because they had suffered under French racism.
94:
were not uncommon; colonists often had sexual relations with their slaves, generally recognizing the paternity of their children and freeing them from slavery. Men and women who escaped slavery were able to assert themselves in
53:
rose up against the white colonial planters. Haitians are primarily of African descent but a significant number of Haitians are also descended from the indigenous Taino (Arawak native Indians) who inhabited the island prior to
130:, forced all slaves to be baptized, and made provisions concerning the citizenship status of freed blacks. According to Article 59, emancipated blacks were to be granted the same privileges as native-born French subjects.
251:, leader of the French and native army. As the white and black populations mobilized against one another, Louverture led the oppressed slaves in the Haitian Revolution, naming himself Governor-General for Life in the
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kept separate by income, source of income, language, education, religion, etc. Militarism and republican nationalism formed the basis by which Haitian society was aligned, granting the elite class legitimate power.
601:
Since the US occupation, Haiti has been unable to establish an independent civilian police force as an entity separate from the army. Every attempt to do so has resulted in a military overthrow of the presidency.
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The Constitution of the Republic of Hayti; to which Is Added Documents Relating to the Correspondence of his Most Christian Majesty, with the President of Hayti; Preceded by a Proclamation to the People and the
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focus on their history through the "Black Slave Rebellion" narrative of the Haitian Revolution. Louverture and Dessalines became "great slave revolutionaries", showing the world the power of colonized peoples.
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Yet freed blacks generally suffered worse conditions than those enslaved. All blacks were considered public property, so although they were not tied to a single master, all blacks suffered under racial laws.
362:
However, after the 1789 Revolution, all developments in French law also pertained to Saint-Domingue as a colony came under a more direct empirical ruling. The important developments of this time period are:
309:(another free black country). As an imperialistic nation, the US had trouble with a nation that granted civil status to whom they deemed unworthy; while they had slavery, the US could not recognize Haiti.
74:, now the Republic of Haiti, was based on a mixture of economics and race, combining white planter elite, black slaves, and free black planters. Haiti was unusual, as it was the only slave society in the
563:, and generally speak only Creole. Isolated from the outside world, these poor farmers are illiterate and uneducated. Most noticeably, they are (for the most part) darker in skin tone than the elite.
121:
and control over the free black population. Its purpose was to regulate hours of work and food distribution, limitations of punishments, and formally limit slave-owners' otherwise arbitrary power. The
754:
the ‘politics of simultaneity,’ in which citizens participate in the affairs of two or more countries at the same time, replaces the ‘politics of secession’ prevalent in the dual citizenship context
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10th Department Organization: elected a central committee to oversee regional Committees in cities with large Haitian immigration populations; independent yet strongly tied to Aristide's government
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replaced the Empire of Haiti. The republic was granted independence from France in 1825, subject to paying reparations. That year the government adopted a Civil Code, which was based on the French
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Haiti. Article 39 prohibited any white person, except those who served in the military or performed civil service, or was admitted to the territory prior to 27 December 1806 from being Haitians.
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Although these institutions may have good intentions, the political and financial instability of Haiti have restricted the potential effectiveness these programs are designed to have abroad.
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1955:
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after five years of residency, one may apply for naturalization, yet may not practice political rights until ten years after the date of naturalization. these political rights include:
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The Haitian middle class is better off financially than the yeomanry and own their own businesses and attend private educational institutions and are more literate than the yeomanry.
1870:
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and though it had no explicit definitions of nationals, emigration was punishable by death and naturalization in a foreign country was subject to "corporal or disgrace punishments".
1680:
Peggy Levitt and Rafael de la Dehesa, Transnational migration and the redefinition of the state: Variations and explanations. Ethnic and Racial Studies ( 26(4):587–611, 2003), 601.
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Lionel Jean-Baptiste, a Haitian immigrant, was stripped of his U.S. citizenship and then denied entrance to Haiti, his homeland. After being held in a detention center for a
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Dual citizenship was legalized in Haiti in June 2012, when the 1987 constitution was amended to remove the prohibition against the holding of foreign citizenship by Haitians.
710:
231:
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officially recognized Haiti and Liberia as independent and sovereign, and signed a treaty of amity and commerce in 1865. The subsequent black Haitian ambassador in
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born in Haiti to a foreign father; if not recognized by father, it is acceptable to be recognized by a foreign mother only if the subject is of black descent
267:. The successful rebellion ended the civil war in 1804 with the Declaration of Haitian Independence and Dessalines was proclaimed Emperor of Haiti in 1804.
1911:
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Prior to Haitian independence, Saint-Domingue was a colony under French rule, but laws were made specifically for Saint-Domingue as a colony. For example:
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Redden, Kenneth R., ed. "The Legal System of Haiti." Modern Legal Systems Cyclopedia. Buffalo, New York: William S. Hein & Co., Law Publisher, 1989.
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Ministry for Haitians Living Abroad: established in 1994 with Aristides return to regulate the relationship between Haitians living abroad and the state
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McLeod, Marc C. "Undesirable Aliens: Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism in the Comparison of Haitian and British West Indian Workers in Cuba, 1912–939".
1971:
Justin, Joseph (1905). "Chapitre VII: Influence du marriage sur la nationalité ou acquisition de la nationalité haitienne par le bienfait de la loi ".
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The French colonies and possessions in Asia, Africa, and America, although they form part of the French dominion, are not in the present constitution.
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226:, an abolitionist group, formed in Paris to reform the harsh racial laws in Saint-Domingue. With support from wealthy free black planters such as
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far as to invite these oppressed peoples to settle in Haiti. Their fight to be recognized reflects the Haitian desire to be equal, and thus free.
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proud", and only transpired after a Haiti paid huge reparations. However, Haiti was able to open normal relations with their former colonizers.
