674:
1749:
of the industrialists came from entrepreneurial families, 26% came from families of farmers, self-employed craftsmen or small merchants, and the remaining 20% came from the educated middle classes, from families of officers and large landowners. Virtually no industrialists came from working-class families or the rural lower class. Already during the
Industrial Revolution, the type of social climber lost weight. Whereas in 1851 only 1.4% of entrepreneurs were academically educated, by 1870 37% of all entrepreneurs had attended university. From the 1850s onward, the economic bourgeoisie began to set itself apart from the other bourgeois groups through its lifestyle – for example, by building prestigious villas or buying land. In some cases, they began to model their lifestyles on the aristocracy. However, only the owners of large estates had the means to do so.
22:
1725:
individual masters or merchants. The number of full citizens ranged from 15 to 30% of the inhabitants until the 19th century. They lost the exclusivity of the citizen status after the reforms in the Rhine
Confederation states, in Prussia and later also in the other German states due to the civic equality concept and its gradual enforcement. With a few exceptions, the group of old urban citizens remained in the traditional ways of life in the early 19th century. In the bourgeoisie, class tradition, family rank, familiar forms of business, and class-specific consumption of expenditure counted. In contrast, this group was skeptical of the rapid but risky industrial development. Numerically, this group formed the largest group of citizens until well into the middle of the 19th century.
945:, only 13,500 workers were employed in pig iron production and their production volume was around 214,000 tons. In the following ten years, production grew by 150%, in the 1860s by another 160%, and at the height of the Industrial Revolution from 1870 to 1873 by 350%. During this period, the number of workers had grown by only 100%. The reasons lay in the technical improvement of production, but also in the emergence of an experienced skilled workforce. Steel production, which was technically more complex, expanded even more and had almost caught up with iron production by 1850. At that time, about 200,000 tons were produced with about 20,000 workers. In 1873, production was 1.6 million tons with 79,000 employees.
1879:
stagnating economy, and abolished dependency on the natural conditions of agriculture, and finally hunger. It created huge improvements in production and both short- and long-term improvements in living standards. However, in terms of social inequality, it can be assumed that it did not change the relative levels of income. Between 1815 and 1873 the statistical distribution of wealth was on the order of 77% to 23% for entrepreneurs and workers respectively. On the other hand, new problems arose, in the form of interrupted growth and new crises, such as urbanisation, "alienation", new underclasses, proletariat and proletarian misery, new injustices and new masters and, eventually, class warfare.
1827:
This number rose to 541,000 by 1861. Industrial workers were still a strategically important but numerically rather small group of the working classes. At the end of the
Industrial Revolution in the early 1870s, statisticians counted 885,000 industrial workers and 396,000 miners in Prussia. On a slightly different data basis, the new Imperial Statistical Office counted 32% of the labor force as belonging to the mining, industrial, metallurgical and construction sectors by 1871. The number of manual workers and servants outside industry and agriculture was still high at 15.5%. In terms of industrial-mining employment, highly developed Saxony was clearly in the lead with 49% of the workforce.
1783:
crafts and the decline of the cottage industry, significant portions of these groups fell into poverty. These developments contributed not insignificantly to the pauperism of the Vormärz. In the medium term, large sections of factory workers came from these groups, but for a longer transitional period, industrialization meant the impoverishment of large numbers of people. Initially, living standards declined along with the opportunities for profit, before a large proportion of, for example, cottage industry workers became unemployed. The best known in this context are the
Silesian weavers.
767:. While new products in mechanical engineering were still being developed in England on the basis of empirical experience, engineering calculations were already gaining ground in Germany. Whereas in the 1860s the main products were steam engines, by 1871 the focus of production was more or less evenly divided between textile machinery, steam engines and agricultural machinery. In 1846, there were only 1518 steam engines in the territory of the Zollverein; by 1861, there were 8695. In Prussia alone, there were 25,000 plants in 1873.
850:. Both rose to become leading mining companies in the mining district in the following decades. In the 1850s, numerous new collieries were established in the Ruhr region. In 1860, their number peaked at 277 companies. This was accompanied by a considerable increase in production volumes. In the years that followed, the number of collieries declined, while production capacities were further increased by the merger of smaller collieries into larger units. The most successful at the end of the Industrial Revolution was
1798:
322:(Zollverein) in 1834, which enabled the duty-free exchange of goods within the treaty area. This was a key prerequisite for the integration of previously regionally related markets into a larger context. However, Zollverein's direct support for industrial development was limited. Although industrial development was facilitated by it, no decisive growth impulses emanated from it. Equally important were numerous other reforms in the areas of state, society, and economy. Particularly well known are the
1721:. However, the bourgeoisie never constituted the majority of society in quantitative terms. In the beginning, rural society predominated, and in the end, the industrial workforce was about to overtake the bourgeois in terms of numbers. The bourgeois way of life, its values and its norms became formative for the 19th century. Although monarchs and nobility initially still maintained their leading role in politics, this was shaped and challenged solely by the new national and bourgeois movements.
705:
domestic iron production since the 1850s, railroad construction also gained new momentum. In the course of the expansion of the rail network, transport prices fell continuously, which in turn had a beneficial effect on the economy as a whole. The fact that between 1850 and 1890, about 25 percent of total investment went into railroads speaks for the importance of railroads for the economy as a whole. For a long time, investment in railroads was higher than in manufacturing or industry.
1764:
824:
built near Essen, starting in 1830. In the following years, the number of deep mines increased to 48 with 95 steam engines (1845). By 1840, the output in the
Oberbergamtsbezirk had risen to 1.2 million tons and the workforce to almost 9,000 men. Coal production was also increased in other mining districts in the first decades of the 19th century. These included the Aachen coalfield in the Düren mining district. In 1836, there were 36 coal mines in this region.
1050:. Later, Oppenheim became the main shareholder. The railroad business was also important as a bridge to investment in mining and heavy industry. However, the financing of railroads was also very risky. For this reason, plans for the establishment of joint-stock banks emerged in the circles of West German private bankers as early as the 1840s, but these failed due to the Prussian state bureaucracy. In response to the acute crisis of Schaaffhausen's bank,
1823:
Contemporary definitions show how differentiated this group was in the transition from traditional to industrial society. They included manual laborers and day laborers, journeymen craftsmen and assistants, and finally factory and industrial wage laborers. These "working classes" in the broadest sense constituted about 82% of all employed persons in
Prussia in 1849, and together with their dependents they accounted for 67% of the total population.
867:
1843:
semi-skilled and unskilled workers. The core of skilled workers consisted primarily of journeymen and master craftsmen from the crisis-ridden skilled trades. Specialized occupational groups such as printers or typesetters were once again clearly set apart. These often had a considerable amount of education, organized themselves at an early stage and felt themselves to be the vanguard of the qualified workforce. It was no coincidence that
82:
666:
61:
concentrated in a few regional concentration zones. In some older industrial areas, where adaptation to the new era was not successful, processes of economic decline occurred. Initially, industrial development was too weak to create significant new jobs for a growing population. On the contrary, industrial competition initially exacerbated the crisis in crafts and many traditional trades. This was one of the causes of the
1009:
1831:
464:
295:
266:
1706:
1157:, the textile industry suffered most. In other respects, companies were reluctant to invest after the experiences of 1857–1859. After the mid-1860s, there was another considerable economic upswing, which turned into the "founders' boom". This was no longer driven solely by heavy industry; the textile industry and agriculture grew almost as significantly. Slowed only briefly by the
1741:
the working class and even the nobility. These include, for example, the bourgeois family image of the publicly active man and the wife caring for the home and children, which dominated into the 20th century. The educated middle class was based on a neo-humanist ideal of education. This served both to distinguish it from the privileged aristocracy and from the uneducated classes.
