3310:'apple') marks the transition from the West Central German to the Upper German dialects. East Central German is separated from West Central German through having shifted initial p (the "Pund-Fund" line); only far southern East Central German dialects retain initial /pf-/, whereas other East Central German dialects have simplified it to initial /f-/. The shift of root-initial and historically geminated /k/ to /kx/ (and further to /x/, as in
31:
3169:
4673:
4663:
4644:
4625:
4606:
4594:
4584:
4574:
4564:
4554:
4542:
4532:
4522:
4512:
4502:
4487:
4447:
4435:
4425:
4405:
4395:
4383:
4373:
4363:
4353:
4343:
4328:
4288:
4276:
4266:
4236:
4224:
4214:
4204:
4194:
4184:
4169:
4129:
4117:
4098:
4068:
4046:
4036:
4026:
4016:
4001:
3961:
3909:
3887:
3877:
3867:
3857:
3842:
449:) to /d/, is sometimes seen as related to the High German consonant shift. However, it also comes to encompass the other continental West Germanic languages. The relation of this change to the second consonant shift, as well as that of another change, that of initial /x/ to /h/, is disputed. Braune and Reiffenstein discount a connection entirely.
1617:
writing /g/ and /b/ except for the geminated stops (/kk/ and /pp/ rather than /gg/ and /bb/), and in the 10th century, Bavarian also begins to write /g/ and /b/ more often. By the Middle High German period, Bavarian only consistently writes /p/ for single /b/ in word-initial position - the state preserved in modern southern
Bavarian dialects.
4654:
4635:
4616:
4477:
4467:
4457:
4415:
4318:
4308:
4298:
4256:
4246:
4159:
4149:
4139:
4108:
4088:
4078:
4056:
3991:
3981:
3971:
3949:
3939:
3929:
3919:
3897:
3832:
3822:
3812:
3802:
3790:
3780:
3770:
3760:
3750:
3738:
3728:
3718:
3708:
3698:
3683:
3673:
3663:
3653:
3643:
3631:
3621:
3611:
3601:
3591:
3579:
3569:
3559:
3549:
3539:
3153:
predated it; the gemination is usually dated to the 5th century CE. Additionally, Latin loanwords adopted into the language prior to the 6th century display the shift, whereas those adopted from the 8th century onward do not. The relative chronology of the different changes remains poorly understood.
1616:
are most visible in the shift of /d/ to /t/; this is the change with the widest spread and the only one that was not partially reversed in the Old High German period. On the other hand, while early
Bavarian and Alemannic both show a shift of /g b/ to /k p/, by the 9th century in Alemannic reverts to
229:
dialects only experienced a partial shift (other West
Germanic languages experienced no shift). Only southern dialects experience the shift of voiced to voiceless stops, with the shift of /d/ to /t/ found in Upper German and in some Central German dialects, while the shift of /b/ to /p/ and /g/ to
3148:
There is no agreement about the time period in which the High German consonantal shift took place. Its completion is usually dated to just before the earliest attestations of Old High German (8th century CE). The change affects geminate consonants in a different manner than simple consonants,
1380:
to /t p k/. Like the shift to the voiceless stops, the shift to the voiced stops varies by dialect and to some degree by position in the word. In those Upper German dialects that shifted all three stops, there was likely no longer any distinction between voiced and voiceless consonants.
1535:
This change is found most consistently in
Bavarian, where it takes place in all positions. In Alemannic, it is consistently found word finally and word initially, but b often occurs word-internally. /bb/ shifts to /pp/ in all dialects except in (Central German)
3207:
dialects, which have more. The gradually increasing application of the shift from north to south is most extensive in the west. Here, the isoglosses defined by the occurrence of individual shifts are spread out in a fan-like manner, forming the
220:
All High German dialects have experienced at least part of the shift of voiceless stops to fricatives/affricates. The shift of voiceless stops to fricatives/affricates has traditionally been used to distinguish different German dialects:
3104:, pp. 167–168). Although often written as <ʒ> in modern grammars and textbooks, in original Old High German and Middle High German texts, it was usually written <z> and thus not distinguished from the affricate /ts/ (
3194:
Although the boundaries of the dialects have shifted since the Old High German period, the degree to which dialects underwent the High German consonant shift continues to form the basis for differentiating the different modern
4926:
Prior to this shift, the West
Germanic fricatives /ð ƀ ʒ/ had shifted to /d b g/ in all positions except in the Central German Middle Franconian dialect, where /ƀ/ and /ʒ/ remained. In many other German dialects, /g/ and /b/
242:
consonants, only the shift of /d/ to /t/ is found in almost all instances in the modern standard. The shift results in characteristic differences between modern standard German and other
Germanic languages, such as:
1604:
The change is found in
Bavarian and Alemannic, most consistently word-initially, and in Bavarian also word-internally and finally. /gg/ shifts to /kk/ in all dialects except in (Central German) Ripuarian.
5021:
In modern dialects, the shift is further disguised in northern
Bavarian and Alemannic dialects by inner-German lenition, a shift of /t/, /p/, and /k/ to /d/, /b/, and /g/ that takes place after 1350.
3235:
that separates the High German dialects to the south from the Low Saxon and Low
Franconian dialects to the north. Further north, the consonant shift is only found with the adverb
462:
The result of the shift of the voiceless stops /p t k/ depends on their position in the word. The degree to which the stops are shifted also shows considerable variation between
150:
There is no consensus on when the High German consonant shift occurred; it probably began between the 3rd and 5th centuries and was complete before the first written examples in
5726:
Ebert, Robert P.; Reichmann, Oskar; Solms, Hans-Joachim; Wegera, Klaus-Peter (1993). Ebert, Robert P.; Reichmann, Oskar; Solms, Hans-Joachim; Wegera, Klaus-Peter (eds.).
5950:
203:). No shift takes place after a fricative (/sp/, /xt/, /st/, /ft/, etc. all remain unchanged) or in the combination /tr/ (/pr/ and /kr/ are still affected);
652:
Both shifts to /t/ occur in all High German dialects. However, the
Central German Middle Franconian dialects show unshifted final /t/ for neuter pronouns (
5008:
The lack of a return of shifted /t/ (=earlier /d/) to /d/ in those dialects that underwent the shift is likely related to the subsequent shift of /þ/ (=
7895:
154:, the earliest recorded stage of High German, were produced in the 8th century. There is also no consensus on where or how the shift proceeded.
5849:
5770:
5743:
6487:
3219:
The northern border for the occurrence of the shift of /t/ to /(t)s/ in all positions (except in absolute final position in pronouns like
5054:'let'). This phonologically conditioned distribution of shifted and unshifted voiceless stops is highly regular and not the result of
5034:
spoken right where the Benrath and Uerdingen lines meet. Here, next to the South Low Franconian shift of absolute final /k/ to /x/ in
3132:
The pre-Old High German phonemes /d/, /b/, /g/ are the results of an earlier shift of West Germanic /ð/ /ƀ/ and /ʒ/ in all positions (
5038:
etc, intervocalic and root-final /p/, /t/ and /k/ only undergo a shift when preceded by a historically short high or mid vowel (e.g.
147:
of the voiced stopped consonants /d/, /b/ and /g/, was less widespread, with only the devoicing of /d/ being found in most dialects.
5046:'eat'); after long vowels, diphthongs and the low vowels /a/ and /aː/, and also in all other positions, they remain unshifted (e.g.
5943:
6872:
236:
is based mostly on East Central German dialects and thus features many but not all of the shifted forms. In particular, of the
88:
70:
7766:
143:
of the West Germanic voiceless stop consonants /t/, /p/, and /k/, depending on position in a word. A related change, the
7796:
6966:
6928:
6913:
6240:
1467:
This shift is found in Upper German and most Central German, but in Rhine Franconian only in geminates and word finally.
1200:
All dialects shift /k/ to /xx/ after a vowel; only the Upper German Alemannic and Bavarian shift it in other positions:
7636:
6986:
6945:
6935:
5936:
4958:
5781:
1332:/p t k/ remained unshifted in all dialects when following the fricative consonants /s/, /f/, and /x/ (examples: OHG
6152:
7493:
7900:
7771:
7725:
7720:
7644:
7254:
7238:
7117:
6976:
4966:
3150:
43:
7552:
4826:
The shift of voiceless to voiced stops is reversed in many Upper and Central German dialects by a process of
7710:
7654:
7649:
7569:
7242:
7192:
6950:
6492:
6310:
5994:
5982:
113:
157:
The degree of shift varies within High German. Dialects that experienced the most shift are referred to as
7715:
7197:
7163:
6781:
6597:
6457:
6297:
6192:
5793:
Iverson, Gregory K.; Salmons, Joseph C. (2006). "Fundamental Regularities in the Second Consonant Shift".
5009:
1142:
1052:
689:
474:
446:
97:
84:
80:
66:
470:
dialects. In particular, the shift of /p/ and /k/ in initial position is subject to dialectal variation.
206:
the pre-Old High German voiced stop consonants /d/, /b/, and /g/ (Proto-West Germanic /ð/, /β/, and /ɣ/)
7873:
7837:
7105:
7098:
7050:
6820:
6791:
6760:
6723:
6648:
6497:
6405:
6318:
6179:
6141:
35:
7338:
6213:
3294:
etc. characterizes Rhine Franconian. The shift of root-initial and historically geminated /p/ to /pf/ (
858:
In Central German Middle and most Rhine Franconian dialects, the shift only takes place after a vowel:
7842:
7822:
7791:
7664:
7524:
7498:
7399:
7270:
7088:
6680:
6507:
6469:
6464:
6338:
6285:
6043:
5705:
Davis, Garry W. (2005). "Entstehung und Alter der Hochdeutschen Lautverschiebung in Wermelskirchen".
5059:
3252:
3181:
779:
to /ff/ after a vowel, simplifying to /f/ at the end of a word, as well as often after a long vowel:
7905:
7781:
7328:
7173:
7017:
6971:
6905:
6658:
6420:
6305:
6218:
6016:
4957:
In Middle High German, the series /nt/ mostly changes to /nd/, as found in modern standard German:
186:
166:
165:. Different dialects within Upper and Central German also received different levels of shift, with
3100:
The precise value of this sound is unknown, but it was distinct from the sound written <s> (
7827:
7679:
7669:
7624:
7386:
7313:
7210:
7055:
7030:
7025:
6918:
6746:
6631:
6452:
6230:
6225:
6204:
6165:
5969:
5959:
5714:
3275:
3271:
7751:
3322:
Scope of the High German consonant shift in the major continental West Germanic dialect groups (
6670:
4931:
word internally; however, this appears to be later development, as shown by their partaking in
38:
are subdivided into Upper German (green) and Central German (cyan), and are distinguished from
7801:
7600:
7516:
7509:
7464:
7408:
7168:
7158:
7141:
7136:
7040:
6923:
6802:
6602:
6563:
6543:
6381:
6273:
6255:
6107:
5845:
5766:
5739:
5055:
116:
58:
lines – are marked in black. This map shows the modern boundaries of the languages after 1945.