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2031:] (in Spanish) (1 ed.). Las Palmas de Gran Canaria: Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria Publicaciones, Casa de Colón. pp. 1863–1892.
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1934:
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The Republic of Haiti. National Legislative Bodies. Constituent National Assembly. Constitution of the Republic of Haiti. 10 March 1987. <
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States was divided; merchants wanted to continue trade while southern slave owners wanted to isolate or even repress the new Haitians. Until
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Article 88 gave power directly to the citizen constituency, as the President of the Republic would now be directly voted upon by citizens.
260:
223:
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France recognized Haitian independence in 1825. This recognition was indirect, "masked by a degree of doublespeak that would have made
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Levitt, Peggy and Rafael de la Dehesa. 2003. "Transnational migration and the redefinition of the state: Variations and explanations".
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http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?page=search&docid=3ae6b542c&skip=&query=haitian%20citizenship%20laws
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During the period from 1820 to 1849, which from 1822 included the territory of Hispaniola now known as the Dominican Republic, the
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those processes linking the Diaspora to the homeland are transnational in that they move beyond the boundaries of the nation-state
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regardless of race, could own land for business or residency purposes, losing those rights five years after that purpose ended.
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they develop bi-polar or multiple identities that reflect the border-crossing process they experience in their everyday life."
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Haitians (all considered black) could not marry white foreigners. The 1805 Constitution was the first Constitution of the
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Fouron, Georges E., and Schiller, Nina G. (1999), 'Terrains of Blood and Nation: Haitian Transnational Social Fields',
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If not a native Haitian but naturalized, residing abroad for three years without authorization. This loss is permanent
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Fouron, Georges E., and Nina G. Schiller (1999), 'Terrains of Blood and Nation: Haitian Transnational Social Fields',
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A child, regardless of where they are born, is considered Haitian if both parents are native-born citizen of Haiti.
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to arrest Louverture and re-instate slavery. In 1803, another rebellion against the French colonists was led by
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American Constitutions: A Compilation of the Political Constitutions of the Independent Nations of the New World
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West Indies they were often permitted to enter the class of plantation owners from the beginning." Officially,
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Michel S. Laguerre, The Military and Society in Haiti (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1993), 6.
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In recent years, there has been discussion about a constitutional amendment to change Haiti's stance against
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Note: citizens over the age of 18 are entitled to civil and political rights; not all Haitians are citizens.
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progressed and the United States' stance on black liberation began to shift, so did their views of Haiti and
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1738:[An Example of Modulated Legal Creolization: the Haitian Civil Code of 1825 and the Napoleon Code].
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Haiti even adopted a new national anthem, "La Dessalinienne", promoting the culture of the rural majority.
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individual migrants hold membership in more than one country and continue to be active in homeland affairs
67:
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Persaud, Felicia, "Immigration Korner: Haitian immigrant released after attempts to deport him", in the
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these individuals claim or appropriate civil, political, social, and cultural rights in both countries
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Also known as "The Black Code", this set of laws was written in 1685 concerning the governance of the
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Brenda G. Plummer, Haiti and the Great Powers, 1902-1915 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1988), 16.
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Pétion, Alexandre; Fontanges, François, Vicomte de; Esmangart, Charles-François-Hyacinthe (1818).
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1736:"Un exemple de créolisation juridique modulée: le Code civil haïtien de 1825 et le Code Napoléon"
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46:
1997:
Nationalité: lois et conventions doctrine, jurisprudence et repertoire; droit haitien (extraits)
1619:
Canada. Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. Country of Origin Research. 26 March 2006. <
3652:
3604:
2108:
2087:
2054:
2032:
2005:
1982:
1930:
1827:
1819:
1818:(in Spanish) (93). Mexico City: Instituto de Investigaciones Dr. José María Luis Mora: 65–82.
1763:
1755:
1735:
298:
207:
2102:
1920:
3535:
2275:
1747:
820:
729:
668:
329:
2002:
Nationality: Laws and Conventions, Doctrine, Case Law and Repertoire (Haitian Law Extracts)
3616:
2326:
2192:
2155:
2022:
415:
325:
117:
composed these laws to assert French presence in his Caribbean territories, and to assert
50:
580:
elite, some dark skinned but most being lighter-skinned, view themselves as aristocracy.
1899:
938:
3647:
3547:
2150:
2145:
698:
227:
155:
could not be employed publicly or in a liberal profession (for example, schoolteachers)
146:
for three years all had to serve in the "maréchaussee" militia to catch fugitive slaves
114:
90:
marriage provision and claim independence. There was no fine line between the races as
71:
17:
3708:
3677:
3626:
3558:
3510:
3100:
2132:. 7th Conference of American Republics, Montevideo, December 1933. Washington, D.C.:
2120:
556:
555:
They live in rural areas, are poor, and work the land for a living. They believe in
96:
91:
3573:
1621:
http://www.irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/research/rir/?action=record.viewrec&gotorec=451343
774:
697:
Voluntarily withdrawing citizenship must take place before the Justice Department,
447:
367:
The decree of April 4, 1792, which granted political equality to emancipated slaves
171:
118:
1835:
911:. (Buffalo, New York: William S. Hein & Co., Law Publisher, 1989), (7.210.12).
683:
Article 13 of the 1987 constitution explains how Haitian citizenship can be lost.
235:
this "mulatto" oligarchy that led Haitians through their Revolution from France.
3631:
3589:
1810:[The Attempt to Integrate Santo Domingo into Gran Colombia (1821-1822)]
167:
99:; the opportunity to advance economically was not reserved for white Europeans.
80:
1974:
De la nationalité en Haïti: suivie d'un aperçu historique sur le droit haïtien
1831:
285:
32:
2112:
1981:] (in French). Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie de l’Abeille. pp. 91–108.