422:, and the increase in the transport services of the railroads caused energy demand to rise. The growing demand for fuel and industrial goods led to further expansion of the rail network and in turn increased demand for new locomotives and rails. Overall, too, the Industrial Revolution in the 1850s and 1860s was characterized primarily by investment in railroad construction and
353:. In 1798, C. F. Bernhardt's spinning mill was founded in Chemnitz-Harthau. Among other things, it cleared the way for industrial development in the region. In the years that followed, countless spinning mills based on Bernhardt's pattern were built in Chemnitz and the surrounding area. However, these early beginnings did not achieve a broad impact, but remained isolated.
934:
776:
1806:
migration was still limited. Between 1820 and 1830, the number of emigrants fluctuated between 3000 and 5000 people per year. Since the 1830s, the numbers began to increase significantly. Here, the main phase of pauperism and the agrarian crisis of 1846/47 had an impact. The movement therefore reached a first peak in 1847 with 80,000 emigrants.
709:
construction of the railroads and in their operation, which was more than in coal mining. This number continued to grow over the next few years, reaching almost 180,000 workers in 1846. Only a small part of about 26,000 workers were permanently employed in operations; the rest were involved in the construction of the lines.
1779:
trades, which were often overstaffed, were particularly affected. In the medium term, however, the craftsmen succeeded in adapting to industrial capitalist conditions. For example, the building trade benefited from the growth of the cities, and other crafts increasingly focused on repair rather than production.
820:. Stinnes soon had numerous barges at his disposal and was one of the first to use steam-powered tugboats. He used the profits to buy shares in mining companies. In the year of his death, he was the most important mining entrepreneur in the district, with four collieries of his own and shares in 36 other mines.
1822:
From about the mid-1840s onward, the composition and character of the lower social strata began to change. One indicator of this is that from around this time the term proletariat played an increasingly important role in contemporary social discourse, displacing the concept of pauperism by the 1860s.
1805:
Since most of the new industries initially provided work for the local lower classes, internal migration still played a minor role in the first decades. Instead, emigration seemed to be a way to overcome social hardship. In the first decades of the 19th century, the quantitative scope of this type of
1744:
With industrial development, a new economic bourgeoisie increasingly joined the urban and educated bourgeoisie. The German form of the bourgeoisie originated from the group of entrepreneurs. Research estimates that by the middle of the 19th century, this group included several hundred entrepreneurial
959:
While the heavy industrial companies were often still small businesses at the beginning of the
Industrial Revolution, some of them grew into giant enterprises in the course of this period. In 1835, 67 people worked for Krupp; by 1871, the workforce had grown to 9,000, and by 1873 to almost 13,000. At
277:
In connection with manufactories and publishing houses, trading capital accumulated in the various landscapes, which was later used to finance the first large factories. However, these early trade landscapes were not always a direct precursor to industrial development. In some cases, such as in parts
1862:
Within the "working classes," a profound change in mentality took place. Whereas the urban and rural lower classes had largely regarded their hardship as unchangeable, the new opportunities for earning money in industry led to a strengthening of the will to change. Those affected saw their situation
1826:
Among these, modern factory workers initially still formed a small minority. In purely quantitative terms, there were 270,000 factory workers in
Prussia in 1849 (including those employed in the manufactories). Including the 54,000 miners, the total number of workers was still quite small at 326,000.
1740:
The educated bourgeoisie, which constituted a considerable part of the bureaucratic and legal functional elite, was certainly the most influential bourgeois subgroup politically. At the same time, however, it also set cultural norms that were more or less adapted by other bourgeois groups, including
1120:
The waning of this upswing was related to and further intensified by the agricultural crisis of 1847. Food prices and the hunger crisis were joined by unemployment and loss of earnings. This further reinforced the pre-revolutionary trend, even among the lower classes. The economic trough did not end
1029:
initially played a central role, particularly in financing the profitable construction of railroads. They were issuing agents for the corresponding shares, and the heads of the banks often sat on the management committees or supervisory boards of the railroad companies. The role of the private banks
811:
in the south. The mining authority regulated mining, working conditions and payment of the "miners." This meant considerable protection for the employees, but also restricted entrepreneurial decisions. Although production increased considerably from 177,000 to 513,000 tons between 1790 and 1815, the
749:
In the field of metal processing, mechanical engineering had a leading function as the most modern and growth-intensive sector. In addition to a few large companies, there were numerous small and medium-sized enterprises in this sector, not infrequently family-owned. The main locations were
Chemnitz
507:
and partly in the province of
Westphalia, developed into a center of industry, especially the coal and steel industry, due to its raw materials. Mining had already existed there in some places before, but the northward migration of mining brought about a completely new development in some areas. The
302:
Approaches to industrial expansion thus existed at the latest since the beginning of the 19th century. Nevertheless, it makes sense to let the early industrialization in the sense of immediate prehistory of the Industrial Revolution in Germany begin approximately with the year 1815. Since the end of
1748:
The social origins of the economic bourgeoisie varied. Some of them, such as August Borsig, were social climbers from artisan circles, while a considerable number, such as the Krupps, came from respected, long-established and prosperous middle-class merchant families. It is estimated that about 54%
1124:
According to historians, a fundamental turnaround was indicated by the fact that crop failures in the early 1850s had only a regional impact, since rail transport in particular ensured an intra-European balance. This period saw investment in all commercial sectors, especially railroads. The rise of
823:
The use of steam engines for dewatering made it possible to mine at greater depths. The decisive factor, however, was the possibility of breaking through the marl layer with the so-called deep mines. Franz Haniel (co-owner of Gutehoffnungshütte) was one of the first entrepreneurs to have such mines
40:
in Germany, beginning at the time from around 1815 to 1835. This period was preceded by the periods of pre-industrialization and early industrialization. In general, the decades between the 1830s and 1873 are considered the phase of industrial take off. The Industrial Revolution was followed by the
1858:
The merging of the initially very heterogeneous groups into a labor force with a more or less common self-image initially took place in the cities and was not least a result of the immigration of rural lower classes. Members of the pauperized classes of the Vormärz hoped to find more permanent and
1782:
In rural society, the number of farms had increased sharply since the 18th century in sub- or small-scale farming classes with little or no arable land. Commercial means of earning a living – whether in rural crafts or in cottage industries – had contributed greatly to this. With the crisis of the
1145:
burst. The origin of this was in the United States, where the collapse of one bank triggered a kind of chain reaction and the collapse of numerous other credit institutions. However, there were also factors in the industrial sector. In many places, for example, production capacities failed to keep
1096:
However, the secondary sector was not yet strong enough to dominate overall economic development. It was not until the end of the Industrial Revolution around 1870 that it clearly took over the leading role. Until then, the development of agriculture, i.e. the main component of the primary sector,
450:
sector. Due to the population growth in the first half of the century, the number of craftsmen increased sharply. Some mass trades, such as tailoring or shoemaking, were overstaffed, journeymen no longer had a chance to become master craftsmen, and the earnings even of self-employed craftsmen were
410:
The revolution of 1848/49 also roughly marks the dividing line between early industrialization and the Industrial Revolution. This also fits with a change from crisis-ridden self-confidence in the 1840s to a general mood of optimism in the following decade. From around this time, social production
1809:
Emigration itself took on organized forms, first through emigration associations and increasingly through commercially oriented agents, who not infrequently worked with disreputable methods and defrauded their clientele. In some cases, especially in southwestern Germany and particularly in Baden,
1088:
per year was 2.36% between 1850 and 1857, rising to about 3.31% in the period from 1863 to 1871. A different picture emerges when the various sectors of the economy are examined separately. By far the greatest growth was in the industrial sector. This development was what was actually new. Within
434:
However, the overall economic development during this period was not just a success story. Rather, the import of machine-made goods, especially from Great Britain, and the emergence of factories in Germany itself meant a threat to the existing older economic forms. This was true for iron products
60:
Another characteristic was the regional character of industrialization. Partly against the background of older traditions, partly because of favorable locations (e.g., on trade routes, rivers, canals, near raw material deposits or sales markets) or for other reasons, the Industrial Revolution was