5841:
3231:) and the shift of /p/ and /k/ to /f/ and /x/ in intervocalic and root-final position is the
1145:
after a vowel, simplifying to /x/ at the end of a word, as well as often after a long vowel:
7756:
7547:
7481:
7437:
7432:
7381:
7373:
7178:
7146:
7093:
7082:
6995:
6867:
6862:
6704:
6643:
6433:
6415:
6250:
6011:
6003:
5908:
5864:
5837:
5802:
5758:
5731:
4807:
4788:
682:). Beginning in the 13th century, the fricative /ʒ/ merges with /s/ in most German dialects.
1626:
Examples of consonant changes resulting from the High German consonant shift, according to
7786:
7579:
7486:
7469:
7454:
7449:
7442:
7151:
7060:
7045:
7000:
6852:
6815:
6807:
6786:
6773:
6753:
6739:
6502:
6479:
6410:
6400:
6392:
6172:
4932:
3196:
233:
151:
7746:
7867:
7761:
7741:
7693:
7585:
7459:
7129:
6896:
6835:
6614:
6571:
6528:
6445:
6440:
6329:
6279:
6130:
6081:
6036:
6029:
5031:
4928:
4803:
3256:
3200:
3175:
1350:
Engl. 'night'). /t/ likewise remained unshifted in the combination /tr/ (examples: OHG
467:
226:
190:
162:
140:
128:
124:
17:
422:), Modern Standard German has retained unshifted /p t k/ only after a fricative (e.g.
7889:
7832:
7817:
7659:
7415:
7366:
7183:
7122:
7035:
6981:
6940:
6878:
6825:
6709:
6636:
6066:
4794:
30:
7686:
7110:
7074:
7007:
6830:
6653:
6626:
6609:
6553:
6512:
6094:
6073:
3278:
dialects with the latter having retained unshifted /p/. The shift of /t/ to /s/ in
3232:
3204:
3168:
463:
222:
181:
In most accounts, the High German consonant shift consists of two related changes:
158:
109:
51:
7333:
1039:
Additionally, some Middle Franconian dialects retain final /p/ in the preposition
7593:
7503:
7476:
7348:
7294:
7202:
6884:
6845:
6428:
6123:
6087:
6022:
4878:
The simplification of /lpf/ and /rpf/ to /lf/ and /rf/ began in the 9th century.
3213:
3163:
194:
170:
136:
120:
55:
7343:
7323:
6688:
6358:
6059:
5806:
132:
39:
3154:
It is usually argued to have begun with /t/, then moved to /p/, then to /k/.
7529:
7392:
7277:
6840:
6621:
6576:
6548:
6374:
1377:
207:
144:
7353:
173:, a gradual reduction of which consonants are shifted, as one moves north.
5912:
5868:
5735:
7318:
6666:
4827:
76:
47:
5718:
7359:
6955:
6857:
3239:'also' and a handful of pronouns that have final /k/ shifted to /x/ (
6662:
5928:
5786:
Wörterbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft (WSK) Online
3047:
3001:
2953:
2912:
2859:
2812:
2767:
2725:
2675:
2629:
2586:
2542:
2502:
2443:
2399:
2358:
2307:
2261:
2221:
2172:
2127:
2087:
2031:
1988:
1944:
1898:
1854:
1810:
1764:
1720:
1677:
1584:
1559:
1515:
1490:
1447:
1426:
1401:
1357:
1351:
1345:
1339:
1333:
1316:
1309:
1293:
1286:
1270:
1263:
1247:
1180:
1155:
1122:
1097:
1072:
1040:
1020:
1013:
997:
990:
974:
967:
951:
944:
928:
921:
905:
898:
838:
813:
789:
759:
734:
709:
677:
671:
665:
659:
653:
632:
607:
582:
544:
519:
494:
5762:
5542:
5540:
5491:
5489:
5487:
6580:
5905:
Grundzüge deutscher Sprachgeschichte. Diachronie des Sprachsystems
3167:
29:
5878:
A History of German: What the Past Reveals about Today's Language
5435:
5433:
5431:
5429:
5234:
5232:
5230:
5228:
398:
Excluding loanwords from Low German and foreign borrowings (e.g.
5757:. Studies in Germanic Linguistics. Vol. 3. John Benjamins.
3318:) occurs in the southern part of the Upper German dialect area.
2987:
2893:
2477:
2065:
572:
at the end of a word, as well as frequently after a long vowel:
7622:
7236:
5980:
5932:
5610:
5608:
5606:
1062:
to /k͡x/ initially, in geminates, and after another consonant:
699:
to /p͡f/ initially, in geminates, and after another consonant:
484:
to /t͡s/ initially, in geminates, and after another consonant:
5652:
5650:
4736:/pf/ only in the south, northern and central dialects have /f/
197:
to /ts/, /pf/, /kx/, depending on their position in the word (
161:, whereas those that only experienced some are referred to as
27:
Series of sound changes affecting some West Germanic languages
5557:
5555:
5285:
5283:
4727:
Only in the southeastern half of the Moselle Franconian area
5625:
5623:
225:
dialects experienced the greatest degree of shift, whereas
5887:
Language contact and the origins of the Germanic languages
5462:
5460:
5377:
5375:
5373:
4754:
Only in the southern part, in Swiss varieties mostly /x/
135:, which experienced no shift. The shift resulted in the
5823:
Paul, Hermann; Wiehl, Peter; Grosse, Siegfried (1998).
4745:
A small transitional area in Thuringia has shifted /pf/
123:
from other continental West Germanic languages, namely
5404:
5402:
5324:
5322:
5755:
A Comparative Grammar of the Early Germanic Languages
5101:
5099:
5097:
5095:
5093:
210:
to the voiceless stop consonants /t/, /p/, and /k/ (
75:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
7810:
7734:
7703:
7635:
7567:
7425:
7306:
7262:
7253:
7073:
7016:
6904:
6895:
6800:
6772:
6731:
6722:
6697:
6679:
6590:
6562:
6536:
6527:
6478:
6391:
6366:
6357:
6296:
6191:
6140:
6115:
6106:
6002:
5993:
5143:
5141:
5116:
5114:
3203:dialects, which have fewer shifted consonants, and
5546:
5495:
5393:
5364:
5313:
5250:
3105:
3101:
230:/k/ is only found consistently in (Old) Bavarian.
5896:Germanisch-deutsche Sprachgeschichte im Überblick
5058:; it even occurs in the conjugation paradigms of
3069:
3021:
2975:
2932:
2881:
2832:
2789:
2746:
2697:
2649:
2608:
2564:
1832:
1784:
1578:
1553:
1509:
1484:
1441:
1420:
1395:
1302:
1279:
1256:
1233:
1174:
1149:
1116:
1091:
1066:
1006:
983:
960:
937:
914:
891:
832:
807:
783:
753:
728:
703:
626:
601:
576:
538:
513:
488:
89:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
5668:
5439:
5352:
5340:
5238:
5030:A special case is observed with the dialect of
3262:The shift of /p/ to /f/ after consonants (e.g.
3199:, and, in particular, for the division between
3109:
2522:
2465:
2419:
2378:
2329:
2283:
2241:
2194:
2148:
2107:
2051:
2010:
1966:
1918:
1876:
1742:
1699:
112:) that took place in the southern parts of the
5274:
3128:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3120:
3118:
5944:
4830:, beginning around 1300 in parts of Bavarian.
4796:
389:
364:
339:
314:
289:
264:
8:
5920:Young, Christopher; Gloning, Thomas (2004).
5818:(10 ed.). Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag.
5707:Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik
5696:Braune, Wilhelm; Reiffenstein, Ingo (2004).
5680:
5561:
5519:
5507:
5219:
5195:
3058:
3011:
2964:
2922:
2870:
2822:
2778:
2735:
2686:
2639:
2597:
2553:
2512:
2454:
2409:
2368:
2318:
2272:
2231:
2183:
2138:
2097:
2041:
1999:
1955:
1908:
1865:
1821:
1774:
1731:
1688:
1611:
1594:
1569:
1525:
1500:
1457:
1432:
1411:
1371:
1240:
1190:
1165:
1132:
1107:
1082:
848:
823:
799:
769:
744:
719:
642:
617:
592:
554:
529:
504:
433:
423:
411:
405:
399:
373:
348:
323:
298:
273:
248:
237:
211:
198:
189:voiceless stop consonants /t/, /p/, and /k/
5834:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics
5289:
5207:
5012:) to /d/ throughout the West Germanic area.
417:
383:
358:
333:
308:
283:
258:
7632:
7619:
7259:
7250:
7233:
6901:
6728:
6533:
6363:
6112:
5999:
5990:
5977:
5951:
5937:
5929:
4935:as stop consonants rather than fricatives.
4802:, a similar evolution differentiating the
2078:Initially, after consonants, and geminated
1645:Proto-Germanic/Pre-Old High German Phoneme
5656:
5629:
5614:
4996:
4983:
4945:
4914:
4901:
4888:
4866:
4853:
4840:
3323:
1631:
3320:
1624:
1213:Different outcomes of /k/, according to
1211:
871:Different outcomes of /p/, according to
869:
5573:
5531:
5478:
5466:
5381:
5301:
5262:
5183:
5171:
5159:
5132:
5089:
4819:
4684:
3093:
1214:
872:
5880:(2 ed.). Oxford University Press.
5842:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.939
5832:Pickl, Simon (2023). "(High) German".
5597:
5585:
1627:
1431:(no English equivalent, modern German
5641:
5147:
5120:
5105:
7:
5451:
5420:
5408:
5328:
3133:
344:(German /pf/ vs. other Germanic /p/)
294:(German /ts/ vs. other Germanic /t/)
79:. For the distinction between ,
6513:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German
432:) or in the combination /tr/ (e.g.