1972:
1823:
1767:
1759:
2146:"Convention on the Nationality of Women (Inter-American); December 26, 1933"
1995:
86:
2220:
Georges Woke Up Laughing: Long-Distance Nationalism and the Search for Home
2086:(1942 Reprint ed.). New York, New York: Cooper Square Publishers Inc.
2058:
2047:
2009:
1986:
1808:"El intento de integración de Santo Domingo a la Gran Colombia (1821-1822)"
1751:
1647:
Georges Woke Up Laughing: Long Distance Nationalism and the Search for Home
1783:
701:, in Haiti. It is not possible to reclaim citizenship lost involuntarily.
166:
provided that freed persons were naturalized and contained provisions for
3599:
3565:
1948:[Nationality: The Dot of the I and the Cross of the T (update)].
609:
Military control for the protection of the state against foreign invaders
560:
355:
The Constitution of 1765 separated the military from the civil government
256:
75:
1946:"La nationalité: Le point sur les I et la barre sur les T (mise à jour)"
306:
247:
When England and Spain invaded in 1793, they were defeated by ex-slave
113:. It determined and regulated the status of different social classes.
1979:
Nationality in Haiti: Followed by a Historical Overview of Haitian Law
538:
state (for example, extradition for political reasons is prohibited).
517:
right to participate in the election of the President of the Republic
2295:
2213:
Toussaint's Clause: the Founding Fathers and the Haitian Revolution
2107:. Vol. 2. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
922:
Toussaint's Clause: The Founding Fathers and the Haitian Revolution
28:
2241:
Diasporic Citizenship: Haitian Americans in Transnational America
1418:
1416:
687:
Acquiring citizenship of a foreign country through naturalization
301:
unified Haiti in 1820, commercial relations were limited. As the
158:
those of mixed races could not use the name of their white parent
210:
spread, a movement against the oppressive Black Code developed.
127:
2299:
2053:. Early American Imprints. New York, New York: James Tredwell.
744:
Citizenship practices by Haitian immigrants in the Diaspora:
618:
Civilian control through the professionalization of the army
2234:
Before Haiti: Race and Citizenship in French Saint-Domingue
866:
Before Haiti: Race and Citizenship in French Saint-Domingue
615:
Civilian control through the demilitarization of the nation
430:
Constitution of 1843 and laws impacting women's nationality
966:
964:
624:
Civilian control through the democratization of the army
255:. Fighting between blacks and whites would continue, as
2262:
Notes on Haiti: Made During a Residence in That Republic
1251:
993:
991:
853:
Notes on Haiti: Made During a Residence in That Republic
370:
The decree of February 4, 1794, which abolished slavery
1894:. Translated by Garrigus, John. Vancouver, Washington:
1746:(2). Paris: Centre Français de Droit Comparé: 443–456.
1185:
1183:
1181:
907:
Kenneth R. Redden, (ed.), "The Legal System of Haiti."
855:. Vol. II. (London: Frank Cass and Co. Ltd., 1830), 10.
773:
The Office of Diasporic Affairs: created in 1980 under
358:
The Edict of August, 1765 established a judicial system
1720:, 28 December 2006, vol. 98, issue 1, pp. 14–14, 1/3p.
1527:
Sidney W. Mintz, "Introduction", in James G. Leyburn,
2250:. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1993.
1588:
Laguerre, The Military and Society in Haiti, 195–198.
1493:
1491:
924:(Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1936), 35.
2188:
Embassy of the Republic of Haiti in Washington, D.C.
2004:] (in French). Port-au-Prince: Impr. de l'État.
3640:
3582:
3523:
3476:
3377:
3267:
3094:
3087:
2856:
2781:
2638:
2631:
2340:
2333:
2282:. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966. v-xlviii.
1856:"Toussaint's Constitution (1801) With Introduction"
1610:
Constitution of the Republic of Haiti., Article 15.
711:
Haitian immigration to the United States and Canada
621:
Civilian control through the co-optation of the arm
232:
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
2138:Alexander Street Press: Women and Social Movements
2029:XIX Colloquium on Canarian-American History (2010)
1238:
1236:
1234:
1212:
1210:
1171:
1169:
633:All citizenship laws in effect today are from the
442:The Haitian Nationality Law of 1907 provided that
2024:XIX Coloquio de Historia Canario-Americana (2010)
1806:de la Reza, Germán A. (September–December 2015).
1057:
1055:
523:right to be elected or appointed to public office
332:was recognized as an equal in American politics.
2264:. Vol. II. London: Frank Cass and Co. Ltd, 1830.
2215:. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1936
1734:Cabanis, André G.; Martin, Michel Louis (1996).
1049:(New York: Paragon House Publishers, 1988), 112.
559:so practice common law marriage, sometimes even
489:The follow is found in Article 21: Citizenship.
612:Military control for the management of a crisis
319:Abraham Lincoln to Congress, December 3, 1861,
311:
190:
132:
1548:
1546:
1470:
885:
883:
336:Enfranchisement of Haitian peoples through law
2311:
1323:
1311:
1299:
1287:
1132:
1130:
777:; moved to Office of President in 1991 under
8:
3458:Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
2071:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1275:
659:native-born Haitians by Constitutional law.
501:born in a foreign country to Haitian parents
152:obliged to a corvée to maintain the roadways
31:is located on western portion of the island
2218:Fouron, Georges E., and Schiller, Nina G.,
1531:(New Haven: Yale UP, 1966. v–xlviii), viii.
679:Grounds for withdrawing Haitian citizenship
498:born in Haiti to a Haitian mother or father
3091:
2635:
2337:
2318:
2304:
2296:
1645:Fouron, Georges E., and Nina G. Schiller,
1263:
1225:
2204:Blaustein, Albert P., and Jay A. Sigler.
