47:
resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy, mostly in high angle annular dark field mode, this article describes mainly the imaging of an object by recording the two-dimensional spatial wave amplitude distribution in the image plane, similar to a "classic" light microscope. For disambiguation, the technique is also often referred to as phase contrast transmission electron microscopy, although this term is less appropriate. At present, the highest point resolution realised in high resolution transmission electron microscopy is around 0.5
1967:
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75:
66:, contrast is not intuitively interpretable, as the image is influenced by aberrations of the imaging lenses in the microscope. The largest contributions for uncorrected instruments typically come from defocus and astigmatism. The latter can be estimated from the so-called Thon ring pattern appearing in the Fourier transform modulus of an image of a thin amorphous film.
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wave incident on the sample surface. As it penetrates the sample, it is attracted by the positive atomic potentials of the atom cores, and channels along the atom columns of the crystallographic lattice (s-state model). At the same time, the interaction between the electron wave in different atom columns leads to
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The interaction of the electron wave with the crystallographic structure of the sample is complex, but a qualitative idea of the interaction can readily be obtained. Each imaging electron interacts independently with the sample. Above the sample, the wave of an electron can be approximated as a plane
90:
with itself. Due to our inability to record the phase of an electron wave, only the amplitude in the image plane is recorded. However, a large part of the structure information of the sample is contained in the phase of the electron wave. In order to detect it, the aberrations of the microscope (like
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a direct representation of the samples crystallographic structure. For instance, high intensity might or might not indicate the presence of an atom column in that precise location (see simulation). The relationship between the exit wave and the image wave is a highly nonlinear one and is a function
2248:
C. Kisielowski; B. Freitag; M. Bischoff; H. van Lin; S. Lazar; G. Knippels; P. Tiemeijer; M. van der Stam; S. von
Harrach; M. Stekelenburg; M. Haider; H. Muller; P. Hartel; B. Kabius; D. Miller; I. Petrov; E. Olson; T. Donchev; E. A. Kenik; A. Lupini; J. Bentley; S. Pennycook; A. M. Minor; A. K.
2014:
takes advantage of the fact that the contrast transfer function is focus dependent. A series of about 20 pictures is shot under the same imaging conditions with the exception of the focus which is incremented between each take. Together with exact knowledge of the contrast transfer function, the
2007:
expressly for transmission electron microscopy applications, uses a prism to split the beam into a reference beam and a second one passing through the sample. Phase changes between the two are then translated in small shifts of the interference pattern, which allows recovering both phase and
46:
that allows for direct imaging of the atomic structure of samples. It is a powerful tool to study properties of materials on the atomic scale, such as semiconductors, metals, nanoparticles and sp-bonded carbon (e.g., graphene, C nanotubes). While this term is often also used to refer to high
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is the defocus. In transmission electron microscopy, defocus can easily be controlled and measured to high precision. Thus one can easily alter the shape of the contrast transfer function by defocusing the sample. Contrary to optical applications, defocusing can increase the precision and
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Both methods extend the point resolution of the microscope past the information limit, which is the highest possible resolution achievable on a given machine. The ideal defocus value for this type of imaging is known as Lichte defocus and is usually several hundred nanometers negative.
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project at
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory resulted in the first transmission electron microscope to reach an information limit of <0.5 Å in 2009 by the use of a highly stable mechanical and electrical environment, an ultra-bright, monochromated electron source and
103:, which is almost all real samples, still remains the holy grail of electron microscopy. However, the physics of electron scattering and electron microscope image formation are sufficiently well known to allow accurate simulation of electron microscope images.
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which corresponds to 6.1 nm on the CM300. Contributions with a spatial frequency higher than the point resolution can be filtered out with an appropriate aperture leading to easily interpretable images at the cost of a lot of information lost.
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Schmid; T. Duden; V. Radmilovic; Q. Ramasse; R. Erni; M. Watanabe; E. Stach; P. Denes; U. Dahmen (2008). "Detection of single atoms and buried defects in three dimensions by aberration-corrected electron microscopy with 0.5 Å information limit".