394:(German /t/ vs. other Germanic /d/)
369:(German /x/ vs. other Germanic /k/)
319:(German /f/ vs. other Germanic /p/)
269:(German /s/ vs. other Germanic /t/)
119:. The shift is used to distinguish
7872:Languages between parentheses are
445:Another change, the shift of /þ/ (
25:
5922:A History of German Through Texts
3534:Low Saxon / North Low Franconian
1654:modern standard German equivalent
1376:, the voiced consonsants /d b g/
5861:Geschichte der deutschen Sprache
4671:
4661:
4652:
4642:
4633:
4623:
4614:
4604:
4592:
4582:
4572:
4562:
4552:
4540:
4530:
4520:
4510:
4500:
4485:
4475:
4465:
4455:
4445:
4433:
4423:
4413:
4403:
4393:
4381:
4371:
4361:
4351:
4341:
4326:
4316:
4306:
4296:
4286:
4274:
4264:
4254:
4244:
4234:
4222:
4212:
4202:
4192:
4182:
4167:
4157:
4147:
4137:
4127:
4115:
4106:
4096:
4086:
4076:
4066:
4054:
4044:
4034:
4024:
4014:
3999:
3989:
3979:
3969:
3959:
3947:
3937:
3927:
3917:
3907:
3895:
3885:
3875:
3865:
3855:
3840:
3830:
3820:
3810:
3800:
3788:
3778:
3768:
3758:
3748:
3736:
3726:
3716:
3706:
3696:
3681:
3671:
3661:
3651:
3641:
3629:
3619:
3609:
3599:
3589:
3577:
3567:
3557:
3547:
3537:
169:exhibiting what is known as the
5816:dtv-Atlas zur deutschen Sprache
5795:Journal of Germanic Linguistics
108:is a phonological development (
106:second Germanic consonant shift
71:International Phonetic Alphabet
7896:History of the German language
7876:of the language on their left.
5547:Braune & Reiffenstein 2004
5496:Braune & Reiffenstein 2004
5394:Braune & Reiffenstein 2004
5365:Braune & Reiffenstein 2004
5314:Braune & Reiffenstein 2004
5251:Braune & Reiffenstein 2004
3188:4 & 5 Moselle Franconian,
3106:Braune & Reiffenstein 2004
3102:Braune & Reiffenstein 2004
568:after a vowel, simplifying to
1:
7767:Germanic substrate hypothesis
5728:Frühneuhochdeutsche Grammatik
5669:Paul, Wiehl & Grosse 1998
5440:Paul, Wiehl & Grosse 1998
5353:Paul, Wiehl & Grosse 1998
5341:Paul, Wiehl & Grosse 1998
5239:Paul, Wiehl & Grosse 1998
4718:Only in *ik, *dik, *mik, *auk
3110:Paul, Wiehl & Grosse 1998
7797:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
6488:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
5903:Sonderegger, Stefan (1979).
5898:(4 ed.). J. B. Metzler.
5825:Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik
7777:High German consonant shift
5907:. Vol. 1. de Gruyter.
5894:Schweikle, Günther (1996).
5863:(11 ed.). de Gruyter.
1366:Shifts to voiced consonants
102:High German consonant shift
7922:
6315:Westlauwers–Terschellings
5968:According to contemporary
5859:Polenz, Peter von (2020).
5275:Iverson & Salmons 2006
4682:
3161:
2492:
2489:
1664:
1660:modern English equivalent
193:to /s/, /f/, /x/, or else
7859:
7631:
7618:
7540:
7494:Southern Schleswig Danish
7249:
7232:
5989:
5976:
5966:
5885:Schrijver, Peter (2014).
5807:10.1017/S147054270600002X
5782:"Zweite Lautverschiebung"
5698:Althochdeutsche Grammatik
4772:Only in the southern part
4763:Only in the southern part
3158:Geographical distribution
2907:
2904:
2720:
2717:
2498:
2495:
2353:
2350:
2217:
2214:
2083:
2080:
2077:
1940:
1937:
1806:
1803:
1673:
1670:
1667:
458:Shifts to voiceless stops
7772:West Germanic gemination
7726:Ancient Belgian language
7721:Germanic parent language
7665:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
6787:Austrian Standard German
5876:Salmons, Joseph (2018).
5827:(24 ed.). Niemeyer.
5780:Höder, Steffan (2015) .
5700:(15 ed.). Niemeyer.
5562:Young & Gloning 2004
5508:Young & Gloning 2004
5220:Young & Gloning 2004
5196:Young & Gloning 2004
5186:, pp. 204, 261–262.
3259:as its northern border.
3186:3 Ripuarian Franconian,
3151:West Germanic gemination
44:Low Franconian languages
4970:
4962:
4691:Only in *wat, *dat etc.
3255:dialect area, with the
3070:
3048:
3022:
3002:
2988:
2976:
2954:
2933:
2913:
2894:
2882:
2860:
2833:
2813:
2790:
2768:
2747:
2726:
2698:
2676:
2650:
2630:
2609:
2587:
2565:
2543:
2523:
2503:
2478:
2466:
2444:
2420:
2400:
2379:
2359:
2330:
2308:
2284:
2262:
2242:
2222:
2195:
2173:
2149:
2128:
2108:
2088:
2066:
2052:
2032:
2011:
1989:
1967:
1945:
1919:
1899:
1877:
1855:
1833:
1811:
1785:
1765:
1743:
1721:
1700:
1678:
1648:Old High German Phoneme
1585:
1579:
1560:
1554:
1516:
1510:
1491:
1485:
1448:
1442:
1427:
1421:
1402:
1396:
1358:
1352:
1346:
1340:
1334:
1317:
1310:
1303:
1294:
1287:
1280:
1271:
1264:
1257:
1248:
1234:
1181:
1175:
1156:
1150:
1123:
1117:
1098:
1092:
1073:
1067:
1041:
1021:
1014:
1007:
998:
991:
984:
975:
968:
961:
952:
945:
938:
929:
922:
915:
906:
899:
892:
839:
833:
814:
808:
790:
784:
760:
754:
735:
729:
710:
704:
678:
672:
666:
660:
654:
633:
627:
608:
602:
583:
577:
545:
539:
520:
514:
495:
489:
67:phonetic transcriptions
18:High German sound shift
7833:Preterite-present verb
7716:Proto-Germanic grammar
7670:North Sea (Ingvaeonic)
6782:German Standard German
6458:East Frisian Low Saxon
5814:König, Werner (1994).
4913:The examples are from
4887:The examples are from
4852:The examples are from
4797:
3227:and the neuter ending
3191:
3059:
3012:
2965:
2923:
2871:
2823:
2779:
2736:
2687:
2640:
2598:
2554:
2513:
2455:
2410:
2369:
2319:
2273:
2232:
2184:
2139:
2098:
2042:
2000:
1956:
1909:
1866:
1822:
1775:
1732:
1689:
1612:
1595:
1570:
1526:
1501:
1458:
1433:
1412:
1372:
1241:
1191:
1166:
1133:
1108:
1083:
849:
824:
800:
770:
745:
720:
643:
618:
593:
555:
530:
505:
434:
424:
418:
412:
410:, a doublet of German
406:
400:
390:
384:
374:
365:
359:
349:
340:
334:
324:
315:
309:
299:
290:
284:
274:
265:
259:
249:
238:
234:Modern standard German
212:
199:
98:historical linguistics
64:This article contains
59:
7838:Grammatischer Wechsel
6821:Namibian Black German
6792:Swiss Standard German
6761:Early New High German
6319:Mainland West Frisian
6180:Harlingerland Frisian
5913:10.1515/9783110842005
5869:10.1515/9783110485660
5736:10.1515/9783110920130
3693:South Low Franconian
3171:
1630:, pp. 44–45 and
36:High German languages
33:
7843:Indo-European ablaut
7823:Germanic strong verb
7792:Germanic spirant law
6929:Southeast Limburgish
6425:Gelders-Overijssels
6054:Irish Middle English
6044:Early Modern English
5423:, pp. 134, 136.
4700:In most dialects /f/
4338:East Central German
3253:South Low Franconian
3182:South Low Franconian
1657:Old Saxon equivalent
1651:Old High German word
453:Detailed description
127:(including standard
7811:Synchronic features
7782:Germanic a-mutation
7735:Diachronic features
7085:in the broad sense
7018:East Central German
6972:Lorraine Franconian
6946:Transylvanian Saxon
6906:West Central German
6681:East Low Franconian
6591:West Low Franconian
5753:Fulk, R.D. (2018).
5644:, pp. 266–268.
5617:, pp. 101–103.
5534:, pp. 261–262.
5454:, pp. 134–135.
5343:, pp. 162–163.
5265:, pp. 119–121.
5210:, pp. 124–126.
5174:, pp. 124–125.
5162:, pp. 119–120.
4011:Moselle Franconian
3327:
3326:, pp. 97–104)
1635:
1634:, pp. 129–131
1610:The effects of the
1356:Engl. 'tread', OHG
1218:
876:
187:Proto-West Germanic
177:General description
167:West Central German
7828:Germanic weak verb
7637:Language subgroups
6987:Pennsylvania Dutch
6936:Moselle Franconian
6914:Central Franconian
6747:Middle High German
6498:Central Pomeranian
6453:Northern Low Saxon
6166:Wangerooge Frisian
5960:Germanic languages
5659:, pp. 99–100.
4959:Middle High German
3321:
3272:Moselle Franconian
3210:Rheinischer Fächer
3192:
3190:6 Rhine Franconian
1625:
1613:Medienverschiebung
1558: : Upper OHG
1489: : Upper OHG
1373:Medienverschiebung
1362:Engl. 'bitter' ).
1344:Engl. 'stone, OHG
1338:Engl. 'spin', OHG
1212:
1096: : Upper OHG
1071: : Upper OHG
870:
566:⟨ʒʒ⟩
416:, both from Latin
239:Medienverschiebung
213:Medienverschiebung
200:Tenuesverschiebung
60:
7883:
7882:
7868:extinct languages
7855:
7854:
7851:
7850:
7802:Great Vowel Shift
7614:
7613:
7610:
7609:
7563:
7562:
7409:Greenlandic Norse
7228:
7227:
7224:
7223:
7220:
7219:
7159:Southern Bavarian
7142:Northern Bavarian
7118:Highest Alemannic
7069:
7068:
6803:standard variants
6718:
6717:
6564:Standard variants
6523:
6522:
6382:Middle Low German
6353:
6352:
6349:
6348:
6153:Saterland Frisian
5851:978-0-19-938465-5
5772:978-90-272-6312-4
5745:978-3-484-10672-7
5681:Ebert et al. 1993
5520:Ebert et al. 1993
5510:, pp. 32–33.