1922:The Old Regime and the Haitian Revolution
1395:
62:Nationality in Saint-Domingue before 1763
2289:. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1988.
982:
765:Immigration and citizenship institutions
271:Foreign recognition of Haiti as a nation
1782:Christophe, Henri; et al. (1805).
1458:
1446:
1434:
1422:
1407:
1201:
1045:Albert P. Blaustein and Jay A. Sigler,
997:
970:
841:
2222:. London: Duke University Press, 2001.
2064:
2021:. In Morales Padrón, Francisco (ed.).
1958:from the original on 17 September 2018
1497:
1383:
1371:
1359:
1347:
1335:
1252:Pétion, Fontanges & Esmangart 1818
1189:
690:Serving a foreign government in office
2287:Haiti and the Great Powers, 1902–1915
2243:. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998.
2236:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
2162:from the original on 27 December 2020
1896:Washington State University Vancouver
1740:Revue internationale de droit comparé
520:right to defend and serve the country
393:had no finite scheme of nationality.
7:
1944:Gousse, Bernard H. (29 April 2015).
1876:from the original on 23 October 2020
1658:Laguerre, Disaporic Citizenship, 11.
1482:
224:Society of the Friends of the Blacks
179:Nationality after the Seven Year War
2017:Paredes Vera, María Isabel (2012).
1912:Société d'histoire de la Guadeloupe
239:The "Black" Revolutionary narrative
149:had to serve in the general militia
2134:Inter-American Commission of Women
2126:Report on the Nationality of Women
715:Haitians in the Dominican Republic
605:Haitian Civil-Military Relations:
25:
2274:Mintz, Sidney W. "Introduction".
2248:The Military and Society in Haiti
590:United States occupation of Haiti
533:Article 22: Democratic Principles
3687:
3686:
2408:Democratic Republic of the Congo
2208:. New York: Paragon House, 1988.
2101:Rodríguez, José Ignacio (1907).
2080:Roberts, Walter Adolphe (1971).
480:Duvalierist constitution of 1983
3553:Birth aboard aircraft and ships
2206:Constitutions That Made History
1649:(Durham: Duke UP, 2001), 24–27.
1047:Constitutions That Made History
909:Modern Legal Systems Cyclopedia
3390:Federated States of Micronesia
2754:St. Vincent and the Grenadines
1784:"Constitution of Hayti (1805)"
375:Constitutions of 1801 and 1805
1:
2083:The French in the West Indies
1954:(in French). Port-au-Prince.
1925:. Cambridge, Cambridgeshire:
877:Herbert Klein in Garrigus, 2.
3671:British Overseas Territories
724:, "Papa Doc," (1957–71) and
3541:Renunciation of citizenship
2193:CIA World Factbook on Haiti
1919:Ghachem, Malick W. (2012).
1854:Freeman, Bryant C. (1994).
826:Timeline of Haitian history
429:
347:History of the legal system
3746:
2183:1987 Constitution of Haïti
2154:. New Haven, Connecticut:
1927:Cambridge University Press
1449:, pp. 34–35, Part II.
708:
587:
509:Duvalierist naturalization
406:Haitian Civil Code of 1825
339:
214:The Free Colored narrative
3666:
2269:Journal of Social History
2255:Ethnic and Racial Studies
2227:Ethnic and Racial Studies
1634:Ethnic and Racial Studies
1324:Cabanis & Martin 1996
1312:Cabanis & Martin 1996
1300:Cabanis & Martin 1996
1288:Cabanis & Martin 1996
641:Haitian citizenship media
92:interracial relationships
40:Nationality prior to 1803
2388:Central African Republic
864:Garrigus, J. D. (2006).
584:United States occupation
3715:Haitian nationality law
3486:Commonwealth of Nations
1718:New York Amsterdam News
654:Standing naturalization
629:Present-day citizenship
265:Jean-Jacques Dessalines
111:French American Islands
18:Haitian nationality law
3730:History of nationality
3300:Bosnia and Herzegovina
1994:Lamy, Amilcar (1953).
1898:. 1980. Archived from
1891:The "Code Noir" (1685)
1790:. New York, New York:
1752:10.3406/ridc.1996.5366
1461:, p. 35, Part II.
1437:, p. 36, Part II.
1425:, p. 34, Part II.
1410:, p. 33, Part II.
779:Jean-Bertrand Aristide
322:
261:General Charles Lecerc
194:
139:
3683:Partially recognized.
2548:São Tomé and Príncipe
2158:. December 26, 1933.
1792:New York Evening Post
1669:Disaporic Citizenship
1636:(22:2, 340–366), 342.
635:Constitution of Haiti
342:Constitution of Haiti
3622:Second-class citizen
3595:Multiple citizenship
3064:United Arab Emirates
2698:(Kingdom of Denmark)
2260:Mackenzie, Charles.
2246:Laguerre, Michel S.
2239:Laguerre, Michel S.
2123:(28 November 1933).
1867:University of Kansas
1865:. Lawrence, Kansas:
1314:, pp. 446, 448.
740:Diaspora citizenship
726:Jean-Claude Duvalier
472:Constitution of 1950
463:Constitution of 1918
397:Constitution of 1816
388:Constitution of 1806
249:Toussaint Louverture
197:rights as citizens.
56:Christopher Columbus
3612:Permanent residency
3531:Loss of citizenship
3506:Caribbean Community
2759:Trinidad and Tobago
2744:St. Kitts and Nevis
2646:Antigua and Barbuda
2285:Plummer, Brenda G.
1902:on 25 November 2007
1518:Redden, (7.210.15).
1509:Redden, (7.210.14).
1471:Avalon Project 1933
1374:, pp. 103–104.
1362:, pp. 101–103.