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which usually dampens the signal of beams scattered at high angles, and imposes a maximum to the transmitted spatial frequency. This maximum determines the highest resolution attainable with a microscope and is known as the information limit.
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Gabor defocus is used in electron holography where both amplitude and phase of the image wave are recorded. One thus wants to minimize crosstalk between the two. The Gabor defocus can be expressed as a function of the
Scherzer defocus as
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First however, both phase and amplitude of the electron wave in the image plane must be measured. As our instruments only record amplitudes, an alternative method to recover the phase has to be used. There are two methods in use today:
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1854:. To maximize the information throughput, Hannes Lichte proposed in 1991 a defocus of a fundamentally different nature than the Scherzer defocus: because the dampening of the envelope function scales with the first derivative of
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will enter contrast in the final image. If one takes into account only spherical aberration to third order and defocus, χ is rotationally symmetric about the optical axis of the microscope and thus only depends on the modulus
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Choosing the optimum defocus is crucial to fully exploit the capabilities of an electron microscope in high resolution transmission electron microscopy mode. However, there is no simple answer as to which one is the best.
1325:{\displaystyle \delta =C_{c}{\sqrt {4\left({\frac {\Delta I_{\text{obj}}}{I_{\text{obj}}}}\right)^{2}+\left({\frac {\Delta E}{V_{\text{acc}}}}\right)^{2}+\left({\frac {\Delta V_{\text{acc}}}{V_{\text{acc}}}}\right)^{2}}},}
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relative to the incident wave peaks at the location of the atom columns. The exit wave now passes through the imaging system of the microscope where it undergoes further phase change and interferes as the
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the wave in the image plane is back propagated numerically to the sample. If all properties of the microscope are well known, it is possible to recover the real exit wave with very high accuracy.
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In
Gaussian focus one sets the defocus to zero, the sample is in focus. As a consequence contrast in the image plane gets its image components from the minimal area of the sample, the contrast is
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can be resolved. For 3-dimensional crystals, it is necessary to combine several views, taken from different angles, into a 3D map. This technique is called electron tomography.
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are transferred into image intensity with a similar phase. In 1949, Scherzer found that the optimum defocus depends on microscope properties like the spherical aberration
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cuts off beams scattered above a certain critical angle (given by the objective pole piece for ex), thus effectively limiting the attainable resolution. However it is the
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1501:(no blurring and information overlap from other parts of the sample). The contrast transfer function becomes a function that oscillates quickly with
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141:(spatial frequencies correspond to scattering angles, or distances of rays from the optical axis in a diffraction plane). The phase change
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is the maximum transmitted spatial frequency. For the CM300 with an information limit of 0.8 Å Lichte defocus lies at −272 nm.
1031:, the damping due to this envelope function can be minimized by optimizing the defocus at which the image is recorded (Lichte defocus).
757:. These two envelopes determine the information limit by damping the signal transfer in Fourier space with increasing spatial frequency
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defocus) have to be tuned in a way that converts the phase of the wave at the specimen exit plane into amplitudes in the image plane.
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One of the difficulties with high resolution transmission electron microscopy is that image formation relies on phase contrast. In
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O'Keefe, M. A., Buseck, P. R. and S. Iijima (1978). "Computed crystal structure images for high resolution electron microscopy".
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where α is the semiangle of the pencil of rays illuminating the sample. Clearly, if the wave aberration ('here represented by
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To exploit all beams transmitted through the microscope up to the information limit, one relies on a complex method called
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which consists in mathematically reversing the effect of the contrast transfer function to recover the original exit wave
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the contribution to contrast in the recorded image will be reversed, thus making interpretation of the image difficult.