5056:lexical diffusion
4780:
4779:
4179:Rhine Franconian
3270:'help') sets off
3172:The Rhenish fan:
3090:
3089:
1370:In the so-called
1324:
1323:
1228:Far southern OHG
1028:
1027:
883:(most) Franconian
570:⟨ʒ⟩
117:dialect continuum
42:(yellow) and the
16:(Redirected from
7913:
7660:Elbe (Irminonic)
7633:
7620:
7548:Mainland Gutnish
7438:Swedish dialects
7400:Middle Icelandic
7374:Middle Norwegian
7263:Historical forms
7260:
7251:
7234:
7193:South Franconian
7179:Hutterite German
7147:Central Bavarian
6967:Rhine Franconian
6902:
6732:Historical forms
6729:
6644:Surinamese Dutch
6537:Historical forms
6534:
6367:Historical forms
6364:
6116:Historical forms
6113:
6000:
5991:
5978:
5953:
5946:
5939:
5930:
5925:
5916:
5899:
5890:
5881:
5872:
5855:
5828:
5819:
5810:
5789:
5776:
5749:
5722:
5701:
5684:
5678:
5672:
5666:
5660:
5654:
5645:
5639:
5633:
5627:
5618:
5612:
5601:
5600:, p. 47–48.
5595:
5589:
5588:, p. 46-48.
5583:
5577:
5571:
5565:
5559:
5550:
5544:
5535:
5529:
5523:
5517:
5511:
5505:
5499:
5493:
5482:
5476:
5470:
5464:
5455:
5449:
5443:
5437:
5424:
5418:
5412:
5406:
5397:
5391:
5385:
5379:
5368:
5362:
5356:
5350:
5344:
5338:
5332:
5326:
5317:
5311:
5305:
5299:
5293:
5290:Sonderegger 1979
5287:
5278:
5272:
5266:
5260:
5254:
5248:
5242:
5236:
5223:
5217:
5211:
5208:Sonderegger 1979
5205:
5199:
5193:
5187:
5181:
5175:
5169:
5163:
5157:
5151:
5145:
5136:
5130:
5124:
5118:
5109:
5103:
5079:
5028:
5022:
5019:
5013:
5011:
5006:
5000:
4993:
4987:
4980:
4974:
4955:
4949:
4942:
4936:
4924:
4918:
4911:
4905:
4898:
4892:
4885:
4879:
4876:
4870:
4863:
4857:
4850:
4844:
4837:
4831:
4824:
4808:Standard Italian
4800:
4789:Glottalic theory
4773:
4770:
4764:
4761:
4755:
4752:
4746:
4743:
4737:
4734:
4728:
4725:
4719:
4716:
4710:
4707:
4701:
4698:
4692:
4689:
4678:
4675:
4674:
4668:
4665:
4664:
4659:
4656:
4655:
4649:
4646:
4645:
4640:
4637:
4636:
4630:
4627:
4626:
4621:
4618:
4617:
4611:
4608:
4607:
4599:
4596:
4595:
4589:
4586:
4585:
4579:
4576:
4575:
4569:
4566:
4565:
4559:
4556:
4555:
4547:
4544:
4543:
4537:
4534:
4533:
4527:
4524:
4523:
4517:
4514:
4513:
4507:
4504:
4503:
4492:
4489:
4488:
4482:
4479:
4478:
4472:
4469:
4468:
4462:
4459:
4458:
4452:
4449:
4448:
4440:
4437:
4436:
4430:
4427:
4426:
4420:
4417:
4416:
4410:
4407:
4406:
4400:
4397:
4396:
4388:
4385:
4384:
4378:
4375:
4374:
4368:
4365:
4364:
4358:
4355:
4354:
4348:
4345:
4344:
4333:
4330:
4329:
4323:
4320:
4319:
4313:
4310:
4309:
4303:
4300:
4299:
4293:
4290:
4289:
4281:
4278:
4277:
4271:
4268:
4267:
4261:
4258:
4257:
4251:
4248:
4247:
4241:
4238:
4237:
4229:
4226:
4225:
4219:
4216:
4215:
4209:
4206:
4205:
4199:
4196:
4195:
4189:
4186:
4185:
4174:
4171:
4170:
4164:
4161:
4160:
4154:
4151:
4150:
4144:
4141:
4140:
4134:
4131:
4130:
4122:
4119:
4118:
4113:
4110:
4109:
4103:
4100:
4099:
4093:
4090:
4089:
4083:
4080:
4079:
4073:
4070:
4069:
4061:
4058:
4057:
4051:
4048:
4047:
4041:
4038:
4037:
4031:
4028:
4027:
4021:
4018:
4017:
4006:
4003:
4002:
3996:
3993:
3992:
3986:
3983:
3982:
3976:
3973:
3972:
3966:
3963:
3962:
3954:
3951:
3950:
3944:
3941:
3940:
3934:
3931:
3930:
3924:
3921:
3920:
3914:
3911:
3910:
3902:
3899:
3898:
3892:
3889:
3888:
3882:
3879:
3878:
3872:
3869:
3868:
3862:
3859:
3858:
3847:
3844:
3843:
3837:
3834:
3833:
3827:
3824:
3823:
3817:
3814:
3813:
3807:
3804:
3803:
3795:
3792:
3791:
3785:
3782:
3781:
3775:
3772:
3771:
3765:
3762:
3761:
3755:
3752:
3751:
3743:
3740:
3739:
3733:
3730:
3729:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3713:
3710:
3709:
3703:
3700:
3699:
3688:
3685:
3684:
3678:
3675:
3674:
3668:
3665:
3664:
3658:
3655:
3654:
3648:
3645:
3644:
3636:
3633:
3632:
3626:
3623:
3622:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3606:
3603:
3602:
3596:
3593:
3592:
3584:
3581:
3580:
3574:
3571:
3570:
3564:
3561:
3560:
3554:
3551:
3550:
3544:
3541:
3540:
3528:
3524:
3515:
3511:
3502:
3498:
3489:
3485:
3476:
3472:
3461:
3457:
3448:
3444:
3435:
3431:
3422:
3418:
3409:
3405:
3394:
3390:
3381:
3377:
3368:
3364:
3355:
3351:
3342:
3338:
3328:
3149:indicating that
3137:
3130:
3113:
3098:
3077:
3066:
3055:
3028:
3018:
3008:
2995:
2983:
2972:
2961:
2939:
2929:
2919:
2900:
2889:
2878:
2867:
2839:
2829:
2819:
2797:
2786:
2775:
2753:
2743:
2732:
2705:
2694:
2683:
2656:
2646:
2636:
2616:
2605:
2594:
2572:
2561:
2550:
2529:
2519:
2509:
2485:
2473:
2462:
2451:
2426:
2416:
2406:
2385:
2375:
2365:
2337:
2326:
2315:
2291:
2280:
2269:
2248:
2238:
2228:
2202:
2191:
2180:
2156:
2145:
2135:
2114:
2104:
2094:
2072:
2058:
2048:
2038:
2018:
2007:
1996:
1974:
1963:
1952:
1925:
1915:
1905:
1884:
1873:
1862:
1840:
1829:
1818:
1791:
1781:
1771:
1750:
1739:
1728:
1707:
1696:
1685:
1636:
1632:Schweikle (1996)
1621:Table of changes
1615:
1598:
1593:, modern German
1588:
1582:
1573:
1568:, modern German
1563:
1557:
1529:
1524:, modern German
1519:
1513:
1504:
1499:, modern German
1494:
1488:
1461:
1456:, modern German
1451:
1445:
1436:
1430:
1424:
1415:
1410:, modern German
1405:
1399:
1375:
1361:
1355:
1349:
1343:
1337:
1320:
1313:
1306:
1297:
1290:
1283:
1274:
1267:
1260:
1251:
1244:
1237:
1219:
1194:
1189:, modern German
1184:
1178:
1169:
1164:, modern German
1159:
1153:
1144:
1136:
1131:, modern German
1126:
1120:
1111:
1106:, modern German
1101:
1095:
1086:
1081:, modern German
1076:
1070:
1054:
1044:
1024:
1017:
1010:
1001:
994:
987:
978:
971:
964:
955:
948:
941:
932:
925:
918:
909:
902:
895:
877:
852:
847:, modern German
842:
836:
827:
822:, modern German
817:
811:
803:
798:, modern German
793:
787:
773:
768:, modern German
763:
757:
748:
743:, modern German
738:
732:
723:
718:, modern German
713:
707:
691:
681:
675:
669:
663:
657:
646:
641:, modern German
636:
630:
621:
616:, modern German
611:
605:
596:
591:, modern German
586:
580:
571:
567:
558:
553:, modern German
548:
542:
533:
528:, moderm German
523:
517:
508:
503:, modern German
498:
492:
476:
448:
437:
427:
421:
415:
409:
403:
393:
387:
377:
368:
362:
352:
343:
337:
327:
318:
312:
302:
293:
287:
277:
268:
262:
252:
241:
215:
202:
86:
82:
21:
7921:
7920:
7916:
7915:
7914:
7912:
7911:
7910:
7901:Old High German
7886:
7885:
7884:
7879:
7847:
7806:
7787:Germanic umlaut
7752:Holtzmann's law
7730:
7699:
7627:
7606:
7559:
7536:
7470:South Jutlandic
7455:Danish dialects
7421:
7302:
7245:
7216:
7198:East Franconian
7152:Viennese German
7065:
7046:Silesian German
7012:
7001:Central Hessian
6891:
6816:Namibian German
6805:
6796:
6774:Standard German
6768:
6754:New High German
6740:Old High German
6714:
6693:
6675:
6586:
6558:
6519:
6503:East Pomeranian
6493:Brandenburgisch
6480:East Low German
6474:
6401:Dutch Low Saxon
6393:West Low German
6387:
6345:
6311:Schiermonnikoog
6292:
6187:
6173:Wursten Frisian
6136:
6102:
5985:
5972:
5962:
5957:
5919:
5902:
5893:
5884:
5875:
5858:
5852:
5831:
5822:
5813:
5792:
5779:
5773:
5752:
5746:
5725:
5704:
5695:
5692:
5687:
5679:
5675:
5667:
5663:
5655:
5648:
5640:
5636:
5628:
5621:
5613:
5604:
5596:
5592:
5584:
5580:
5572:
5568:
5560:
5553:
5545:
5538:
5530:
5526:
5518:
5514:
5506:
5502:
5494:
5485:
5477:
5473:
5465:
5458:
5450:
5446:
5438:
5427:
5419:
5415:
5407:
5400:
5392:
5388:
5380:
5371:
5363:
5359:
5351:
5347:
5339:
5335:
5327:
5320:
5312:
5308:
5300:
5296:
5288:
5281:
5273:
5269:
5261:
5257:
5249:
5245:
5237:
5226:
5218:
5214:
5206:
5202:
5194:
5190:
5182:
5178:
5170:
5166:
5158:
5154:
5146:
5139:
5131:
5127:
5119:
5112:
5104:
5091:
5087:
5082:
5029:
5025:
5020:
5016:
5007:
5003:
4994:
4990:
4981:
4977:
4967:Old High German
4956:
4952:
4943:
4939:
4933:final devoicing
4925:
4921:
4912:
4908:
4899:
4895:
4886:
4882:
4877:
4873:
4864:
4860:
4851:
4847:
4838:
4834:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4804:Tuscan dialects
4785:
4776:
4771:
4767:
4762:
4758:
4753:
4749:
4744:
4740:
4735:
4731:
4726:
4722:
4717:
4713:
4708:
4704:
4699:
4695:
4690:
4686:
4676:
4672:
4666:
4662:
4657:
4653:
4647:
4643:
4638:
4634:
4628:
4624:
4619:
4615:
4609:
4605:
4597:
4593:
4587:
4583:
4577:
4573:
4567:
4563:
4557:
4553:
4545:
4541:
4535:
4531:
4525:
4521:
4515:
4511:
4505:
4501:
4490:
4486:
4480:
4476:
4470:
4466:
4460:
4456:
4450:
4446:
4438:
4434:
4428:
4424:
4418:
4414:
4408:
4404:
4398:
4394:
4386:
4382:
4376:
4372:
4366:
4362:
4356:
4352:
4346:
4342:
4331:
4327:
4321:
4317:
4311:
4307:
4301:
4297:
4291:
4287:
4279:
4275:
4269:
4265:
4259:
4255:
4249:
4245:
4239:
4235:
4227:
4223:
4217:
4213:
4207:
4203:
4197:
4193:
4187:
4183:
4172:
4168:
4162:
4158:
4152:
4148:
4142:
4138:
4132:
4128:
4120:
4116:
4111:
4107:
4101:
4097:
4091:
4087:
4081:
4077:
4071:
4067:
4059:
4055:
4049:
4045:
4039:
4035:
4029:
4025:
4019:
4015:
4004:
4000:
3994:
3990:
3984:
3980:
3974:
3970:
3964:
3960:
3952:
3948:
3942:
3938:
3932:
3928:
3922:
3918:
3912:
3908:
3900:
3896:
3890:
3886:
3880:
3876:
3870:
3866:
3860:
3856:
3845:
3841:
3835:
3831:
3825:
3821:
3815:
3811:
3805:
3801:
3793:
3789:
3783:
3779:
3773:
3769:
3763:
3759:
3753:
3749:
3741:
3737:
3731:
3727:
3721:
3717:
3711:
3707:
3701:
3697:
3686:
3682:
3676:
3672:
3666:
3662:
3656:
3652:
3646:
3642:
3634:
3630:
3624:
3620:
3614:
3610:
3604:
3600:
3594:
3590:
3582:
3578:
3572:
3568:
3562:
3558:
3552:
3548:
3542:
3538:
3526:
3522:
3520:
3513:
3509:
3507:
3500:
3496:
3494:
3487:
3483:
3481:
3474:
3470:
3468:
3459:
3455:
3453:
3446:
3442:
3440:
3433:
3429:
3427:
3420:
3416:
3414:
3407:
3403:
3401:
3392:
3388:
3386:
3379:
3375:
3373:
3366:
3362:
3360:
3353:
3349:
3347:
3340:
3336:
3334:
3197:German dialects
3189:
3187:
3185:
3179:
3173:
3166:
3160:
3146:
3141:
3140:
3136:, p. 134).
3131:
3116:
3099:
3095:
1623:
1368:
569:
565:
460:
455:
179:
152:Old High German
94:
93:
92:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7919:
7917:
7909:
7908:
7903:
7898:
7888:
7887:
7881:
7880:
7878:
7877:
7870:
7860:
7857:
7856:
7853:
7852:
7849:
7848:
7846:
7845:
7840:
7835:
7830:
7825:
7820:
7814:
7812:
7808:
7807:
7805:
7804:
7799:
7794:
7789:
7784:
7779:
7774:
7769:
7764:
7759:
7754:
7749:
7744:
7738:
7736:
7732:
7731:
7729:
7728:
7723:
7718:
7713:
7711:Proto-Germanic
7707:
7705:
7701:
7700:
7698:
7697:
7690:
7683:
7675:
7674:
7673:
7672:
7667:
7662:
7652:
7647:
7641:
7639:
7629:
7628:
7623:
7616:
7615:
7612:
7611:
7608:
7607:
7605:
7604:
7597:
7590:
7586:Crimean Gothic
7575:
7573:
7565:
7564:
7561:
7560:
7558:
7557:
7556:
7555:
7550:
7541:
7538:
7537:
7535:
7534:
7533:
7532:
7522:
7521:
7520:
7513:
7506:
7501:
7496:
7491:
7490:
7489:
7484:
7474:
7473:
7472:
7462:
7460:Insular Danish
7457:
7447:
7446:
7445:
7443:Rinkebysvenska
7440:
7429:
7427:
7423:
7422:
7420:
7419:
7412:
7405:
7404:
7403:
7396:
7384:
7379:
7378:
7377:
7370:
7363:
7357:
7351:
7346:
7341:
7336:
7331:
7326:
7321:
7310:
7308:
7304:
7303:
7301:
7300:
7299:
7298:
7291:
7289:Old East Norse
7286:
7284:Old West Norse
7274:
7266:
7264:
7257:
7247:
7246:
7237:
7230:
7229:
7226:
7225:
7222:
7221:
7218:
7217:
7215:
7214:
7207:
7206:
7205:
7195:
7190:
7189:
7188:
7187:
7186:
7181:
7176:
7171:
7166:
7164:South Tyrolean
7156:
7155:
7154:
7144:
7134:
7133:
7132:
7127:
7126:
7125:
7115:
7114:
7113:
7106:High Alemannic
7103:
7102:
7101:
7096:
7079:
7077:
7071:
7070:
7067:
7066:
7064:
7063:
7058:
7053:
7048:
7043:
7038:
7033:
7028:
7022:
7020:
7014:
7013:
7011:
7010:
7005:
7004:
7003:
6993:
6992:
6991:
6990:
6989:
6984:
6974:
6964:
6963:
6962:
6961:
6960:
6959:
6958:
6948:
6943:
6933:
6932:
6931:
6926:
6910:
6908:
6899:
6897:Central German
6893:
6892:
6890:
6889:
6888:
6887:
6882:
6875:
6870:
6865:
6855:
6850:
6849:
6848:
6838:
6836:Barossa German
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6812:
6810:
6798:
6797:
6795:
6794:
6789:
6784:
6778:
6776:
6770:
6769:
6767:
6766:
6765:
6764:
6750:
6743:
6735:
6733:
6726:
6720:
6719:
6716:
6715:
6713:
6712:
6707:
6701:
6699:
6695:
6694:
6692:
6691:
6685:
6683:
6677:
6676:
6674:
6673:
6656:
6651:
6646:
6640:
6639:
6634:
6629:
6624:
6619:
6618:
6617:
6615:French Flemish
6607:
6606:
6605:
6594:
6592:
6588:
6587:
6585:
6584:
6574:
6568:
6566:
6560:
6559:
6557:
6556:
6551:
6546:
6540:
6538:
6531:
6529:Low Franconian
6525:
6524:
6521:
6520:
6518:
6517:
6516:
6515:
6505:
6500:
6495:
6490:
6484:
6482:
6476:
6475:
6473:
6472:
6467:
6462:
6461:
6460:
6450:
6449:
6448:
6443:
6438:
6437:
6436:
6431:
6423:
6418:
6413:
6408:
6397:
6395:
6389:
6388:
6386:
6385:
6378:
6370:
6368:
6361:
6355:
6354:
6351:
6350:
6347:
6346:
6344:
6343:
6342:
6341:
6336:
6335:
6334:
6333:
6332:
6330:Westereendersk
6324:
6313:
6308:
6302:
6300:
6294:
6293:
6291:
6290:
6289:
6288:
6283:
6276:
6271:
6270:
6269:
6264:
6261:
6253:
6248:
6247:
6246:
6235:
6234:
6233:
6228:
6223:
6222:
6221:
6216:
6208:
6197:
6195:
6189:
6188:
6186:
6185:
6184:
6183:
6176:
6169:
6157:
6156:
6155:
6146:
6144:
6138:
6137:
6135:
6134:
6131:Middle Frisian
6127:
6119:
6117:
6110:
6104:
6103:
6101:
6100:
6099:
6098:
6091:
6079:
6078:
6077:
6070:
6063:
6051:
6050:
6049:
6048:
6047:
6037:Modern English
6033:
6030:Middle English
6026:
6019:
6008:
6006:
5997:
5987:
5986:
5981:
5974:
5973:
5967:
5964:
5963:
5958:
5956:
5955:
5948:
5941:
5933:
5927:
5926:
5917:
5900:
5891:
5882:
5873:
5856:
5850:
5829:
5820:
5811:
5790:
5777:
5771:
5763:10.1075/sigl.3
5750:
5744:
5730:. de Gruyter.
5723:
5713:(3): 257–277.
5702:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5685:
5683:, p. 129.
5673:
5661:
5657:Schrijver 2014
5646:
5634:
5632:, p. 104.
5630:Schrijver 2014
5619:
5615:Schrijver 2014
5602:
5590:
5578:
5576:, p. 124.
5566:
5551:
5536:
5524:
5512:
5500:
5483:
5481:, p. 201.
5471:
5469:, p. 125.
5456:
5444:
5442:, p. 120.
5425:
5413:
5411:, p. 134.
5398:
5386:
5384:, p. 123.
5369:
5367:, p. 126.
5357:
5355:, p. 118.
5345:
5333:
5331:, p. 136.
5318:
5306:
5304:, p. 122.
5294:
5292:, p. 128.
5279:
5267:
5255:
5243:
5241:, p. 114.
5224:
5212:
5200:
5188:
5176:
5164:
5152:
5137:
5135:, p. 118.
5125:
5110:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5080:
5032:Wermelskirchen
5023:
5014:
5001:
4999:, p. 131.
4997:Schweikle 1996
4995:Examples from
4988:
4986:, p. 131.
4984:Schweikle 1996
4982:Examples from
4975:
4950:
4948:, p. 131.
4946:Schweikle 1996
4944:Examples from
4937:
4919:
4915:Schweikle 1996
4906:
4904:, p. 130.
4902:Schweikle 1996
4900:Examples from
4893:
4889:Schweikle 1996
4880:
4871:
4869:, p. 130.
4867:Schweikle 1996
4865:Examples from
4858:
4854:Schweikle 1996
4845:
4843:, p. 130.