1878:
On the whole, industrialisation in Germany must be considered to have been positive in its effects. Not only did it change society and the countryside, and finally the world...it created the modern world we live in. It solved the problems of population growth, under-employment and pauperism in a
1813:
In the early 1850s, the number of emigrants continued to rise, reaching 239,000 people per year in 1854. Social, economic, and even latent political motives were mixed in the process. A total of about 1.1 million people emigrated between 1850 and 1860, a quarter of whom came from regions in
1778:
The growth of the new industry was impressive in some areas; however, for a long time this impetus was not enough to keep the growing population reasonably employed and fed. In addition, the collapse of old trades and the crisis in the crafts sector exacerbated social hardship. The manufacturing
1736:
Although self-recruitment was high, the educated middle classes in the first half of the 19th century were quite receptive to social climbers. About 15–20% came from rather petty-bourgeois backgrounds and managed to advance via the baccalaureate and university studies. The different origins were
925:
Within metal production, technical innovations ensured a considerable advance in production, such as the aforementioned production of iron using coking coal instead of the expensive charcoal previously used. While only 25% of iron was produced with coke in 1850, this figure had risen to 63% just
827:
From the 1840s onward, the demand for iron products triggered by railroad construction had a particularly positive effect on mining. In addition, there were changes in the legal framework. These included, in particular, the gradual abandonment of official control of mining from 1851 onward. This
708:
Railroad construction experienced its first peak in the 1840s. In 1840, there were about 580 kilometers of track; by 1850, there were already more than 7,000 kilometers, and by 1870, there were nearly 25,000 kilometers of track. Also, in 1840, more than 42,000 people were already employed in the
494:
and Saxony, too, industry took up old traditions. Chemnitz was the core of Saxon industrialization here. Chemnitz developed into the leading industrial city in Germany. Machine tool building, textile machine building, the textile industry, bicycle building, motorcycle building, vehicle building,
1724:
However, the bourgeoisie was not a homogeneous group, but consisted of different parts. In continuity with the bourgeoisie of the early modern period was the old town bourgeoisie of craftsmen, innkeepers or merchants. Downward this gradually passed into the petty bourgeoisie of small tradesmen,
704:
The growing demand for transportation led to the expansion of the rail network, which in turn increased the demand for iron and coal. The strength of this relationship is shown by the fact that between 1850 and 1890, about half of iron production was consumed by railroads. With the expansion of
364:
were added in the textile production sector from the 1830s onward. On the whole, the early industrialization approaches were based on the production of simple consumer goods and the processing of agricultural products (linen and wool manufactories, distilleries, breweries, oil mills, or tobacco
1696:
During the decades of the Industrial Revolution, not only the economy but also society underwent major changes. Just as older forms of trade and commerce came to stand side by side with modern industry in the economic sphere, older and newer ways of life, social groups and social problems also
1104:
The older-type agrarian economic crises were primarily related to crop failures, i.e., natural influences. Good harvests made food cheaper, but a high drop in prices led to a loss of income for farmers, which in turn had a considerable impact on demand for industrial products. Conversely, poor
1842:
It was not only rural day laborers and urban industrial workers who differed in their earning potential, but there were also clear differentiations within these groups. The organization of work in large-scale factories, for example, led to a pronounced factory hierarchy consisting of skilled,
442:
For a time, the older production methods were able to hold on. In some cases, this was done quite successfully by specializing in particular products. Elsewhere, publishers responded by lowering the fees paid to home weavers. In the long term, however, many trades were unable to withstand the
1732:
in the territory of the German Confederation was formed primarily by the higher employees in the civil service, in the judiciary and in the higher education system of grammar schools and universities, which expanded in the 19th century. In addition to the civil servants, independent academic
1854:
Women's work was and remained widespread in some industries, such as textiles, but women were hardly employed in mining or heavy industry. Particularly in the early decades, child labor also existed in the textile industry. However, the extent was much smaller than in the first decades of
1851:, came from this environment. The unskilled and semi-skilled workers mostly came from the urban lower classes or from the surrounding rural areas. In the decades of the Industrial Revolution, i.e., since the 1850s, the growing industry now also began to attract more internal migrants.
963:
In addition, vertically and horizontally linked corporations were already emerging in this phase, especially in heavy industry. For example, mines, iron production and steel production, rolling mills and engineering companies were combined. The Gutehoffnungshütte in Oberhausen, the
1116:
The industrial type of business cycle can first be traced in Germany in the mid-1840s. The years 1841 to 1845 saw a veritable investment boom in railroads, which attracted capital at hitherto unknown levels within a very short period of time, but then quickly broke off again.
1072:. These joint-stock companies focused on financing industrial and other ventures with high capital requirements. As a result, unlike in Great Britain, for example, there was a division of labor. The issuance of banknotes remained in the hands of (semi-)state institutions. The
905:
An important technical innovation in the first decades of the 19th century was the construction of puddling mills, which, using hard coal, were much more productive and cost-effective than the old charcoal-based smelters. In 1824, the process was introduced at a smelter in
1020:
or family money. In the long term, the establishment and further development of companies relied on banks to provide the necessary capital. In the first decades, these were predominantly private bankers. In addition, the development of joint-stock banks and the system of
439:, as well as for textiles produced in manufactories or in the publishing system. The linen trade in particular lost importance because of the cheaper cotton products. The existence of the most important branch of the German textile industry was thus threatened.
1745:
families. By 1873, their number had increased to several thousand families, but the economic bourgeoisie was numerically the smallest bourgeois subgroup. In addition to industrialists, they included bankers, capital owners and, increasingly, salaried managers.
443:
competition from machines – except in a few areas of retreat. As a result, if the older trades failed to make the transition to factory industry, they lacked job opportunities and could be subject to deindustrialization and reagriculturalization processes.
373:
with 28,000 spindles or the similarly large Ettlinger Spinnerei AG. A largely new branch of the textile industry in the early 19th century was cotton processing. Saxony took the leading position, followed by Prussia and Baden. The center in Prussia was the
758:
founded Germany's first machine tool factory in Chemnitz in 1848. In addition, customers in the heavy and textile industries, for example, were attracted by factories of this type. Mechanical engineering in Germany benefited from the founding of various
106:, which had collapsed in 1806. In terms of infrastructure, the empire was significantly less developed than England, and there was also a lack of overseas trade and colonial expansion. The gap to Great Britain was also evident in Germany's much larger
390:
alone there were 16 spinning mills in 1836. The textile industry as a whole was one of the first industries to be industrialized. Unlike in England, however, it was not a leading sector of the Industrial Revolution. Its growth was too small for that.
737:
in 1817. In 1836, there were nine mechanical engineering companies in the Aachen area with a combined workforce of a thousand. In 1832, there were 210 steam engines in all of Prussia. In the Kingdom of Hanover, the first one was started up in 1831.
1859:
better-paid earnings in the cities. In the course of time, the initially very heterogeneous stratum of the "working classes" grew together; a permanent social milieu developed, fostered by the close living together in the narrow workers' quarters.
1863:
as unjust and pressed for change. This was one of the social foundations for the emerging labor movement. The social grievances spreading to growing groups of dependent workers were discussed as the Social Question, for which social reformers and
656:
The central growth engine for industrialization in Germany was railroad construction. The demand generated by the railroad boosted developments in the three closely interrelated key industries: mining, metal production and mechanical engineering.
311:, trade barriers fell on the one hand, and on the other, the German economy was now exposed to direct competition with British industry. This significantly increased the pressure to adapt. In addition, the territorial upheaval following the
317:
led to the disappearance of numerous micro-territories and the emergence of a number of medium-sized states. But there was still no unified economic area. An important institutional factor for commercial development was the founding of the
746:, which produced its first locomotive in 1841 and its thousandth in 1858, becoming the third largest locomotive factory in the world with 1100 employees. Their rise, in turn, increased the need for products of the coal and steel industry.