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The last, sinusoidal term of the contrast transfer function will determine the sign with which components of frequency
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Specimen drift and vibration can be minimized in a stable environment. It is usually the spherical aberration
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The information limit of current state-of-the-art transmission electron microscopes is well below 1 Å. The
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207:, assume the weak phase object approximation (thin sample), then the contrast transfer function becomes
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represent instabilities in of the total current in the magnetic lenses and the acceleration voltage.
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in the imaging plane (mostly a digital pixel detector like a CCD camera). The recorded image is
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in the imaging lenses of a microscope. It describes their effect on the phase of the exit wave
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is a superposition of a plane wave and a multitude of diffracted beams with different in plane
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CTF Explorer by Max V. Sidorov, freeware program to calculate the contrast transfer function
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99:. The exact description of dynamical scattering of electrons in a sample not satisfying the
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454:{\displaystyle \chi (u)={\frac {\pi }{2}}C_{s}\lambda ^{3}u^{4}-\pi \Delta f\lambda u^{2}}
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The contrast of a high resolution transmission electron microscopy image arises from the
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2004:
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Geuens, P; van Dyck, D (Dec 2002). "The S-state model: a work horse for HRTEM".
1754:{\displaystyle u_{\text{res}}({\text{Scherzer}})=0.6\lambda ^{3/4}C_{s}^{1/4},}
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1999:
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where the factor 1.2 defines the extended
Scherzer defocus. For the CM300 at
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1942:{\displaystyle \Delta f_{\text{Lichte}}=-0.75C_{s}(u_{\max }\lambda )^{2},}
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The point resolution of a microscope is defined as the spatial frequency
1617:{\displaystyle \Delta f_{\text{Scherzer}}=-1.2{\sqrt {C_{s}\lambda }}\,}
1509:. This means that for certain diffracted beams with a spatial frequency
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3032:
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2469:
2447:
Lichte, Hannes (1991). "Optimum focus for taking electron holograms".
1819:{\displaystyle \Delta f_{\text{Gabor}}=0.56\Delta f_{\text{Scherzer}}}
3052:
2356:
2205:; et al. (2006). "Imaging dislocation cores - the way forward".
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Optimum defocus in high resolution transmission electron microscopy
27:
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Transmission electron microscopy: A textbook for materials science
1965:
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26:
2139:
Topical review "Optics of high-performance electron
Microscopes"
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for the first time. At
Scherzer defocus this value is maximized:
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is a function of the aberrations of the electron optical system.
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634:{\displaystyle E(u)=E_{s}(u)E_{c}(u)E_{d}(u)E_{v}(u)E_{D}(u),\,}
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As a result of the interaction with a crystalline sample, the
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of the aberrations of the microscope. It is described by the
55:). At these small scales, individual atoms of a crystal and
1148:
Here, δ is the focal spread with the chromatic aberration
2156:
High
Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy Overview
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is the energy spread of electrons emitted by the source.
1549:) and creates a wide band where low spatial frequencies
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Transmission
Electron Aberration-corrected Microscope
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1858:, Lichte proposed a focus minimizing the modulus of d
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In
Scherzer defocus, one aims to counter the term in
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1418:{\displaystyle \Delta V_{\text{acc}}/V_{\text{acc}}}
1373:{\displaystyle \Delta I_{\text{obj}}/I_{\text{obj}}}
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Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 9 (2008) 014107 (30pages)
1034:The temporal envelope function can be expressed as
507:can be described as a product of single envelopes:
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1666:where the contrast transfer function crosses the
322:describes the attenuation of the wave for higher
2179:Experimental high-resolution electron microscopy
2111:High-resolution transmission electron microscopy
2068:Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy
1918:
1489:contrast transfer function of the OAM microscope
40:High-resolution transmission electron microscopy
1640:= 0.6mm and an accelerating voltage of 300keV (
1003:{\displaystyle E_{s}(u)=\exp \left=\exp \left,}
203:and propagates it to the image wave. Following
2899:Serial block-face scanning electron microscopy
2602:Detectors for transmission electron microscopy
292:{\displaystyle CTF(u)=A(u)E(u)2\sin(\chi (u))}
2485:
2392:Williams, David B.; Carter, C. Barry (1996).