1302:, pp. 444–445.
1163:Redden, (7.210.12).
493:Duvalierist descent
2686:Dominican Republic
2280:The Haitian People
2232:Garrigus, John D.
1841:on 5 November 2020
1529:The Haitian People
1350:, pp. 98–100.
1242:Redden, (7.210.9).
1216:Redden, (7.210.7).
1175:Redden, (7.210.8).
1088:Redden, (7.210.6).
808:U.S. Supreme Court
804:drug-related crime
637:ratified in 1987.
303:American Civil War
201:Haitian Revolution
47:Haitian Revolution
3702:
3701:
3676:Open border with
3519:
3518:
3373:
3372:
2852:
2851:
2772:US Virgin Islands
2699:
2423:Equatorial Guinea
2211:Brown, Gordon S.
2038:978-84-8103-650-3
1936:978-0-521-83680-7
1338:, pp. 95–97.
1276:Paredes Vera 2012
1254:, pp. 33–34.
849:Charles Mackenzie
722:François Duvalier
485:Citizenship media
412:Republic of Haiti
299:Jean-Pierre Boyer
253:1801 Constitution
208:French Revolution
70:, nationality in
16:(Redirected from
3737:
3725:Society of Haiti
3690:
3689:
3536:Denaturalization
3425:Papua New Guinea
3410:Marshall Islands
3092:
2697:
2636:
2338:
2327:Nationality laws
2320:
2313:
2306:
2297:
2276:James G. Leyburn
2271:(1998): 599–614.
2257:. 26(4):587–611.
2171:
2169:
2167:
2141:
2131:
2116:
2097:
2076:
2070:
2062:
2042:
2013:
1990:
1967:
1965:
1963:
1940:
1915:
1909:
1907:
1885:
1883:
1881:
1875:
1860:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1840:
1834:. Archived from
1813:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1721:
1714:
1708:
1705:
1699:
1696:
1690:
1687:
1681:
1678:
1672:
1665:
1659:
1656:
1650:
1643:
1637:
1630:
1624:
1617:
1611:
1608:
1602:
1595:
1589:
1586:
1580:
1577:
1571:
1568:
1562:
1559:
1553:
1550:
1541:
1538:
1532:
1525:
1519:
1516:
1510:
1507:
1501:
1495:
1486:
1480:
1474:
1468:
1462:
1456:
1450:
1444:
1438:
1432:
1426:
1420:
1411:
1405:
1399:
1393:
1387:
1381:
1375:
1369:
1363:
1357:
1351:
1345:
1339:
1333:
1327:
1321:
1315:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1285:
1279:
1273:
1267:
1261:
1255:
1249:
1243:
1240:
1229:
1223:
1217:
1214:
1205:
1199:
1193:
1187:
1176:
1173:
1164:
1161:
1155:
1152:
1146:
1143:
1137:
1134:
1125:
1122:
1116:
1113:
1107:
1104:
1098:
1095:
1089:
1086:
1080:
1077:
1071:
1068:
1062:
1061:Garrigus, p. 13.
1059:
1050:
1043:
1037:
1034:
1028:
1025:
1019:
1016:
1010:
1007:
1001:
995:
986:
980:
974:
968:
959:
956:
950:
949:
947:
946:
937:. Archived from
931:
925:
920:Gordon S. Brown
918:
912:
905:
899:
896:
890:
887:
878:
875:
869:
862:
856:
846:
821:History of Haiti
798:Noteworthy cases
730:transnationalism
705:Haitian diaspora
669:dual nationality
663:Dual citizenship
646:Standing descent
330:Washington, D.C.
320:
185:Seven Years' War
27:The Republic of
21:
3745:
3744:
3740:
3739:
3738:
3736:
3735:
3734:
3720:Human migration
3705:
3704:
3703:
3698:
3662:
3636:
3617:Right of return
3578:
3515:
3478:
3472:
3435:Solomon Islands
3369:
3335:Northern Cyprus
3330:North Macedonia
3263:
3098:
3083:
2848:
2777:
2627:
2329:
2324:
2229:, 22:2, 340–366
2201:
2199:Further reading
2179:
2174:
2165:
2163:
2156:Yale Law School
2144:
2129:
2119:
2100:
2094:
2079:
2063:
2045:
2039:
2016:
1993:
1970:
1961:
1959:
1943:
1937:
1918:
1905:
1903:
1888:
1879:
1877:
1873:
1863:KU Scholarworks
1858:
1853:
1844:
1842:
1838:
1811:
1805:
1796:
1794:
1781:
1772:
1770:
1733:
1729:
1724:
1715:
1711:
1706:
1702:
1697:
1693:
1688:
1684:
1679:
1675:
1666:
1662:
1657:
1653:
1644:
1640:
1631:
1627:
1618:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1596:
1592:
1587:
1583:
1578:
1574:
1569:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1544:
1539:
1535:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1504:
1496:
1489:
1481:
1477:
1469:
1465:
1457:
1453:
1445:
1441:
1433:
1429:
1421:
1414:
1406:
1402:
1394:
1390:
1382:
1378:
1370:
1366:
1358:
1354:
1346:
1342:
1334:
1330:
1322:
1318:
1310:
1306:
1298:
1294:
1286:
1282:
1278:, p. 1864.