508:
proximity of the factories to the raw materials was less important, for example in mechanical engineering, which became established at numerous locations. Thus, locomotive factories often sprang up in the capital and residence cities.
150:
Although the guild crafts were in crisis around 1800, there were not only stagnant developments in the commercial sector either. In the manufactories with a workforce of about 100,000, there was already a kind of mass production with
791:, the Prussian state took over state ownership of the coal mines, with one exception. In the Prussian western territories, the so-called directorate principle was introduced in 1766. Making the Ruhr navigable in the final phase of
141:
narrowed down a preparatory phase to roughly the period between 1770 and 1850. This included stronger population growth that began in the middle of the 18th century. This increased demand and enlarged the potential labor force.
482:
One characteristic of industrial development was its uneven regional distribution. The reasons for this were manifold. Connection to the railroad network or the availability of raw materials, labor or capital played a role.
326:, which had similarly taken place in other states. These included the liberation of peasants and reforms in trade legislation. Depending on the state, however, implementation dragged on well into the middle of the century.
93:
The initial situation for an Industrial Revolution was significantly worse in Germany than in the country of origin of industrialization, Great Britain. This included the lack of a single market, the large number of
812:
economic significance still remained quite modest. In 1815, for example, only 3,400 miners were employed. One example of the possibility of being successful in mining despite the supervision of the authorities was
673:
1733:
professions such as doctors, lawyers, notaries and architects began to gain in number only in the 1830s and 40s. For this group, membership was not based on class privileges but on performance qualifications.
583:
At the end of the era, four types of regions can be distinguished. The first comprises clearly industrialized areas such as the Kingdom of Saxony (here primarily the region around Chemnitz), the Rhineland,
922:, wire drawing mills and mechanical engineering departments. The expansion of the railroad caused the demand for iron and rails and other mining industry products to implode within a short period of time.
741:
With the advent of the railroad age in 1835, the demand for rails and locomotives grew. Since the 1830s, the number of manufacturers of steam engines and locomotives grew. At the top was undoubtedly the
1093:. This changed significantly after 1840, when railroads and heavy industry rose to become leading industrial sectors. Industrial cyclical development now primarily followed its own profit expectations.
572:
regions, with their traditional iron production, found it difficult or impossible to hold their own against competition from the nearby Ruhr area. Conversely, the construction of the main line of the
254:, a highly differentiated trade existed, ranging from rural and urban crafts to cottage industries, manufactories, mining and, soon, the first factories. Large parts of Saxony – here above all the
499:, for example, the ready-made clothing industry, mechanical engineering, banks and insurance companies were the main industries to settle. The Rhineland benefited from its transport location. The
596:. A second group includes those regions in which some sectors or subregions appear to be pioneers of industrialization, but the area as a whole cannot be considered industrialized. These include
1089:
industry, consumer goods production initially dominated, especially the textile industry. Economic development in the industrial sector was thus still strongly dependent on the development of
1101:
in the modern sense did not appear until the beginning of the Empire. Until then, older agricultural upswings and downswings mixed with industrial influences in the "economic alternations."
604:. In a third group, there are regions in which there were early industrial beginnings in some cities, but which otherwise had comparatively little industrial development. These include the
795:'s reign made it much easier to export coal. After the establishment of the provinces of Rhineland and Westphalia, the Oberbergamtsbezirk Dortmund was created in 1815. This extended from
329:
As early as the end of the 18th century, the first modern factories emerged in Germany, in addition to cottage industries and manufactories. In 1784, for example, the first mechanical
1855:
industrialization in England. Moreover, it remained a temporary phenomenon. Child and female labor, however, remained a widespread phenomenon in agriculture and cottage industries.
182:
These and other developments, including in the iron and metal trades and other areas, had already given rise to various regional centers of commercial concentration. In the western
681:
In the secondary sector, the railroad was the strongest growth engine and also held a key position overall. The railroad age began in Germany with the six-kilometer line between
2037:
Kaufhold, Handwerk und Industrie, S. 328–333, Wehler, Gesellschaftsgeschichte Bd. 2, S. 79–86, S. 91–94, Pierenkemper, Industrie und Gewerbe, S. 49–58.
1728:
Beyond the old bourgeoisie, new groups of citizens had been rising since the 18th century. These included above all the educated and business bourgeoisie. The core of the
828:
development was not completed until the Prussian mining law reform of 1861, which was one of the reasons for the upswing in private-sector mining in the Ruhr and Silesia.
1149:
Compared with the first half of the 1850s, the economy remained comparatively weak in the first half of the 1860s. This was mainly due to external influences such as the
988:
was founded immediately in 1872 as a diversified association of companies. The same applied to Gelsenkirchener Bergwerks AG (1873). Both projects were largely driven by
21:
179:, which was bought up by merchants and marketed on the national market. It is estimated that as many as one million people were employed in this sector around 1800.
1076:
soon played a central role. In contrast, private and joint-stock banks concentrated on the founding and issuing activities of industrial joint-stock companies.
2520:
914:
in 1825, and Harkort's plant a year later. The conversions and new establishments that took place in the following two decades led – as in the case of the
2084:, p 370–373, Siemann, Gesellschaft, p 108–111, Wehler, Gesellschaftsgeschichte Bd. 2, p 77, p 81, p 614, p 628, Kocka, Arbeitsverhältnisse, p 68, vergl.
1068:, among others, took a stake, in 1856 by David Hansemann's Disconto-Gesellschaft, which was converted into a stock corporation, and in the same year by
451:
extraordinarily low. Above all, the crafts whose products competed with industry came under pressure from this side, which erupted in riots such as the
960:
the same time, stock corporations – with exceptions such as Krupp or a few Upper Silesian family businesses – became the dominant form of enterprise.
418:. Behind this were various growth processes: a sharp rise in iron and especially steel production, the increased construction of machinery, not least
110:. Moreover, no comparable "agricultural revolution" had yet taken place in this sector at the beginning of the 19th century. There were still strong
2484:, April 1986, 28#2 pp 287–330, compares large landholdings in the territories east of the Elbe river, and the West-Elbian small-scale agriculture.
2619:
Zwischen Fortschritt und Krisen. Die vierziger Jahre des 19. Jahrhunderts als Durchbruchsphase der deutschen Industrialisierung (= Schriften des
2101:
Fischer, Bergbau, Industrie und Handwerk, S. 544–548, Siemann, Gesellschaft, S. 105 f., Wehler, Gesellschaftsgeschichte, Bd. 2, S. 73–82, S. 626.
926:
three years later. In the 1860s, the Bessemer process became established in steel production. This made it possible to produce steel from liquid
382:
region, which had already been on the threshold of the Industrial Revolution around 1800 on the basis of small iron and textile industries. In
2167:
2022:
394:
The phase of the early industrial boom that began after 1815 ended as early as the mid-1840s when the agrarian crisis and the effects of the
1165:
in 1873. While the economic ups and downs in the middle of the century were also determined by agriculture, industry now clearly dominated.
2884:
1051:
874:
The beginnings of a number of later leading heavy industrial companies also fall into the period of early industrialization. On the Saar,
395:
73:
shifted away from the rural lower classes and toward the growing working population with its poor working conditions and often low wages.
902:
a highly indebted company in 1826. The company's situation remained problematic until railroad construction boosted demand in the 1840s.
816:
from the port city of Mülheim. Starting in 1818, he systematically built up a coal transport company with customers in the Rhineland and
2244:
Hans-Ulrich Wehler: Bürger, Arbeiter und das Problem der Klassenbildung 1800–1870. In: Ders.: Aus der Geschichte lernen? München, 1988.
632:. In addition, there are areas that were predominantly agricultural and whose trades were mostly artisanal. These include, for example,
2471:
2345:
An Introduction to the Social and Economic History of Germany: Politics and Economic Change in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
2810:
2766:
2693:
2675:
2640:
2611:
2583:
2561:
2546:
2395:
The Chemical Industry During the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and North America
2249:
577:
2184:
286:, the connection to industrialization was not successful and in the areas of rural trade there were processes of economic decline.