1970:Exit wave reconstruction through focal series
8:
2377:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1537:). Thus by choosing the right defocus value
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726:that limits spatial coherency and defines
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183:is a function of limiting apertures and
126:as a function of the spatial coordinate
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1456:{\displaystyle \Delta E/V_{\text{acc}}}
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1560:and the accelerating voltage (through
2073:Scanning confocal electron microscopy
480:interpretability of the micrographs.
7:
3138:
1137:{\displaystyle E_{c}(u)=\exp \left,}
175:The phase contrast transfer function
18:High-resolution electron microscopy
2008:amplitude of the interfering wave.
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42:is an imaging mode of specialized
25:
2535:Timeline of microscope technology
2428:from the original on 7 April 2014
2057:Electron energy loss spectroscopy
2015:series allows for computation of
475:is the electron wavelength, and Δ
70:Image contrast and interpretation
44:transmission electron microscopes
3137:
3126:
3125:
2098:Transmission Electron Microscopy
2047:Electron beam induced deposition
2894:Precession electron diffraction
101:weak phase object approximation
3166:Electron microscopy techniques
1927:
1910:
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1060:
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659:: angular spread of the source
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1:
2314:10.1016/s0304-3991(02)00276-0
2181:. New York: Oxford U. Press.
738:and the chromatic aberration
78:Simulated HREM images for GaN
2461:10.1016/0304-3991(91)90105-F
2251:Microscopy and Microanalysis
2125:Resources in other libraries
2078:Scanning electron microscope
2012:Through focal series method
3187:
2879:Immune electron microscopy
2797:Annular dark-field imaging
2612:Everhart–Thornley detector
2400:. New York: Plenum Press.
181:contrast transfer function
169:contrast transfer function
86:in the image plane of the
3121:
3033:Hitachi High-Technologies
2271:10.1017/S1431927608080902
2227:10.1080/14786430600776322
2120:Resources in your library
2003:, which was developed by
1525:with the parabolic term Δ
31:High-resolution image of
3058:Thermo Fisher Scientific
2884:Geometric phase analysis
2772:Aberration-Corrected TEM
1962:Exit wave reconstruction
1836:exit wave reconstruction
1564:) in the following way:
2807:Charge contrast imaging
2617:Field electron emission
2422:"TEAM project web page"
1477:aberration correctors.
110:right below the sample
2997:Thomas Eugene Everhart
1971:
1943:
1820:
1755:
1646:Wavelength calculation
1618:
1490:
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1419:
1374:
1326:
1138:
1004:
673:: chromatic aberration
635:
455:
293:
79:
64:phase-contrast imaging
36:
3171:Scientific techniques
3002:Vernon Ellis Cosslett
2822:Dark-field microscopy
1974:To calculate back to
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1944:
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1458:
1420:
1375:
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3007:Vladimir K. Zworykin
2657:Correlative light EM
2566:Electron diffraction
2213:(29–31): 4781–4796.
2052:Electron diffraction
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701:: specimen vibration
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2972:Manfred von Ardenne
2957:Gerasimos Danilatos
2864:Electron tomography
2859:Electron holography
2802:Cathodoluminescence
2581:Secondary electrons
2571:Electron scattering
2515:Electron microscopy
2501:Electron microscopy
2349:1978Natur.274..322O
2263:2008MiMic..14..469K
2219:2006PMag...86.4781S
2063:Electron microscope
1747:
205:Williams and Carter
134:spatial frequencies
3094:Digital Micrograph
2700:Environmental SEM
2622:Field emission gun
2586:X-ray fluorescence
1972:
1939:
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1155:as the parameter:
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108:electron exit wave
80:
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3117:
3116:
2987:Nestor J. Zaluzec
2982:Maximilian Haider
2780:
2779:
2407:978-0-306-45324-3
2343:(5669): 322–324.