1274:
1270:
1264:de la Reza 2015
1262:
1258:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1232:
1226:Christophe 1805
1224:
1220:
1215:
1208:
1200:
1196:
1188:
1179:
1174:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1128:
1123:
1119:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1101:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1053:
1044:
1040:
1035:
1031:
1026:
1022:
1017:
1013:
1008:
1004:
996:
989:
981:
977:
969:
962:
957:
953:
944:
942:
933:
932:
928:
919:
915:
906:
902:
897:
893:
888:
881:
876:
872:
863:
859:
847:
843:
839:
834:
817:
800:
767:
742:
717:
707:
681:
665:
656:
648:
643:
631:
592:
586:
577:
569:
553:
544:
542:Haitian society
535:
511:
495:
487:
482:
474:
465:
432:
416:Napoleonic Code
408:
399:
390:
382:Empire of Haiti
377:
349:
344:
338:
326:Abraham Lincoln
321:
318:
294:
282:
273:
241:
216:
203:
181:
137:other subjects.
135:
107:
81:imperial policy
66:As part of the
64:
51:African descent
42:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3743:
3741:
3733:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3707:
3706:
3700:
3699:
3697:
3696:
3684:
3681:
3674:
3667:
3664:
3663:
3661:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3644:
3642:
3638:
3637:
3635:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3608:
3607:
3597:
3592:
3586:
3584:
3580:
3579:
3577:
3576:
3571:
3570:
3569:
3562:
3555:
3548:Naturalization
3545:
3544:
3543:
3538:
3527:
3525:
3521:
3520:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3501:Nordic Council
3498:
3493:
3491:European Union
3488:
3482:
3480:
3474:
3473:
3471:
3470:
3465:
3454:American Samoa
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3381:
3379:
3375:
3374:
3371:
3370:
3368:
3367:
3365:United Kingdom
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3271:
3269:
3268:Rest of Europe
3265:
3264:
3262:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3134:Czech Republic
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3105:
3103:
3096:European Union
3089:
3085:
3084:
3082:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2860:
2858:
2854:
2853:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2785:
2783:
2779:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2642:
2640:
2633:
2629:
2628:
2626:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2613:Western Sahara
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2403:Congo Republic
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2344:
2342:
2335:
2331:
2330:
2325:
2323:
2322:
2315:
2308:
2300:
2294:
2293:
2290:
2283:
2272:
2265:
2258:
2251:
2244:
2237:
2230:
2223:
2216:
2209:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2178:
2177:External links
2175:
2173:
2172:
2151:Avalon Project
2142:
2121:Stevens, Doris
2117:
2098:
2092:
2077:
2043:
2037:
2014:
1991:
1968:
1951:Le Nouvelliste
1941:
1935:
1916:
1886:
1851:
1803:
1779:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1722:
1709:
1700:
1691:
1682:
1673:
1660:
1651:
1638:
1625:
1612:
1603:
1590:
1581:
1572:
1563:
1554:
1542:
1533:
1520:
1511:
1502:
1487:
1475:
1463:
1451:
1439:
1427:
1412:
1400:
1396:Rodríguez 1907
1388:
1376:
1364:
1352:
1340:
1328:
1326:, p. 448.
1316:
1304:
1292:
1290:, p. 444.
1280:
1268:
1256:
1244:
1230:
1218:
1206:
1194:
1177:
1165:
1156:
1147:
1138:
1126:
1117:
1108:
1106:Brown, p. 294.
1099:
1090:
1081:
1072:
1063:
1051:
1038:
1036:Garrigus, 149.
1029:
1020:
1011:
1002:
987:
975:
973:, p. 153.
960:
951:
926:
913:
900:
891:
879:
870:
857:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
829:
828:
823:
816:
813:
799:
796:
788:
787:
784:
781:
766:
763:
762:
761:
758:
755:
752:
749:
741:
738:
706:
703:
699:Port-au-Prince
695:
694:
691:
688:
680:
677:
664:
661:
655:
652:
647:
644:
642:
639:
630:
627:
626:
625:
622:
619:
616:
613:
610:
588:Main article:
585:
582:
576:
573:
568:
565:
552:
549:
543:
540:
534:
531:
527:
526:
525:
524:
521:
518:
510:
507:
506:
505:
502:
499:
494:
491:
486:
483:
481:
478:
473:
470:
464:
461:
431:
428:
423:Rivière-Hérard
407:
404:
398:
395:
389:
386:
376:
373:
372:
371:
368:
360:
359:
356:
348:
345:
340:Main article:
337:
334:
316:
293:
290:
281:
278:
272:
269:
240:
237:
228:Julien Raimond
215:
212:
202:
199:
180:
177:
160:
159:
156:
153:
150:
147:
115:King Louis XIV
106:
101:
72:Saint-Domingue
63:
60:
49:as peoples of
41:
38:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3742:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3712:
3710:
3695:
3694:
3685:
3682:
3679:
3678:Schengen Area
3675:
3672:
3669:
3668:
3665:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3645:
3643:
3639:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3627:Statelessness
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3606:
3603:
3602:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3587:
3585:
3581:
3575:
3572:
3568:
3567:
3563:
3561:
3560:
3559:Ius sanguinis
3556:
3554:
3551:
3550:
3549:
3546:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3533:
3532:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3522:
3512:
3511:African Union
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3483:
3481:
3479:organizations
3477:International
3475:
3469:
3466:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3450:United States
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3382:
3380:
3376:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3270:
3266:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3194:Liechtenstein
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3101:Schengen Area
3097:
3093:
3090:
3086:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2861:
2859:
2855:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2764:United States
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2634:
2630:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2463:Guinea-Bissau
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2321:
2316:
2314:
2309:
2307:
2302:
2301:
2298:
2291:
2288:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2266:
2263:
2259:
2256:
2252:
2249:
2245:
2242:
2238:
2235:
2231:
2228:
2224:
2221:
2217:
2214:
2210:
2207:
2203:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2176:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2152:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2128:
2127:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2105:
2099:
2095:
2093:0-8154-0377-1
2089:
2085:
2084:
2078:
2074:
2068:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2051:
2044:
2040:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1998:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1975:
1969:
1957:
1953:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1938:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1923:
1917:
1913:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1892:
1887:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1857:
1852:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1809:
1804:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1742:(in French).