69:. Only with the breakthrough of the Industrial Revolution did new job opportunities arise on a larger scale. As it progressed, the
2879:
875:
118:, numerous low-performing small farms, many of which still operated using old methods and were barely connected to the market as
2218:
Knut Borchardt, Wirtschaftliches Wachstum, p 198–210, p 255–275, Siemann, Gesellschaft, p 102–104, S. 115–123, Reinhard Spree:
398:
severely impaired development. This period saw the peak of pre-March pauperism and the last agrarian crisis of the "old-type" (
1848:
1069:
984:
in Upper Silesia developed in this direction. While most of the companies developed in this direction only gradually, the
387:
313:
1146:
pace with demand. However, the crisis was much shorter and the effects less severe than the founders' crisis after 1873.
977:
2159:
Geldlose Zeiten und überfüllte Kassen: Sparen, Leihen und Vererben in der ländlichen Gesellschaft Westfalens (1830–1866)
1710:
414:
An important indicator of the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the 1850s was the sudden increase in the use of
1084:
In relation to the economy as a whole during this period, growth rates were not above average. The average increase in
717:
Around the turn of the century, the first steam-powered machines were built and used in Germany. In 1807, the brothers
2223:
1894:
131:
2521:
From Old Regime to Industrial State: A History of German Industrialization from the Eighteenth Century to World War I
452:
2889:
2463:
2046:
Hans J. Naumann u. a. (Hrsg.): Werkzeugmaschinenbau in Sachsen: von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart. Chemnitz, 2003.
1154:
486:
In the decades of industrialization, some old commercial concentration zones adapted to industrial development. In
894:
in 1810. While the company had only 340 workers around 1830, by the early 1840s it already employed around 2,000.
855:
1105:
harvests led to extreme increases in food prices. Agricultural crises of this kind occurred in 1805/06, 1816/17 (
573:
262:– were even among the most growth-intensive regions in Europe, as was the northern Rhineland, according to Hahn.
2513:
2423:
2220:
Veränderungen der Muster zyklischen Wachstums der deutschen Wirtschaft von der Früh- zur Hochindustrialisierung
1835:
981:
243:
356:
Most of the factory-like operations were relatively simple, not yet using steam power. Spinning machines for
1031:
792:
694:
690:
1797:
915:
878:
and his family played the leading role in heavy industry, especially when they controlled their competitor
755:
564:
However, there were also areas that benefited less from industrial development. For example, the once rich
839:
764:
375:
1992:
Botzenhart, Reform, Restauration, Krise, p 95–104, Siemann, Vom Staatenbund zum Nationalstaat, p 337–342.
847:
568:
fell behind due to its relatively remote location in terms of transportation. Parts of the Sauerland and
2110:
Siemann, p 106, Wehler, Bd. 2, p 76–78, 82 f., Wehler, Bd. 3, p 75–77, Kocka, Arbeitsverhältnisse, p 72.
2077:
1169:
1106:
993:
242:, mining and processing were run partly by the state and partly by large landowners. These included the
54:
2554:
Industrielle Revolutionen. Langfristige Wirtschaftsentwicklung in Großbritannien, Europa und in Übersee
891:
722:
2261:
Siemann, Gesellschaft, p 150–152, S. 162 f., zum Weberaufstand vergl. etwa Hardtwig, Vormärz, p 27–32.
2085:
1039:
985:
2826:
1729:
1173:
1085:
1065:
997:
965:
942:
813:
593:
319:
308:
219:
137:
But there had also been preparatory developments in the German states since the early modern period.
89:
near Chemnitz from 1812, one of the earliest factory buildings in Germany. Demolished in August 2016.
2759:
Vom Zollverein zum Industriestaat. Die wirtschaftlich-soziale Entwicklung Deutschlands 1834 bis 1914
941:
In total, around 1850, at the beginning of the actual Industrial Revolution in the territory of the
298:
The German Customs Union. Blue: at the time of foundation. Green/yellow: extensions up to/after 1866
1061:
832:
609:
164:
107:
45:. The (catch-up) Industrial Revolution in Germany differed from that of the pioneering country of
1899:
1889:
1150:
843:
605:
156:
152:
1763:
1137:. The crisis came about when the trade and arms deals financed with bank bills between Hamburg,
879:
2781:
Von der Reformära bis zur industriellen und politischen Deutschen Doppelrevolution 1815–1845/49
2620:
2068:, Dortmund 1975, Kellenbenz, Verkehrs- und Nachrichtenwesen, p 370–373, Wehler, Bd. 3, p 67–74.
883:
495:
steam engine building, locomotive building and the chemical industry played a leading role. In
2806:
2762:
2730:
2711:
2689:
2671:
2636:
2607:
2579:
2557:
2542:
2467:
2245:
2163:
2018:
1718:
1110:
1043:
1035:
796:
760:
730:
641:
617:
270:
251:
103:
37:
2836:
2772:
2157:
2012:
2658:
Arbeitsverhältnisse und Arbeiterexistenzen. Grundlagen der Klassenbildung im 19. Jahrhundert
2455:
1871:
989:
866:
851:
743:
718:
629:
589:
557:
475:
323:
172:
119:
50:
2663:
2628:
2350:
Brinkmann, Carl. "The Place of Germany in the Economic History of the Nineteenth Century".
1133:). At its core, this was a trade, speculation and banking crisis, originating primarily in
81:
1792:
1226:
1073:
1047:
895:
665:
625:
585:
379:
304:
191:
70:
2754:
2599:
2589:
490:, for example, large textile factories took the place of home-based linen producers. In
2855:
Verkehrs- und Nachrichtenwesen, Handel, Geld-, Kredit- und Versicherungswesen 1850–1914
2681:
2567:
2449:
2438:
1771:
1162:
1130:
1098:
1022:
1017:
954:
808:
698:
597:
504:
423:
195:
95:
2653:
1810:
emigration was encouraged by governments as a means of alleviating the social crisis.
2873:
2816:
2699:
2534:
1138:
1126:
919:
804:
734:
551:
330:
283:
239:
46:
42:
26:
1054:
was founded in 1848 as the first joint stock bank. This was followed in 1853 by the
669:
Route kilometers of railroads in the territory of the German Confederation 1850–1873
1844:
1177:
1026:
899:
637:
633:
601:
399:
338:
138:
123:
2727:
Nationalökonomische Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der großindustriellen Unternehmung
2708:
Nationalökonomische Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der großindustriellen Unternehmung
1008:
1016:
Not infrequently, the financing of the first industrial enterprises was based on
2055:
Siemann, Gesellschaft, S. 99 f., Wehler, Gesellschaftsgeschichte, Bd. 2, S. 627.
1830:
1606:
1437:
1158:
1142:
645:
370:
365:
factories). Relatively early on, some larger spinning mills were established in
265:
160:
2411:
Restoration, Revolution, Reaction: Economics and Politics in Germany, 1815-1871
2402:
The Chemical Industry: 1900-1930: International Growth and Technological Change
2373:
1705:
783:
Until the 19th century, the mining of ores or coal was subject to the princely
2841:
Verkehrs- und Nachrichtenwesen, Handel-, Geld-, Kredit- und Versicherungswesen
1097:
still had its own momentum. This is also one of the reasons why macroeconomic
1090:
973:
887:
569:
419:
294:
259:
215:
199:
168:
115:
99:
66:
2311:
Weder Kommunismus noch Kapitalismus. Bürgerliche Sozialreform in Deutschland
1864:
1758:
969:
784:
682:
621:
613:
491:
487:
471:
415:
346:
342:
247:
203:
187:
111:
62:
1834:
Workers in front of the magistrate during the 1848 revolution (painting by
831:
The changes in mining law also facilitated the establishment of the modern
729:. These were primarily used to pump out water in mines in the Ruhr region.