2188:978-0-19-505405-7
2175:Spence, John C. H
2106:Library resources
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489:envelope function
485:aperture function
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331:envelope function
324:spatial frequency
312:aperture function
97:Bragg diffraction
16:(Redirected from
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2682:Photoemission EM
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2203:Spence, J. C. H.
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1654:= -41.25 nm
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3180:
3179:
3177:
3176:
3175:
3156:
3155:
3154:
3149:
3113:
3062:
3011:
2992:Ondrej Krivanek
2913:
2776:
2724:
2686:
2672:Liquid-Phase EM
2636:
2595:Instrumentation
2590:
2548:
2539:
2503:
2498:
2468:
2449:Ultramicroscopy
2446:
2445:
2441:
2431:
2429:
2420:
2419:
2415:
2408:
2391:
2390:
2386:
2369:
2334:
2333:
2329:
2308:(3–4): 179–98.
2302:Ultramicroscopy
2299:
2298:
2294:
2247:
2246:
2242:
2201:
2200:
2196:
2189:
2173:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2136:
2131:
2130:
2129:
2114:
2113:
2109:
2102:
2042:
2020:
1979:
1964:
1957:
1926:
1913:
1900:
1881:
1873:
1872:
1843:
1832:
1806:
1787:
1779:
1778:
1771:
1707:
1680:
1675:
1674:
1665:
1653:
1639:
1598:
1577:
1569:
1568:
1558:
1519:
1506:
1483:
1443:
1427:
1426:
1405:
1390:
1382:
1381:
1360:
1345:
1337:
1336:
1295:
1284:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1248:
1240:
1234:
1233:
1208:
1197:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1171:
1160:
1159:
1153:
1116:
1095:
1091:
1090:
1076:
1072:
1044:
1039:
1038:
1029:
1018:
982:
957:
947:
937:
911:
905:
904:
900:
896:
862:
843:
837:
836:
813:
807:
806:
802:
798:
770:
765:
764:
750:
743:
731:
724:
708:
694:
680:
666:
652:
608:
589:
570:
551:
532:
512:
511:
469:
441:
416:
406:
396:
366:
365:
212:
211:
192:
177:
146:
115:
72:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3184:
3182:
3174:
3173:
3168:
3158:
3157:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3147:
3135:
3122:
3119:
3118:
3115:
3114:
3112:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3099:Direct methods
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3070:
3068:
3064:
3063:
3061:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3019:
3017:
3013:
3012:
3010:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2947:Ernst G. Bauer
2944:
2939:
2934:
2928:
2926:
2919:
2915:
2914:
2912:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2840:
2839:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2788:
2786:
2782:
2781:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2774:
2769:
2768:
2767:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2746:
2745:
2734:
2732:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2696:
2694:
2688:
2687:
2685:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2653:
2651:
2642:
2638:
2637:
2635:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2598:
2596:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2561:Bremsstrahlung
2558:
2552:
2550:
2541:
2540:
2538:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2511:
2509:
2505:
2504:
2499:
2497:
2496:
2489:
2482:
2474:
2467:
2466:
2439:
2413:
2406:
2384:
2327:
2292:
2257:(5): 469–477.