1741:
1737:
1732:
1731:
1726:
1719:
1713:
1710:
1704:
1701:
1695:
1692:
1686:
1683:
1677:
1674:
1670:
1664:
1661:
1655:
1652:
1648:
1642:
1639:
1635:
1629:
1626:
1622:
1616:
1613:
1607:
1604:
1600:
1594:
1591:
1585:
1582:
1576:
1573:
1570:Plummer, 246.
1567:
1564:
1561:Garrigus, 13.
1558:
1555:
1549:
1547:
1543:
1537:
1534:
1530:
1524:
1521:
1515:
1512:
1506:
1503:
1499:
1494:
1492:
1488:
1485:, p. 14.
1484:
1479:
1476:
1472:
1467:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1440:
1436:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1404:
1401:
1398:, p. 53.
1397:
1392:
1389:
1386:, p. 92.
1385:
1380:
1377:
1373:
1368:
1365:
1361:
1356:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1305:
1301:
1296:
1293:
1289:
1284:
1281:
1277:
1272:
1269:
1266:, p. 68.
1265:
1260:
1257:
1253:
1248:
1245:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1222:
1219:
1213:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1198:
1195:
1192:, p. 94.
1191:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1172:
1170:
1166:
1160:
1157:
1151:
1148:
1142:
1139:
1133:
1131:
1127:
1121:
1118:
1112:
1109:
1103:
1100:
1094:
1091:
1085:
1082:
1076:
1073:
1070:Garrigus, 17.
1067:
1064:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1042:
1039:
1033:
1030:
1024:
1021:
1015:
1012:
1006:
1003:
1000:, p. 85.
999:
994:
992:
988:
984:
983:Garrigus 1980
979:
976:
972:
967:
965:
961:
958:Mackenzie, 9.
955:
952:
941:on 2007-11-25
940:
936:
930:
927:
923:
917:
914:
910:
904:
901:
895:
892:
889:Garrigus, 12.
886:
884:
880:
874:
871:
867:
861:
858:
854:
850:
845:
842:
836:
831:
827:
824:
822:
819:
818:
814:
812:
809:
806:in 2006, the
805:
797:
795:
792:
785:
782:
780:
776:
772:
771:
770:
764:
759:
756:
753:
750:
747:
746:
745:
739:
737:
733:
731:
727:
723:
716:
712:
704:
702:
700:
692:
689:
686:
685:
684:
678:
676:
672:
670:
662:
660:
653:
651:
645:
640:
638:
636:
628:
623:
620:
617:
614:
611:
608:
607:
606:
603:
599:
596:
591:
583:
581:
574:
572:
566:
564:
562:
558:
550:
548:
541:
539:
532:
530:
522:
519:
516:
515:
513:
512:
508:
503:
500:
497:
496:
492:
490:
484:
479:
477:
471:
469:
462:
460:
456:
452:
449:
445:
440:
436:
427:
424:
419:
417:
413:
405:
403:
396:
394:
387:
385:
383:
374:
369:
366:
365:
364:
357:
354:
353:
352:
346:
343:
335:
333:
331:
327:
315:
310:
308:
304:
300:
292:United States
291:
289:
287:
279:
277:
270:
268:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
245:
238:
236:
233:
229:
225:
222:In 1788, the
220:
213:
211:
209:
206:ideas of the
200:
198:
193:
189:
186:
178:
176:
173:
169:
165:
157:
154:
151:
148:
145:
144:
143:
138:
131:
129:
126:expelled all
125:
120:
116:
112:
105:
102:
100:
98:
97:civil society
93:
89:
88:
82:
77:
73:
69:
68:French Empire
61:
59:
57:
52:
48:
39:
37:
34:
30:
19:
3692:
3658:Soviet Union
3653:Ancient Rome
3648:Nazi Germany
3574:Repatriation
3564:
3557:
3524:By procedure
3059:Turkmenistan
3014:Saudi Arabia
2713:
2578:South Africa
2563:Sierra Leone
2368:Burkina Faso
2334:By continent
2286:
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2240:
2233:
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2205:
2164:. Retrieved
2149:
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2048:
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2001:
1996:
1978:
1973:
1960:. Retrieved
1949:
1921:
1910:– via
1904:. Retrieved
1900:the original
1890:
1878:. Retrieved
1862:
1843:. Retrieved
1836:the original
1815:
1795:. Retrieved
1787:
1771:. Retrieved
1743:
1739:
1727:Bibliography
1717:
1712:
1707:Levitt, 592.
1703:
1698:Levitt, 594.
1694:
1689:Levitt, 591.
1685:
1676:
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1557:
1552:Mintz, viii.
1540:Plummer, 16.
1536:
1528:
1523:
1514:
1505:
1478:
1466:
1459:Stevens 1933
1454:
1447:Stevens 1933
1442:
1435:Stevens 1933
1430:
1423:Stevens 1933
1408:Stevens 1933
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1202:Freeman 1994
1197:
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1145:Plummer, 17.
1141:
1120:
1111:
1102:
1093:
1084:
1079:Garrigus, 2.
1075:
1066:
1046:
1041:
1032:
1027:Garrigus, 1.
1023:
1018:Garrigus, 4.
1014:
1009:Garrigus, 8.
1005:
998:Ghachem 2012
978:
971:Roberts 1971
954:
943:. Retrieved
939:the original
929:
921:
916:
908:
903:
898:Garrigus, 6.
894:
873:
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860:
852:
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793:
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775:Henry Namphy
768:
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718:
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570:
567:Middle class
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172:emancipation
163:
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140:
134:Article LIX.