463:
2715:
2510:
Gold and Iron: Bismark, Bleichroder, and the Building of the German Empire
2386:
Fairbairn, Brett, "Economic and Social Developments", in James Retallack,
693:
in 1834/35. The first economically significant line was the 115-kilometer
580:
to the south in 1862 had a beneficial effect on the emerging Ruhr region.
2734:
2363:
Modern Germany: An Encyclopedia of History, People, and Culture 1871-1990
927:
911:
836:
788:
751:
686:
517:
436:
350:
334:
255:
223:
2792:
Von der Deutschen Doppelrevolution bis zum Beginn des ersten Weltkrieges
2090:
Modernisierung und Wachstum der Schwerindustrie in Deutschland 1830–1860
933:
775:
134:
in the crafts sector held on to old instruments of economic regulation.
2355:
1269:
1134:
907:
817:
600:, Baden, Silesia, Westphalia, and the Prussian provinces of Saxony and
565:
545:
539:
527:
521:
183:
2252:, p 161–190, Wehler, Bd. 3, 112–125, Siemann, Gesellschaft, p 157–159.
898:
had started cast steel production in Essen in 1811, but left his son
800:
533:
496:
467:
411:
per inhabitant increased tenfold compared to the pre-industrial era.
383:
211:
2512:(1979) in-depth scholarly study from viewpoint of Bismarck's banker
2503:
German Economic and Business History in the 19th and 20th Centuries
1829:
1796:
1762:
1704:
1034:
is particularly well documented. Initially, the leading force was
1007:
932:
865:
774:
726:
672:
664:
462:
447:
366:
293:
279:
264:
227:
207:
176:
127:
86:
80:
20:
2446:
The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850-1914
470:, industrialized at a very early stage together with neighboring
206:. Similar contexts existed in the Rhineland, where iron from the
159:(proto-industry) had already emerged in some regions in the late
1481:
500:
361:
357:
235:
231:
2185:"Gerade auf LeMO gesehen: LeMO Kapitel: Vormärz und Revolution"
1717:
The 19th century is considered the time of the breakthrough of
2418:
The State and the Industrial Revolution in Prussia, 1740-1870
1709:
Oil painting of the family of the entrepreneur Brökelmann by
2494:
Plumpe, Werner, Alexander Nützenadel, and Catherine Schenk.
2235:
Bairoch 1976, pp. 286, table 6; 297, table 12; 301, table 14
1025:
typical of later developments in Germany began before 1870.
2480:
Perkins, J. A. "Dualism in German Agrarian Historiography,
2279:
Wehler, Bd. 3, p 141–166, Siemann, Gesellschaft, p 163–171.
750:
and Zwickau, as well as Berlin, Dresden, Hanover, Leipzig,
2092:. In: Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 5. Jg. 1979, p 201–227.
1129:, often referred to as the "first world economic crisis" (
937:
Iron and steel production in Prussia 1800–1870 (in 1000 t)
512:
Distribution of machine tool factories in 1846 in Germany:
2576:
Materialien zur Geschichte des Deutschen Bundes 1815–1870
2381:
Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600-1947
2370:
The Economic Development of France and Germany: 1815-1914
2307:
Die Anfänge der organisierten Sozialreform in Deutschland
1962:
Hahn, industrielle Revolution, S. 7, Pierenkemper, S. 50.
1038:. They were joined from the Cologne banking community by
910:, followed by Eberhard Hoesch's Lendersdorf smelter near
2799:
Handbuch der Deutschen Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte
2744:. Ein Lehr- und Lesebuch. Verlag K. Curtius, Berlin 1909
2435:
The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780-1870
2594:
Eisenbahnen und deutsches Wirtschaftswachstum 1840–1879
2066:
Eisenbahnen und deutsches Wirtschaftswachstum 1840–1879
1953:
Hahn, industrielle Revolution, p 7, Pierenkemper, p 50.
333:, the Cromford textile factory, went into operation in
2866:. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2005.
1801:
German emigrants in the port of Hamburg (around 1850)
779:
Hard coal production in Prussia 1817–1870 (in 1000 t)
2648:
Die Industrialisierung in Deutschland 1800 bis 1914
1933:
Die Industrialisierung in Deutschland 1800 bis 1914
1737:equalized by education and similar social circles.
1125:industry was interrupted from 1857 to 1859 by the
846:in 1854, and in 1856 various shareholders founded
2633:Vormärz. Der monarchische Staat und das Bürgertum
2296:. Wiss. Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1998, p 1189.
2686:Gesellschaft im Aufbruch. Deutschland 1849–1871.
2668:Gewerbe und Industrie im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert
2489:The German Economy during the Nineteenth Century
1920:Industrielle Revolution in Deutschland 1815–1914
349:was built at the Royal Prussian Iron Foundry in
167:. For example, the land-poor classes in eastern
1109:), 1829/30, and the worst was that of 1846/47 (
2541:. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1978,
1176:of different countries in Europe according to
1153:. Due to the lack of cotton supplies from the
341:in the mining industry went into operation in
2496:Deutsche Bank: The Global Hausbank, 1870–2020
2428:Krupp: A History of the Legendary German Firm
1161:/71, growth continued until the start of the
238:production was concentrated in this area. In
8:
2678:(Enzyklopädie Deutscher Geschichte, Bd. 29).
2539:Grundriß der deutschen Wirtschaftsgeschichte
2482:Comparative Studies in Society & History
2460:Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck: 1800–1866
2137:Wehler, Gesellschaftsgeschichte Bd. 3, p 83.
1055:
980:and also family-owned companies such as the
345:. In 1796, the first continuously producing
1818:Emergence of workforce and labour movements
918:– to further operating departments such as
360:production, in particular, made the start;
41:phase of high industrialization during the
2821:Wirtschaftliches Wachstum und Wechsellagen
2604:Die industrielle Revolution in Deutschland
1167:
258:region, which was later also called Saxon
53:but coal production, steel production and
49:in that the key industries became not the
2848:Bergbau, Industrie und Handwerk 1850–1914
2729:Band 2) Jäh & Schunke, Leipzig 1906,
2322:
2290:Lexikon der deutschen Geschichte bis 1945
2183:Museum, Stiftung Deutsches Historisches.
122:. There were also other aspects. Despite
102:and the territorial fragmentation of the
2518:Tilly, Richard H. and Michael Kopsidis.
2376:, a famous classic, filled with details.
1847:, the founder and many followers of the
576:until 1847 and the parallel line of the
190:and Westphalia, for example, these were
77:Pre-, early- and proto-industrialization
1911:
835:as a form of enterprise in mining. The
2710:Band 1) Franz Siemeroth, Berlin 1904,
2524:. (University of Chicago Press, 2020).
126:in the 18th century, for example, the
2162:(in German). Lucius & Lucius DE.
36:was the phase of the breakthrough of
7:
2437:(1973), pp 365–431 covers 1815-1870
1944:Hahn, industrielle Revolution, p 4-6
697:built on the decisive initiative of
114:elements and, with the exception of
2001:Hahn, industrielle Revolution, p 10
1849:General German Workers' Brotherhood
733:founded his mechanical workshop in
171:and other areas specialized in the
677:Locomotive construction in Germany
146:Protoindustry and cottage industry
14:
2572:Sozialgeschichtliches Arbeitsbuch
2444:Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul.
2433:Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul.
2309:. In: Rüdiger vom Bruch (Hrsg.):
2270:Siemann, Gesellschaft, p 123–136.
1052:A. Schaaffhausen'scher Bankverein
725:built the first steam engines in
578:Bergisch-Markisch Railway Company
2831:Handwerk und Industrie 1800–1850
2788:Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte
2777:Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte
2751:. Verlag K. Curtius, Berlin 1909
2570:, Jochen Krengel, Jutta Wietog:
2487:Pierenkemper, T., and R. Tilly,
1032:Rheinische Eisenbahngesellschaft
890:, various companies founded the
876:Carl Ferdinand von Stumm-Halberg
870:Krupp plant in Essen around 1864
369:, such as the spinning mills in
2498:(Bloomsbury, 2020), in English.