4841:Schweikle 1996
4839:Examples from
4832:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4812:
4811:
4791:
4784:
4781:
4778:
4777:
4775:
4774:
4765:
4756:
4747:
4738:
4729:
4720:
4711:
4709:Only in *u(ː)p
4702:
4693:
4683:
4680:
4679:
4669:
4650:
4631:
4612:
4602:
4600:
4590:
4580:
4570:
4560:
4550:
4548:
4538:
4528:
4518:
4508:
4498:
4494:
4493:
4483:
4473:
4463:
4453:
4443:
4441:
4431:
4421:
4411:
4401:
4391:
4389:
4379:
4369:
4359:
4349:
4339:
4335:
4334:
4324:
4314:
4304:
4294:
4284:
4282:
4272:
4262:
4252:
4242:
4232:
4230:
4220:
4210:
4200:
4190:
4180:
4176:
4175:
4165:
4155:
4145:
4135:
4125:
4123:
4104:
4094:
4084:
4074:
4064:
4062:
4052:
4042:
4032:
4022:
4012:
4008:
4007:
3997:
3987:
3977:
3967:
3957:
3955:
3945:
3935:
3925:
3915:
3905:
3903:
3893:
3883:
3873:
3863:
3853:
3849:
3848:
3838:
3828:
3818:
3808:
3798:
3796:
3786:
3776:
3766:
3756:
3746:
3744:
3734:
3724:
3714:
3704:
3694:
3690:
3689:
3679:
3669:
3659:
3649:
3639:
3637:
3627:
3617:
3607:
3597:
3587:
3585:
3575:
3565:
3555:
3545:
3535:
3531:
3530:
3517:
3504:
3491:
3478:
3465:
3463:
3450:
3437:
3424:
3411:
3398:
3396:
3383:
3370:
3357:
3344:
3331:
3324:Schrijver 2014
3274:dialects from
3257:Uerdingen line
3201:Central German
3176:Low Franconian
3159:
3156:
3145:
3142:
3139:
3138:
3114:
3112:, p. 31).
3108:, p. 15)(
3092:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3078:
3067:
3056:
3045:
3042:
3038:
3037:
3029:
3019:
3009:
2997:
2996:
2984:
2973:
2962:
2949:
2948:
2940:
2930:
2920:
2909:
2906:
2902:
2901:
2890:
2879:
2868:
2857:
2854:
2850:
2849:
2840:
2830:
2820:
2808:
2807:
2798:
2787:
2776:
2763:
2762:
2754:
2744:
2733:
2722:
2719:
2715:
2714:
2706:
2695:
2684:
2673:
2670:
2666:
2665:
2657:
2647:
2637:
2626:
2625:
2617:
2606:
2595:
2583:
2582:
2573:
2562:
2551:
2539:
2538:
2530:
2520:
2510:
2500:
2497:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2486:
2474:
2463:
2452:
2440:
2436:
2435:
2427:
2417:
2407:
2395:
2394:
2386:
2376:
2366:
2355:
2352:
2348:
2347:
2338:
2327:
2316:
2305:
2301:
2300:
2292:
2281:
2270:
2258:
2257:
2249:
2239:
2229:
2219:
2216:
2212:
2211:
2203:
2192:
2181:
2170:
2166:
2165:
2157:
2146:
2136:
2124:
2123:
2115:
2105:
2095:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2075:
2074:
2059:
2049:
2039:
2028:
2027:
2019:
2008:
1997:
1985:
1984:
1975:
1964:
1953:
1942:
1939:
1935:
1934:
1926:
1916:
1906:
1895:
1894:
1885:
1874:
1863:
1851:
1850:
1841:
1830:
1819:
1808:
1805:
1801:
1800:
1792:
1782:
1772:
1761:
1760:
1751:
1740:
1729:
1717:
1716:
1708:
1697:
1686:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1662:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1622:
1619:
1608:
1607:
1606:
1605:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1575:
1545:
1544:
1543:/g/ > /k/:
1540:
1539:
1538:
1537:
1533:
1532:
1531:
1506:
1476:
1475:
1471:
1470:
1469:
1468:
1465:
1464:
1463:
1438:
1417:
1387:
1386:
1367:
1364:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1327:
1326:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1314:
1307:
1299:
1298:
1291:
1284:
1276:
1275:
1268:
1261:
1253:
1252:
1245:
1238:
1230:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1217:, p. 123
1204:
1203:
1202:
1201:
1198:
1197:
1196:
1171:
1139:
1138:
1137:
1113:
1088:
1057:
1056:
1049:
1048:
1047:
1046:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1031:
1030:
1029:
1026:
1025:
1018:
1011:
1003:
1002:
995:
988:
980:
979:
976:helpfan/helfan
972:
969:helpan/helpfan
965:
957:
956:
949:
942:
934:
933:
926:
919:
911:
910:
903:
896:
888:
887:
884:
881:
875:, p. 123
862:
861:
860:
859:
856:
855:
854:
829:
804:
777:
776:
775:
750:
736:helphan/helfan
725:
694:
693:
686:
685:
684:
683:
650:
649:
648:
623:
598:
562:
561:
560:
535:
510:
479:
478:
468:Central German
459:
456:
454:
451:
396:
395:
370:
345:
320:
295:
270:
227:Central German
218:
217:
204:
178:
175:
163:Central German
141:spirantization
125:Low Franconian
87:⟩, see
63:
62:
61:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7918:
7907:
7904:
7902:
7899:
7897:
7894:
7893:
7891:
7875:
7871:
7869:
7865:
7862:
7861:
7858:
7844:
7841:
7839:
7836:
7834:
7831:
7829:
7826:
7824:
7821:
7819:
7818:Germanic verb
7816:
7815:
7813:
7809:
7803:
7800:
7798:
7795:
7793:
7790:
7788:
7785:
7783:
7780:
7778:
7775:
7773:
7770:
7768:
7765:
7763:
7760:
7758:
7757:Sievers's law
7755:
7753:
7750:
7748:
7745:
7743:
7740:
7739:
7737:
7733:
7727:
7724:
7722:
7719:
7717:
7714:
7712:
7709:
7708:
7706:
7704:Reconstructed
7702:
7696:
7695:
7691:
7689:
7688:
7684:
7682:
7681:
7677:
7676:
7671:
7668:
7666:
7663:
7661:
7658:
7657:
7656:
7653:
7651:
7648:
7646:
7643:
7642:
7640:
7638:
7634:
7630:
7626:
7621:
7617:
7603:
7602:
7598:
7596:
7595:
7591:
7588:
7587:
7582:
7581:
7577:
7576:
7574:
7572:
7571:
7566:
7554:
7551:
7549:
7546:
7545:
7543:
7542:
7539:
7531:
7528:
7527:
7526:
7523:
7519:
7518:
7517:Middle Danish
7514:
7512:
7511:
7507:
7505:
7502:
7500:
7497:
7495:
7492:
7488:
7485:
7483:
7480:
7479:
7478:
7475:
7471:
7468:
7467:
7466:
7463:
7461:
7458:
7456:
7453:
7452:
7451:
7448:
7444:
7441:
7439:
7436:
7435:
7434:
7431:
7430:
7428:
7424:
7418:
7417:
7413:
7411:
7410:
7406:
7402:
7401:
7397:
7395:
7394:
7393:Old Icelandic
7390:
7389:
7388:
7385:
7383:
7380:
7376:
7375:
7371:
7369:
7368:
7367:Old Norwegian
7364:
7361:
7358:
7355:
7352:
7350:
7347:
7345:
7342:
7340:
7337:
7335:
7332:
7330:
7327:
7325:
7322:
7320:
7317:
7316:
7315:
7312:
7311:
7309:
7305:
7297:
7296:
7292:
7290:
7287:
7285:
7282:
7281:
7280:
7279:
7275:
7273:
7272:
7268:
7267:
7265:
7261:
7258:
7256:
7252:
7248:
7244:
7240:
7235:
7231:
7213:
7212:
7208:
7204:
7201:
7200:
7199:
7196:
7194:
7191:
7185:
7184:Gottscheerish
7182:
7180:
7177:
7175:
7172:
7170:
7167:
7165:
7162:
7161:
7160:
7157:
7153:
7150:
7149:
7148:
7145:
7143:
7140:
7139:
7138:
7135:
7131:
7128:
7124:
7123:Walser German
7121:
7120:
7119:
7116:
7112:
7109:
7108:
7107:
7104:
7100:
7097:
7095:
7092:
7091:
7090:
7089:Low Alemannic
7087:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7080:
7078:
7076:
7072:
7062:
7059:
7057:
7054:
7052:
7051:High Prussian
7049:
7047:
7044:
7042:
7039:
7037:
7036:Erzgebirgisch
7034:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7024:
7023:
7021:
7019:
7015:
7009:
7006:
7002:
6999:
6998:
6997:
6994:
6988:
6985:
6983:
6980:
6979:
6978:
6975:
6973:
6970:
6969:
6968:
6965:
6957:
6954:
6953:
6952:
6949:
6947:
6944:
6942:
6941:Luxembourgish
6939:
6938:
6937:
6934:
6930:
6927:
6925:
6922:
6921:
6920:
6917:
6916:
6915:
6912:
6911:
6909:
6907:
6903:
6900:
6898:
6894:
6886:
6883:
6881:
6880:
6879:Klezmer-loshn
6876:
6874:
6873:Scots Yiddish
6871:
6869:
6866:
6864:
6861:
6860:
6859:
6856:
6854:
6851:
6847:
6844:
6843:
6842:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6813:
6811:
6809:
6804:
6799:
6793:
6790:
6788:
6785:
6783:
6780:
6779:
6777:
6775:
6771:
6763:
6762:
6758:
6757:
6756:
6755:
6751:
6749:
6748:
6744:
6742:
6741:
6737:
6736:
6734:
6730:
6727:
6725:
6721:
6711:
6710:Meuse-Rhenish
6708:
6706:
6703:
6702:
6700:
6696:
6690:
6687:
6686:
6684:
6682:
6678:
6672:
6668:
6664:
6660:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6650:
6647:
6645:
6642:
6641:
6638:
6637:Kleverlandish
6635:
6633:
6630:
6628:
6625:
6623:
6620:
6616:
6613:
6612:
6611:
6608:
6604:
6601:
6600:
6599:
6598:Central Dutch
6596:
6595:
6593:
6589:
6582:
6578:
6575:
6573:
6570:
6569:
6567:
6565:
6561:
6555:
6552:
6550:
6547:
6545:
6542:
6541:
6539:
6535:
6532:
6530:
6526:
6514:
6511:
6510:
6509:
6506:
6504:
6501:
6499:
6496:
6494:
6491:
6489:
6486:
6485:
6483:
6481:
6477:
6471:
6468:
6466:
6463:
6459:
6456:
6455:
6454:
6451:
6447:
6444:
6442:
6439:
6435:
6432:
6430:
6427:
6426:
6424:
6422:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6412:
6409:
6407:
6406:Stellingwarfs
6404:
6403:
6402:
6399:
6398:
6396:
6394:
6390:
6384:
6383:
6379:
6377:
6376:
6372:
6371:
6369:
6365:
6362:
6360:
6356:
6340:
6337:
6331:
6328:
6327:
6326:Wood Frisian
6325:
6322:
6321:
6320:
6317:
6316:
6314:
6312:
6309:
6307:
6304:
6303:
6301:
6299:
6295:
6287:
6284:
6282:
6281:
6277:
6275:
6272:
6268:
6265:
6262:
6259:
6258:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6244:
6243:
6242:
6239:
6238:
6236:
6232:
6229:
6227:
6224:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6211:
6209:
6207:
6206:
6202:
6201:
6199:
6198:
6196:
6194:
6193:North Frisian
6190:
6182:
6181:
6177:
6175:
6174:
6170:
6168:
6167:
6163:
6162:
6161:
6158:
6154:
6151:
6150:
6148:
6147:
6145:
6143:
6139:
6133:
6132:
6128:
6126:
6125:
6121:
6120:
6118:
6114:
6111:
6109:
6105:
6097:
6096:
6092:
6090:
6089:
6085:
6084:
6083:
6080:
6076:
6075:
6071:
6069:
6068:
6064:
6062:
6061:
6057:
6056:
6055:
6052:
6046:
6045:
6041:
6040:
6039:
6038:
6034:
6032:
6031:
6027:
6025:
6024:
6020:
6018:
6015:
6014:
6013:
6010:
6009:
6007:
6005:
6001:
5998:
5996:
5995:Anglo-Frisian
5992:
5988:
5984:
5979:
5975:
5971:
5965:
5961:
5954:
5949:
5947:
5942:
5940:
5935:
5934:
5931:
5923:
5918:
5914:
5910:
5906:
5901:
5897:
5892:
5888:
5883:
5879:
5874:
5870:
5866:
5862:
5857:
5853:
5847:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5830:
5826:
5821:
5817:
5812:
5808:
5804:
5800:
5796:
5791:
5787:
5783:
5778:
5774:
5768:
5764:
5760:
5756:
5751:
5747:
5741:
5737:
5733:
5729:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5703:
5699:
5694:
5693:
5689:
5682:
5677:
5674:
5670:
5665:
5662:
5658:
5653:
5651:
5647:
5643:
5638:
5635:
5631:
5626:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5611:
5609:
5607:
5603:
5599:
5594:
5591:
5587:
5582:
5579:
5575:
5570:
5567:
5564:, p. 35.