2240:
2194:
2187:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2145:free download
2135:
2132:
2128:
2127:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2054:
2049:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2033:
2032:
2018:
2009:
1977:
1963:
1960:
1955:
1938:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1896:
1893:
1884:
1880:
1841:
1831:
1830:Lichte defocus
1828:
1827:
1826:
1809:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1790:
1786:
1770:
1767:
1762:
1761:
1750:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1728:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1703:
1700:
1692:
1683:
1663:
1651:
1635:
1625:
1624:
1610:
1605:
1601:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1580:
1576:
1556:
1518:
1515:
1504:
1482:
1479:
1446:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1408:
1403:
1393:
1389:
1363:
1358:
1348:
1344:
1333:
1332:
1321:
1314:
1309:
1298:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1251:
1246:
1243:
1237:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1211:
1200:
1196:
1190:
1185:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1151:
1146:
1145:
1133:
1129:
1123:
1119:
1113:
1108:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1094:
1087:
1084:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1051:
1047:
1027:
1016:
1011:
1010:
999:
995:
989:
985:
981:
978:
975:
972:
969:
964:
960:
954:
950:
944:
940:
936:
931:
926:
921:
917:
914:
908:
903:
899:
895:
892:
889:
885:
879:
874:
868:
865:
860:
857:
854:
850:
846:
840:
833:
828:
823:
819:
816:
810:
805:
801:
797:
794:
791:
788:
785:
782:
777:
773:
748:
741:
729:
722:
717:
716:
706:
702:
692:
688:
678:
674:
664:
660:
650:
642:
641:
629:
626:
623:
620:
615:
611:
607:
604:
601:
596:
592:
588:
585:
582:
577:
573:
569:
566:
563:
558:
554:
550:
547:
544:
539:
535:
531:
528:
525:
522:
519:
467:
462:
461:
448:
444:
440:
437:
434:
431:
428:
423:
419:
413:
409:
403:
399:
393:
390:
385:
382:
379:
376:
373:
329:, also called
300:
299:
288:
285:
282:
279:
276:
273:
270:
267:
264:
261:
258:
255:
252:
249:
246:
243:
240:
237:
234:
231:
228:
225:
222:
219:
190:
176:
173:
144:
113:
71:
68:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3183:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3163:
3161:
3146:
3145:
3136:
3134:
3133:
3124:
3123:
3120:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3071:
3069:
3065:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3023:Carl Zeiss AG
3021:
3020:
3018:
3016:Manufacturers
3014:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2967:James Hillier
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2920:
2916:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2838:
2835:
2834:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2783:
2773:
2770:
2766:
2763:
2762:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2744:
2741:
2740:
2739:
2736:
2735:
2733:
2731:
2727:
2721:
2720:Ultrafast SEM
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2689:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2677:Low-energy EM
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2650:
2646:
2643:
2639:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2627:Magnetic lens
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2576:Kikuchi lines
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2553:
2551:
2546:
2542:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2495:
2490:
2488:
2483:
2481:
2476:
2475:
2472:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2443:
2440:
2427:
2423:
2417:
2414:
2409:
2403:
2398:
2397:
2388:
2385:
2380:
2374:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2331:
2328:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2296:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2244:
2241:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2198:
2195:
2190:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2170:
2167:
2161:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2137:
2133:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2088:Talbot Effect
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2044:
2039:
2037:
2031:(see figure).
2030:
2028:
2024:
2013:
2010:
2006:
2002:
2001:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1983:
1968:
1961:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1936:
1931:
1923:
1914:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1894:
1891:
1882:
1870:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1851:
1847:
1837:
1829:
1807:
1800:
1797:
1788:
1777:
1776:
1775:
1769:Gabor defocus
1768:
1766:
1748:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1726:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1701:
1681:
1673:
1672:
1671:
1669:
1662:
1657:
1655:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1608:
1603:
1599:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1578:
1567:
1566:
1565:
1563:
1559:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1541:one flattens
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1508:
1500:
1495:
1487:
1480:
1478:
1476:
1471:
1470:
1464:
1444:
1439:
1435:
1406:
1401:
1391:
1361:
1356:
1346:
1319:
1312:
1307:
1296:
1285:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1249:
1244:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1209:
1198:
1188:
1183:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1165:
1158:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1131:
1127:
1121:
1117:
1111:
1106:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1092:
1085:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1057:
1049:
1045:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1023:
1019:
997:
993:
987:
979:
976:
973:
967:
962:
958:
952:
948:
942:
938:
929:
924:
919:
915:
912:
906:
901:
897:
893:
890:
887:
883:
877:
872:
866:
863:
855:
844:
838:
831:
826:
821:
817:
814:
808:
803:
799:
795:
792:
789:
783:
775:
771:
763:
762:
761:
760:
756:
754:
744:
737:
735:
725:
714:
712:
703:
700:
698:
689:
686:
684:
675:
672:
670:
661:
658:
656:
647:
646:
645:
627:
621:
613:
609:
602:
594:
590:
583:
575:
571:
564:
556:
552:
545:
537:
533:
529:
523:
517:
510:
509:
508:
506:
504:
497:
495:
490:
486:
481:
478:
474:
470:
446:
442:
438:
435:
429:
426:
421:
417:
411:
407:
401:
397:
391:
388:
383:
377:
371:
364:
363:
362:
360:
359:
354:
349:
348:
342:
340:
338:
332:
328:
325:
321:
319:
313:
309:
307:
280:
274:
268:
265:
262:
256:
250:
244:
238:
235:
229:
223:
220:
217:
210:
209:
208:
206:
202:
200:
196:
186:
182:
174:
172:
170:
165:
161:
156:
154:
150:
140:
139:
135:
131:
130:
125:
123:
119:
109:
104:
102:
98:
92:
89:
88:electron wave
85:
76:
69:
67:
65:
60:
58:
54:
50:
45:
41:
34:
29:
19:
3142:
3130:
3084:EM Data Bank
3048:Nion Company
2942:Dennis Gabor
2932:Albert Crewe
2754:
2710:Confocal SEM
2607:Electron gun
2556:Auger effect
2455:(1): 13–22.
2452:
2448:
2442:
2430:. Retrieved
2416:
2395:
2387:
2373:cite journal
2340:
2336:
2330:
2305:
2301:
2295:
2254:
2250:
2243:
2210:
2206:
2197:
2178:
2169:
2144:
2143:
2110:
2034:
2026:
2022:
2016:
2011:
1998:
1992:
1985:
1981:
1975:
1973:
1952:
1950:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1849:
1845:
1839:
1835:
1833:
1772:
1763:
1660:
1658:
1649:
1648:) result in
1644:= 1.97 pm) (
1641:
1636:
1632:
1626:
1561:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1520:
1510:
1502:
1498:
1496:
1492:
1467:
1465:
1334:
1149:
1147:
1033:
1025:
1021:
1014:
1012:
758:
752:
746:
739:
733:
727:
720:
718:
710:
704:
696:
690:
682:
676:
668:
662:
654:
648:
643:
502:
500:
493:
491:
488:
484:
482:
476:
472:
465:
463:
357:
356:
352:
346:
345:
343:
336:
334:
330:
326:
317:
315:
311:
305:
303:
301:
204:
198:
194:
188:
178:
168:
163:
159:
152:
148:
142:
137:
136:
128:
127:
121:
117:
111:
107:
105:
93:
84:interference
81:
61:
51:(0.050
39:
38:
3028:FEI Company
2962:Harald Rose
2952:Ernst Ruska
2641:Microscopes
2549:with matter
2547:interaction
185:aberrations
3160:Categories
3109:Multislice
2925:Developers
2785:Techniques
2530:Microscope
2525:Micrograph
2162:References
2000:Holography
1335:The terms
715:: detector
179:The phase
160:image wave
2977:Max Knoll
2632:Stigmator
2235:135976739
2207:Phil. Mag
2177:(1988) .
1924:λ
1895:−
1879:Δ
1804:Δ
1785:Δ
1709:λ
1609:λ
1591:−
1575:Δ
1499:localized
1433:Δ
1388:Δ
1343:Δ
1282:Δ
1242:Δ
1195:Δ
1166:δ
1103:δ
1100:λ
1097:π
1078:−
1070:
977:λ
971:Δ
949:λ
920:λ
916:α
913:π
902:−
894:
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2738:Cryo-TEM
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2426:Archived
2322:12492230
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2134:Articles
2040:See also
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1695:Scherzer
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