1979:, S. 51 ff., S. 100ff. Wehler:
1867:developed different solutions.
1121:until late 1849 or early 1850.
1046:and a group from Aachen around
574:Cologne-Minden Railroad Company
2082:Verkehrs- und Nachrichtenwesen
1004:Industrial finance and banking
446:Another crisis factor was the
1:
2625:. München 1995 (Digitalisat).
1070:Berliner Handels-Gesellschaft
1057:Bank für Handel und Industrie
763:, some of which later became
691:Ludwigseisenbahn-Gesellschaft
616:-Saxon principalities in the
337:, and a year later the first
314:Reichsdeputationshauptschluss
273:in the ruins of Wetter Castle
210:region was processed between
85:The Meinert spinning mill in
2749:Die Börse und ihre Geschäfte
2650:. Schöningh, Paderborn 1973.
2017:(in German). Рипол Классик.
1814:southwestern Germany alone.
856:Gelsenkirchener Bergwerks AG
34:Industrialization in Germany
2885:Economic history of Germany
2864:Die Industrielle Revolution
2803:Das 19. und 20. Jahrhundert
2646:Friedrich-Wilhelm Henning:
2224:Geschichte und Gesellschaft
1931:Friedrich-Wilhelm Henning:
1895:Economic history of Germany
202:region with spurs into the
16:Aspect of Germany's history
2906:
2505:(Palgrave Macmillan, 2016)
2464:Princeton University Press
2388:Imperial Germany 1871-1918
2313:. Beck, München 1985, p 21
2011:Neumann, Bernhard (1904).
1790:
1756:
952:
474:(around 1870, painting by
459:Regional industrialization
453:Berlin tailors' revolution
2704:Eisen- und Stahlindustrie
2226:, 5. Jg. 1979, p 228–250.
2156:Bracht, Johannes (2013).
1922:, Frankfurt am Main 1989.
862:Iron and steel production
624:, as well as neighboring
430:Decline of the old crafts
406:The Industrial Revolution
155:to a certain extent. The
2354:4#2 (1933), pp 129–146.
2288:Gerhard Taddey (Hrsg.):
1981:Gesellschaftsgeschichte,
1836:Johann Peter Hasenclever
982:Henckel von Donnersmarck
930:on an industrial scale.
269:Mechanical workshops of
2880:19th century in Germany
2797:Wolfgang Zorn (Hrsg.):
2514:excerpt and text search
2430:. (Princeton UP, 2012).
2352:Economic History Review
2119:Wehler, Bd. 3, p 85–87.
1973:Industrielle Revolution
1935:, Paderborn 1973, p 111
524:= approx. 135 factories
378:and in particular, the
307:and the lifting of the
290:Early industrialization
29:in Berlin (around 1847)
2827:Karl Heinrich Kaufhold
2416:Henderson, William O.
1975:, S. 8. Pierenkemper:
1881:
1839:
1802:
1775:
1714:
1056:
1013:
938:
871:
840:William Thomas Mulvany
780:
765:technical universities
678:
670:
542:= approx. 19 factories
536:= approx. 38 factories
530:= approx. 60 factories
503:region, partly in the
479:
299:
274:
244:Counts of Donnersmarck
226:. Above all, however,
163:and especially in the
90:
30:
25:Locomotive factory of
2761:. dtv, München 1990,
2635:. dtv, München 1998,
2556:. dtv, München 1994,
2409:Hamerow, Theodore S.
1876:
1833:
1800:
1766:
1708:
1107:Year Without a Summer
1080:Economic fluctuations
1011:
994:Disconto-Gesellschaft
936:
916:Hüstener Gewerkschaft
869:
778:
756:Johann von Zimmermann
676:
668:
661:Railroad construction
560:= approx. 5 factories
554:= approx. 5 factories
548:= approx. 5 factories
466:
396:revolution of 1848/49
297:
268:
84:
55:railroad construction
24:
2786:Hans-Ulrich Wehler:
2723:Steinkohlenindustrie
2621:Historischen Kollegs
2379:Clark, Christopher.
2361:Buse, Dieter K. ed.
1918:Hubert Kiesewetter:
1768:The Silesian Weavers
1172:(PPP) per capita in
1086:net national product
998:Adolph von Hansemann
992:and financed by the
943:German Confederation
695:Leipzig-Dresden line
594:Grand Duchy of Hesse
331:cotton spinning mill
320:German customs union
309:Continental Blockade
248:Princes of Hohenlohe
2742:Geld- und Bankwesen
2552:Christoph Bucheim:
1181:
949:Corporate formation
848:Harpener Bergbau AG
612:, the areas of the
610:province of Hanover
165:early modern period
108:agricultural sector
2837:Hermann Kellenbenz
2805:. Stuttgart 1976,
2773:Hans-Ulrich Wehler
2617:Hans-Werner Hahn:
2078:Hermann Kellenbenz
2064:Rainer Fremdling:
1900:Economy of Germany
1890:History of Germany
1840:
1803:
1776:
1715:
1711:Engelbert Seibertz
1168:
1151:American Civil War
1014:
939:
892:Gutehoffnungshütte
872:
803:in the east, from
781:
679:
671:
652:Leading industries
622:southern Thuringia
480:
300:
275:
157:putting-out system
91:
31:
2890:Industrialisation
2846:Wolfram Fischer:
2664:Toni Pierenkemper
2629:Wolfgang Hardtwig
2456:Nipperdey, Thomas
2305:Jürgen Reulecke:
2169:978-3-8282-0578-9
2024:978-5-87731-632-4
1730:Bildungsbürgertum
1719:bourgeois society
1689:
1688:
1185:Country / Region
1111:Potato Revolution
1044:Abraham Oppenheim
1036:Ludolf Camphausen
854:in 1873 with his
833:stock corporation
731:Friedrich Harkort
723:Johann Dinnendahl
618:Thuringian Forest
376:Düsseldorf region
271:Friedrich Harkort
252:Kingdom of Saxony
186:provinces of the
153:division of labor
120:subsistence farms
104:Holy Roman Empire
38:industrialization
2897:
2862:Dieter Ziegler:
2755:Richard H. Tilly
2747:Oskar Stillich:
2740:Oskar Stillich:
2721:Oskar Stillich:
2688:Frankfurt 1990,
2670:. München 1994,
2606:. München 2005,
2600:Hans-Werner Hahn
2596:. Dortmund 1975.
2590:Rainer Fremdling
2578:. München 1982,
2501:Plumpe, Werner.
2477:
2448:(1977) pp 17–70
2326:
2320:
2314:
2303:
2297:
2286:
2280:
2277:
2271:
2268:
2262:
2259:
2253:
2242:
2236:
2233:
2227:
2216:
2210:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2196:
2180:
2174:
2173:
2153:
2147:
2144:
2138:
2135:
2129:
2126:
2120:
2117:
2111:
2108:
2102:
2099:
2093:
2086:Rainer Fremdling
2075:
2069:
2062:
2056:
2053:
2047:
2044:
2038:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2008:
2002:
1999:
1993:
1990:
1984:
1983:Bd. 2, S. 78–81.
1969:
1963:
1960:
1954:
1951:
1945:
1942:
1936:
1929:
1923:
1916:
1872:Thomas Nipperdey
1865:early socialists
1182:
1062:Darmstädter Bank
1060:, also known as
1059:
1040:A. Schaaffhausen
990:Friedrich Grillo
986:Dortmunder Union
852:Friedrich Grillo
807:in the north to
713:Metal processing
630:Middle Franconia
590:Rhine Palatinate
558:Middle Franconia
476:August von Wille
362:mechanical looms
324:Prussian reforms
173:cottage industry
51:textile industry
2905:
2904:
2900:
2899:
2898:
2896:
2895:
2894:
2870:
2869:
2853:Richard Tilly:
2813:. Darin u. a.:
2794:. München 1995.