133:
123:
119:Christianity
108:
103:
85:
65:
43:
26:
3632:Travel visa
3590:Citizenship
3415:New Zealand
3259:Switzerland
3214:Netherlands
3024:South Korea
3004:Philippines
2984:North Korea
2864:Afghanistan
2768:Puerto Rico
2691:El Salvador
2583:South Sudan
2468:Ivory Coast
2166:27 December
1498:Gousse 2015
1384:Justin 1905
1372:Justin 1905
1360:Justin 1905
1348:Justin 1905
1336:Justin 1905
1190:Justin 1905
1154:Brown, 295.
1136:Brown, 292.
1115:Brown, 293.
935:"Code Noir"
448:legitimized
168:manumission
84:the French
3709:Categories
3345:San Marino
3325:Montenegro
3290:Azerbaijan
3204:Luxembourg
3069:Uzbekistan
3039:Tajikistan
2944:Kyrgyzstan
2939:Kazakhstan
2899:East Timor
2874:Bangladesh
2696:Greenland
2671:Costa Rica
2573:Somaliland
2558:Seychelles
2523:Mozambique
2508:Mauritania
2493:Madagascar
2448:The Gambia
2383:Cape Verde
1962:15 January
1906:13 January
1880:15 January
1832:5974854085
1797:15 January
1788:WikiSource
1667:Laguerre,
945:2007-11-12
832:References
709:See also:
444:legitimate
286:Talleyrand
33:Hispaniola
3583:By result
3385:Australia
3199:Lithuania
3029:Sri Lanka
3019:Singapore
2999:Palestine
2909:Indonesia
2844:Venezuela
2789:Argentina
2749:St. Lucia
2734:Nicaragua
2709:Guatemala
2513:Mauritius
2113:706589888
2067:cite book
1845:2 January
1824:0186-0348
1816:Secuencia
1773:3 January
1768:769963077
1760:0035-3337
1483:Lamy 1953
1124:Brown, 7.
837:Citations
324:In 1863,
183:When the
104:Code Noir
87:Code Noir
3693:Category
3605:Internal
3600:Passport
3566:Ius soli
3496:Mercosur
3405:Kiribati
3244:Slovenia
3239:Slovakia
3229:Portugal
3119:Bulgaria
3049:Thailand
2994:Pakistan
2969:Mongolia
2964:Malaysia
2889:Cambodia
2834:Suriname
2824:Paraguay
2809:Colombia
2719:Honduras
2681:Dominica
2656:Barbados
2632:Americas
2623:Zimbabwe
2593:Tanzania
2438:Ethiopia
2433:Eswatini
2413:Djibouti
2378:Cameroon
2363:Botswana
2160:Archived
1956:Archived
1871:Archived
815:See also
736:status.
561:polygamy
551:Yeomanry
317:—
257:Napoleon
76:Americas
3641:Defunct
3468:Vanuatu
3378:Oceania
3360:Ukraine
3315:Moldova
3305:Georgia
3295:Belarus
3285:Andorra
3280:Armenia
3275:Albania
3234:Romania
3179:Ireland
3174:Iceland
3169:Hungary
3159:Germany
3149:Finland
3144:Estonia
3139:Denmark
3124:Croatia
3114:Belgium
3109:Austria
3074:Vietnam
2974:Myanmar
2959:Lebanon
2869:Bahrain
2839:Uruguay
2814:Ecuador
2794:Bolivia
2724:Jamaica
2704:Grenada
2651:Bahamas
2603:Tunisia
2568:Somalia
2553:Senegal
2538:Nigeria
2528:Namibia
2518:Morocco
2483:Liberia
2478:Lesotho
2428:Eritrea
2398:Comoros
2373:Burundi
2348:Algeria
2059:2491626
2010:1908423
1987:1557495
307:Liberia
3445:Tuvalu
3355:Turkey
3350:Serbia
3340:Russia
3320:Monaco
3310:Kosovo
3254:Sweden
3224:Poland
3219:Norway
3189:Latvia
3164:Greece
3154:France
3129:Cyprus
3088:Europe
3054:Turkey
3044:Taiwan
2949:Kuwait
2934:Jordan
2924:Israel
2884:Brunei
2879:Bhutan
2819:Guyana
2799:Brazil
2739:Panama
2729:Mexico
2666:Canada
2661:Belize
2618:Zambia
2608:Uganda
2543:Rwanda
2498:Malawi
2458:Guinea
2353:Angola
2341:Africa
2111:
2090:
2057:
2035:
2008:
1985:
1933:
1830:
1822:
1766:
1758:
1671:, 177.
280:France
3440:Tonga
3430:Samoa
3420:Palau
3400:Nauru
3249:Spain
3209:Malta
3184:Italy
3079:Yemen
3034:Syria
3009:Qatar
2979:Nepal
2929:Japan
2904:India
2894:China
2804:Chile
2782:South
2714:Haiti
2639:North
2588:Sudan
2533:Niger
2488:Libya
2473:Kenya
2453:Ghana
2443:Gabon
2418:Egypt
2358:Benin
2130:(PDF)
2027:[
2000:[
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1874:(PDF)
1859:(PDF)
1839:(PDF)
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1623:>.
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575:Elite
557:Vodou
421:When
314:them.
259:sent
124:Code
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3462:Guam
3395:Fiji
3099:and
2989:Oman
2954:Laos
2919:Iraq
2914:Iran
2857:Asia
2829:Peru
2676:Cuba
2598:Togo
2503:Mali
2393:Chad
2168:2020
2109:OCLC
2088:ISBN
2073:link
2055:OCLC
2050:Army
2033:ISBN
2006:OCLC
1983:OCLC
1964:2021
1931:ISBN
1908:2021
1882:2021
1847:2021
1828:OCLC
1820:ISSN
1799:2021
1775:2021
1764:OCLC
1756:ISSN
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