5563:
5558:
5556:
5552:
5549:, p. 82.
5548:
5543:
5541:
5537:
5533:
5528:
5525:
5522:, p. 88.
5521:
5516:
5513:
5509:
5504:
5501:
5498:, p. 88.
5497:
5492:
5490:
5488:
5484:
5480:
5475:
5472:
5468:
5463:
5461:
5457:
5453:
5448:
5445:
5441:
5436:
5434:
5432:
5430:
5426:
5422:
5417:
5414:
5410:
5405:
5403:
5399:
5396:, p. 87.
5395:
5390:
5387:
5383:
5378:
5376:
5374:
5370:
5366:
5361:
5358:
5354:
5349:
5346:
5342:
5337:
5334:
5330:
5325:
5323:
5319:
5316:, p. 85.
5315:
5310:
5307:
5303:
5298:
5295:
5291:
5286:
5284:
5280:
5277:, p. 50.
5276:
5271:
5268:
5264:
5259:
5256:
5253:, p. 84.
5252:
5247:
5244:
5240:
5235:
5233:
5231:
5229:
5225:
5222:, p. 34.
5221:
5216:
5213:
5209:
5204:
5201:
5198:, p. 32.
5197:
5192:
5189:
5185:
5180:
5177:
5173:
5168:
5165:
5161:
5156:
5153:
5149:
5144:
5142:
5138:
5134:
5129:
5126:
5122:
5117:
5115:
5111:
5108:, p. 63.
5107:
5102:
5100:
5098:
5096:
5094:
5090:
5084:
5077:
5073:
5069:
5065:
5061:
5057:
5053:
5049:
5045:
5041:
5037:
5033:
5027:
5024:
5018:
5015:
5005:
5002:
4998:
4992:
4989:
4985:
4979:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4954:
4951:
4947:
4941:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4923:
4920:
4917:, p. 129
4916:
4910:
4907:
4903:
4897:
4894:
4891:, p. 129
4890:
4884:
4881:
4875:
4872:
4868:
4862:
4859:
4856:, p. 129
4855:
4849:
4846:
4842:
4836:
4833:
4829:
4823:
4820:
4814:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4799:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4786:
4782:
4769:
4766:
4760:
4757:
4751:
4748:
4742:
4739:
4733:
4730:
4724:
4721:
4715:
4712:
4706:
4703:
4697:
4694:
4688:
4685:
4681:
4670:
4651:
4632:
4613:
4603:
4601:
4591:
4581:
4571:
4561:
4551:
4549:
4539:
4529:
4519:
4509:
4499:
4497:Upper German
4496:
4495:
4484:
4474:
4464:
4454:
4444:
4442:
4432:
4422:
4412:
4402:
4392:
4390:
4380:
4370:
4360:
4350:
4340:
4337:
4336:
4325:
4315:
4305:
4295:
4285:
4283:
4273:
4263:
4253:
4243:
4233:
4231:
4221:
4211:
4201:
4191:
4181:
4178:
4177:
4166:
4156:
4146:
4136:
4126:
4124:
4105:
4095:
4085:
4075:
4065:
4063:
4053:
4043:
4033:
4023:
4013:
4010:
4009:
3998:
3988:
3978:
3968:
3958:
3956:
3946:
3936:
3926:
3916:
3906:
3904:
3894:
3884:
3874:
3864:
3854:
3851:
3850:
3839:
3829:
3819:
3809:
3799:
3797:
3787:
3777:
3767:
3757:
3747:
3745:
3735:
3725:
3715:
3705:
3695:
3692:
3691:
3680:
3670:
3660:
3650:
3640:
3638:
3628:
3618:
3608:
3598:
3588:
3586:
3576:
3566:
3556:
3546:
3536:
3533:
3532:
3518:
3505:
3492:
3479:
3466:
3464:
3451:
3438:
3425:
3412:
3399:
3397:
3384:
3371:
3358:
3345:
3332:
3330:
3329:
3325:
3319:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3260:
3258:
3254:
3251:'me') in the
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3217:
3215:
3211:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3183:
3177:
3170:
3165:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3143:
3135:
3129:
3127:
3125:
3123:
3121:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3097:
3094:
3086:
3084:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3046:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3036:
3035:
3030:
3027:
3026:
3020:
3017:
3016:
3010:
3007:
3006:
3000:Upper German
2999:
2998:
2994:
2992:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2952:Upper German
2951:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2911:Upper German
2910:
2903:
2899:
2898:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2858:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2841:
2838:
2837:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2821:
2818:
2817:
2811:Upper German
2810:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2766:Upper German
2765:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2724:Upper German
2723:
2716:
2713:
2712:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2674:
2671:
2668:
2667:
2664:
2663:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2648:
2645:
2644:
2638:
2635:
2634:
2628:
2627:
2624:
2623:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2585:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2541:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2501:
2493:All positions
2488:
2484:
2482:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2442:Upper German
2441:
2438:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2428:
2425:
2424:
2418:
2415:
2414:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2398:Upper German
2397:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2357:Upper German
2356:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2306:
2303:
2302:
2299:
2298:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2220:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2171:
2168:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2147:
2144:
2143:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2086:
2076:
2071:
2070:
2064:(Old English
2063:
2060:
2057:
2056:
2050:
2047:
2046:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2026:
2025:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2009:
2006:
2004:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1943:
1936:
1933:
1932:
1927:
1924:
1923:
1917:
1914:
1913:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1853:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1809:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1793:
1790:
1789:
1783:
1780:
1779:
1773:
1770:
1769:
1763:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1719:
1718:
1715:
1714:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1676:
1663:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1647:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1628:Polenz (2020)
1620:
1618:
1614:
1603:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1581:
1576:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1556:
1551:
1550:
1549:
1548:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1541:
1534:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1512:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1487:
1482:
1481:
1480:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1474:/b/ > /p/:
1473:
1472:
1466:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1444:
1439:
1435:
1429:
1423:
1418:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1398:
1393:
1392:
1391:
1390:
1389:
1388:
1385:/d/ > /t/:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1379:
1374:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1354:
1348:
1342:
1336:
1319:
1315:
1312:
1308:
1305:
1301:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1289:
1285:
1282:
1278:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1266:
1262:
1259:
1255:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1243:
1239:
1236:
1232:
1231:
1227:
1224:
1221:
1220:
1216:
1210:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1206:
1205:
1199:
1193:
1188:
1183:
1177:
1172:
1168:
1163:
1158:
1152:
1147:
1146:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1119:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1094:
1089:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1069:
1064:
1063:
1061:
1060:
1059:
1058:
1051:
1050:
1043:
1038:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1023:
1019:
1016:
1012:
1009:
1005:
1004:
1000:
996:
993:
989:
986:
982:
981:
977:
973:
970:
966:
963:
959:
958:
954:
950:
947:
943:
940:
936:
935:
931:
927:
924:
920:
917:
913:
912:
908:
904:
901:
897:
894:
890:
889:
885:
882:
879:
878:
874:
868:
867:
866:
865:
864:
863:
857:
851:
846:
841:
835:
830:
826:
821:
816:
810:
805:
802:
797:
792:
786:
781:
780:
778:
772:
767:
762:
756:
751:
747:
742:
737:
731:
726:
722:
717:
712:
706:
701:
700:
698:
697:
696:
695:
688:
687:
680:
674:
668:
662:
656:
651:
645:
640:
635:
629:
624:
620:
615:
610:
604:
599:
595:
590:
585:
579:
574:
573:
563:
557:
552:
547:
541:
536:
532:
527:
522:
516:
511:
507:
502:
497:
491:
486:
485:
483:
482:
481:
480:
473:
472:
471:
469:
465:
457:
452:
450:
443:
441:
436:
431:
426:
420:
414:
408:
402:
392:
386:
381:
376:
371:
367:
361:
356:
351:
346:
342:
336:
331:
326:
321:
317:
311:
306:
301:
296:
292:
286:
281:
276:
271:
267:
261:
256:
251:
246:
245:
244:
240:
235:
231:
228:
224:
214:
209:
205:
201:
196:
192:
188:
184:
183:
182:
176:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
155:
153:
148:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
115:
114:West Germanic
111:
107:
103:
99:
90:
78:
74:
72:
68:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
32:
19:
7863:
7776:
7747:Verner's law
7692:
7687:Gotho-Nordic
7685:
7678:
7599:
7592:
7584:
7578:
7568:
7553:Fårö Gutnish
7515:
7508:
7414:
7407:
7398:
7391:
7372:
7365:
7293:
7288:
7283:
7276:
7269:
7209:
7111:Swiss German
7075:Upper German
7008:Amana German
6982:Volga German
6951:Hunsrückisch
6877:
6831:Unserdeutsch
6826:Berlinerisch
6759:
6752:
6745:
6738:
6698:Cover groups
6654:Mohawk Dutch
6649:Jersey Dutch
6627:East Flemish
6610:West Flemish
6554:Middle Dutch
6508:Low Prussian
6380:
6373:
6339:Terschelling
6323:Clay Frisian
6298:West Frisian
6286:Wiedingharde
6278:
6266:
6226:Heligolandic
6203:
6178:
6171:
6164:
6159:
6142:East Frisian
6129:
6122:
6095:Middle Scots
6093:
6086:
6072:
6065:
6058:
6053:
6042:
6035:
6028:
6021:
5924:. Routledge.
5921:
5904:
5895:
5889:. Routledge.
5886:
5877:
5860:
5833:
5824:
5815:
5801:(1): 45–70.
5798:
5794:
5785:
5754:
5727:
5710:
5706:
5697:
5676:
5671:, p. 4.
5664:
5637:
5593:
5581:
5574:Salmons 2018
5569:
5532:Salmons 2018
5527:
5515:
5503:
5479:Salmons 2018
5474:
5467:Salmons 2018
5447:
5416:
5389:
5382:Salmons 2018
5360:
5348:
5336:
5309:
5302:Salmons 2018
5297:
5270:
5263:Salmons 2018
5258:
5246:
5215:
5203:
5191:
5184:Salmons 2018
5179:
5172:Salmons 2018
5167:
5160:Salmons 2018
5155:
5133:Salmons 2018
5128:
5075:
5074:'seize' vs.
5071:
5067:
5063:
5060:strong verbs
5051:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5026:
5017:
5004:
4991:
4978:
4953:
4940:
4922:
4909:
4896:
4883:
4874:
4861:
4848:
4835:
4822:
4768:
4759:
4750:
4741:
4732:
4723:
4714:
4705:
4696:
4687:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3267:
3263:
3261:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3233:Benrath line
3228:
3224:
3220:
3218:
3209:
3205:Upper German
3193:
3147:
3096:
3082:
3080:
3072:
3061:
3050:
3033:
3031:
3024:
3014:
3004:
2990:
2986:Old English
2978:
2967:
2956:
2943:
2942:
2934:
2924:
2914:
2896:
2892:Old English
2884:
2873:
2862:
2844:
2842:
2835:
2825:
2815:
2802:
2800:
2792:
2781:
2770:
2757:
2756:
2748:
2738:
2727:
2710:
2708:
2700:
2689:
2678:
2661:
2659:
2652:
2642:
2632:
2621:
2619:
2611:
2600:
2589:
2577:
2575:
2567:
2556:
2545:
2533:
2532:
2524:
2514:
2504:
2480:
2476:Old English
2468:
2457:
2446:
2431:
2429:
2422:
2412:
2402:
2389:
2388:
2380:
2370:
2360:
2342:
2340:
2332:
2321:
2310:
2296:
2294:
2286:
2275:
2264:
2252:
2251:
2243:
2233:
2223:
2207:
2205:
2197:
2186:
2175:
2161:
2159:
2151:
2141:
2130:
2118:
2117:
2109:
2099:
2089:
2068:
2061:
2054:
2044:
2034:
2023:
2021:
2013:
2002:
1991:
1979:
1977:
1969:
1958:
1947:
1930:
1928:
1921:
1911:
1901:
1889:
1887:
1879:
1868:
1857:
1845:
1843:
1835:
1824:
1813:
1796:
1794:
1787:
1777:
1767:
1755:
1753:
1745:
1734:
1723:
1712:
1710:
1702:
1691:
1680:
1668:After vowels
1639:Type of stop
1609:
1590:
1583: : OHG
1565:
1521:
1514: : OHG
1496:
1453:
1446: : OHG
1425: : OHG
1407:
1400: : OHG
1369:
1331:
1215:Salmons 2018
1186:
1179: : OHG
1161:
1154: : OHG
1128:
1121: : OHG
1103:
1078:
886:Rest of OHG
873:Salmons 2018
844:
837: : OHG
819:
812: : OHG
795:
765:
758: : OHG
740:
733: : OHG
715:
708: : OHG
638:
631: : OHG
613:
606: : OHG
588:
581: : OHG
550:
543: : OHG
525:
518: : OHG
500:
493: : OHG
464:Upper German
461:
444:
439:
429:
404:from French
397:
379:
378:vs. English
354:
353:vs. English
329:
328:vs. English
304:
303:vs. English
279:
278:vs. English
254:
253:vs. English
232:
223:Upper German
219:
180:
159:Upper German
156:
149:
110:sound change
105:
101:
95:
83:and ⟨
65:
7762:Kluge's law
7742:Grimm's law
7525:Dalecarlian
7504:Perkerdansk
7477:East Danish
7295:Old Gutnish
7271:Proto-Norse
7211:Langobardic
7203:Vogtlandian
7031:Upper Saxon
6885:Lachoudisch
6846:Lotegorisch
6724:High German
6470:Westphalian
6465:Eastphalian
6429:Achterhooks
6306:Hindeloopen
6241:Bökingharde
6210:Föhr–Amrum
6124:Old Frisian
6088:Early Scots
6023:Old English
5598:Polenz 2020
5586:Polenz 2020
5066:'tear' vs.
3214:Rhenish fan
3164:Rhenish fan
1561:keban/kepan
1225:Central OHG
171:Rhenish fan
137:affrication
121:High German
46:. The main
7906:Sound laws
7890:Categories
7594:Burgundian
7510:Old Danish
7499:Gøtudanskt
7482:Bornholmsk
7344:Vestlandsk
7324:Kebabnorsk
7061:Halcnovian
7026:Thuringian
6689:Limburgish
6659:Stadsfries
6632:Brabantian
6359:Low German
6205:Eiderstedt
6060:Fingallian
5642:Davis 2005
5148:Höder 2015
5121:Pickl 2023
5106:König 1994
5085:References
4929:spirantize
3852:Ripuarian
3162:See also:
3144:Chronology
1577:Old Saxon
1552:Old Saxon
1536:Ripuarian.
1508:Old Saxon
1483:Old Saxon
1440:Old Saxon
1419:Old Saxon
1394:Old Saxon
1173:Old Saxon
1148:Old Saxon
1115:Old Saxon
1090:Old Saxon
1065:Old Saxon
831:Old Saxon
806:Old Saxon
782:Old Saxon
752:Old Saxon
727:Old Saxon
702:Old Saxon
625:Old Saxon
600:Old Saxon
575:Old Saxon
537:Old Saxon
512:Old Saxon
487:Old Saxon
438:, English
428:, English
388:, Swedish
363:, Swedish
338:, Swedish
313:, Swedish
288:, Swedish
263:, Swedish
191:spirantize
133:Low German
48:isoglosses
40:Low German
7874:varieties
7866:indicate
7680:Northwest
7625:Philology
7530:Elfdalian
7465:Jutlandic
7387:Icelandic
7362:(written)
7356:(written)
7334:Trøndersk
7314:Norwegian
7278:Old Norse
7099:Coloniero
7083:Alemannic
7056:Wymysorys
6924:Colognian
6919:Ripuarian
6841:Rotwelsch
6671:Midslands
6622:Zeelandic
6603:Hollandic
6577:Afrikaans
6549:Old Dutch
6375:Old Saxon
6274:Karrharde
6256:Goesharde
6237:Mainland
5970:philology
5452:Fulk 2018
5421:Fulk 2018
5409:Fulk 2018
5329:Fulk 2018
5078:'seized'.
3302:'pound',
3276:Ripuarian
3134:Fulk 2018
1665:Voiceless
1589:(English
1564:(English
1520:(English
1495:(English
1452:(English
1406:(English
1222:Old Saxon
1185:(English
1160:(English
1127:(English
1102:(English
1077:(English
880:Old Saxon
843:(English
818:(English
815:grîf(f)an
794:(English
764:(English
739:(English
714:(English
637:(English
612:(English
587:(English
549:(English
524:(English
499:(English
195:affricate
145:devoicing
7601:Vandalic
7544:Gutnish
7349:Vikværsk
7329:Sognamål
7319:Bergensk
7169:Cimbrian
7137:Bavarian
7094:Alsatian
7041:Lusatian
6977:Palatine
6667:Amelands
6544:Frankish
6434:Sallaans
6416:Gronings
6267:Southern
6260:Northern
6251:Halligen
6200:Insular
6017:dialects
5719:40505392
5076:jəjrefən
5070:'torn';
4828:lenition
4783:See also
3247:'thee',
3174:1 North
1642:Position
788: :
771:schöpfen
755:skeppian
419:parricus
382:, Dutch
380:daughter
357:, Dutch
332:, Dutch
307:, Dutch
282:, Dutch
257:, Dutch
81:/ /
77:Help:IPA
7864:Italics
7487:Scanian
7433:Swedish
7382:Faroese
7360:Nynorsk
7339:Valdris
7174:Mòcheno
7130:Swabian
6996:Hessian
6956:Hunsrik
6868:Western
6863:Eastern
6858:Yiddish
6808:creoles
6705:Bergish
6421:Drèents
6411:Tweants
6263:Central
6245:Mooring
6108:Frisian
6067:Kildare
6012:English
5690:Sources
5072:jriːpən
5068:jəresən
5062:, e.g.
4795:Tuscan
2536:aughter
1443:biddian
1378:devoice
1335:spinnan
1167:brechen
1157:brehhan
1124:wecchan
1118:wekkian
999:of(f)an
992:of(f)an
825:greifen
801:Pfeffer
791:pfeffar
761:skephen
721:Pfeffer
711:pfeffar
540:settian
385:dochter
375:Tochter
372:German
347:German
322:German
297:German
272:German
247:German
208:devoice
69:in the
52:Benrath
7580:Gothic
7450:Danish
7354:Bokmål
6853:Yenish
6663:Bildts
6446:Veluws
6441:Urkers
6280:Strand
6004:Anglic
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7645:North
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6581:Kaaps
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5050:>
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4806:from
3516:/kx/
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7650:East
7570:East
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