2783:. München 1989.
2682:Wolfram Siemann
2568:Wolfram Fischer
2531:
2474:
2454:
2400:Haber, Ludwig.
2393:Haber, Ludwig.
2368:Clapham, J. H.
2343:Böhme, Helmut.
2340:
2335:
2333:Further reading
2330:
2329:
2321:
2317:
2304:
2300:
2287:
2283:
2278:
2274:
2269:
2265:
2260:
2256:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2230:
2217:
2213:
2208:
2204:
2194:
2192:
2182:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2155:
2154:
2150:
2145:
2141:
2136:
2132:
2128:Tilly, p 59–66.
2127:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2096:
2076:
2072:
2063:
2059:
2054:
2050:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2025:
2010:
2009:
2005:
2000:
1996:
1991:
1987:
1970:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1939:
1930:
1926:
1917:
1913:
1908:
1886:
1820:
1795:
1793:German diaspora
1789:
1761:
1755:
1703:
1694:
1649:United Kingdom
1227:Austria-Hungary
1174:1960 US dollars
1155:Southern states
1099:Business cycles
1082:
1074:Bank of Prussia
1066:Gustav Mevissen
1048:David Hansemann
1023:universal banks
1012:David Hansemann
1006:
976:companies, the
966:Bochumer Verein
957:
951:
896:Friedrich Krupp
880:Dillinger Hütte
864:
814:Mathias Stinnes
799:in the west to
773:
715:
663:
654:
586:Alsace-Lorraine
461:
432:
408:
380:Bergisches Land
305:Napoleonic Wars
292:
192:Bergisches Land
148:
79:
71:social question
17:
12:
11:
5:
2903:
2901:
2893:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2872:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2860:
2859:
2858:
2851:
2844:
2834:
2824:
2817:Knut Borchardt
2795:
2784:
2770:
2752:
2745:
2738:
2719:
2700:Oskar Stillich
2697:
2679:
2661:
2651:
2644:
2626:
2623:. Vorträge 38)
2615:
2597:
2587:
2565:
2550:
2535:Knut Borchardt
2530:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2516:
2508:Stern, Fritz.
2506:
2499:
2492:
2485:
2478:
2473:978-0691607559
2472:
2452:
2442:
2431:
2421:
2414:
2407:
2406:
2405:
2391:
2384:
2377:
2366:
2359:
2348:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2325:, p. 178.
2323:Nipperdey 1996
2315:
2298:
2281:
2272:
2263:
2254:
2237:
2228:
2211:
2202:
2175:
2168:
2148:
2139:
2130:
2121:
2112:
2103:
2094:
2070:
2057:
2048:
2039:
2030:
2023:
2003:
1994:
1985:
1964:
1955:
1946:
1937:
1924:
1910:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1885:
1882:
1819:
1816:
1791:Main article:
1788:
1785:
1757:Main article:
1754:
1751:
1702:
1699:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1686:
1683:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1665:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1646:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1624:
1621:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1599:
1596:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1562:
1561:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1521:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1477:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1409:
1406:
1403:
1400:
1397:
1393:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1309:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1266:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1141:, England and
1131:Hans Rosenberg
1081:
1078:
1018:equity capital
1005:
1002:
978:Hoerder Verein
953:Main article:
950:
947:
882:from 1827. In
863:
860:
772:
769:
744:Borsig company
714:
711:
699:Friedrich List
662:
659:
653:
650:
562:
561:
555:
549:
543:
537:
531:
525:
505:Rhine Province
460:
457:
431:
428:
424:heavy industry
407:
404:
291:
288:
196:County of Mark
175:production of
147:
144:
96:customs duties
78:
75:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2902:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2877:
2875:
2865:
2861:
2857:. S. 563–596.
2856:
2852:
2850:. S. 527–562.
2849:
2845:
2843:. S. 369–425.
2842:
2838:
2835:
2833:. S. 321–368.
2832:
2828:
2825:
2823:. S. 198–275.
2822:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2811:3-12-900140-9
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2771:
2768:
2767:3-423-04506-X
2764:
2760:
2756:
2753:
2750:
2746:
2743:
2739:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2698:
2695:
2694:3-518-11537-5
2691:
2687:
2683:
2680:
2677:
2676:3-486-55015-2
2673:
2669:
2665:
2662:
2659:
2655:
2652:
2649:
2645:
2642:
2641:3-423-04502-7
2638:
2634:
2630:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2616:
2613:
2612:3-486-57669-0
2609:
2605:
2601:
2598:
2595:
2591:
2588:
2585:
2584:3-406-04023-3
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2566:
2563:
2562:3-423-04622-8
2559:
2555:
2551:
2548:
2547:3-525-33421-4
2544:
2540:
2536:
2533:
2532:
2528:
2523:
2522:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2504:
2500:
2497:
2493:
2490:
2486:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2429:
2425:
2424:James, Harold
2422:
2419:
2415:
2412:
2408:
2403:
2399:
2398:
2396:
2392:
2389:
2385:
2382:
2378:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2364:
2360:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2346:
2342:
2341:
2337:
2332:
2324:
2319:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2302:
2299:
2295:
2294:Sozialpolitik
2291:
2285:
2282:
2276:
2273:
2267:
2264:
2258:
2255:
2251:
2250:3-406-33001-0
2247:
2241:
2238:
2232:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2215:
2212:
2206:
2203:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2176:
2171:
2165:
2161:
2160:
2152:
2149:
2143:
2140:
2134:
2131:
2125:
2122:
2116:
2113:
2107:
2104:
2098:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2074:
2071:
2067:
2061:
2058:
2052:
2049:
2043:
2040:
2034:
2031:
2026:
2020:
2016:
2015:
2007:
2004:
1998:
1995:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1968:
1965:
1959:
1956:
1950:
1947:
1941:
1938:
1934:
1928:
1925:
1921:
1915:
1912:
1905:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1887:
1883:
1880:
1875:
1873:
1868:
1866:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1850:
1846:
1837:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1799:
1794:
1786:
1784:
1780:
1773:
1770:(painting by
1769:
1765:
1760:
1752:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1720:
1712:
1707:
1700:
1698:
1692:Social change
1691:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1604:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1573:
1570:
1567:
1564:
1563:
1559:
1556:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1535:
1532:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1478:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1435:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1394:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1351:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1310:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1267:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1224:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1166:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1147:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1127:Panic of 1857
1122:
1118:
1114:
1112:
1108:
1102:
1100:
1094:
1092:
1087:
1079:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1027:Private banks
1024:
1019:
1010:
1003:
1001:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
961:
956:
948:
946:
944:
935:
931:
929:
923:
921:
920:rolling mills
917:
913:
909:
903:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
868:
861:
859:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
838:
834:
829:
825:
821:
819:
815:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
777:
770:
768:
766:
762:
761:trade schools
757:
754:and Cologne.
753:
747:
745:
739:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
712:
710:
706:
702:
700:
696:
692:
689:built by the
688:
684:
675:
667:
660:
658:
651:
649:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
592:and also the
591:
587:
581:
579:
575:
571:
567:
559:
556:
553:
550:
547:
544:
541:
538:
535:
532:
529:
526:
523:
519:
516:
515:
514:
513:
509:
506:
502:
498:
493:
489:
484:
477:
473:
469:
465:
458:
456:
454:
449:
444:
440:
438:
429:
427:
425:
421:
417:
412:
405:
403:
401:
397:
392:
389:
385:
381:
377:
372:
368:
363:
359:
354:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
327:
325:
321:
316:
315:
310:
306:
296:
289:
287:
285:
284:Lower Silesia
281:
272:
267:
263:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
240:Upper Silesia
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
180:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
145:
143:
140:
135:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
88:
83:
76:
74:
72:
68:
64:
58:
56:
52:
48:
47:Great Britain
44:
43:German Empire
39:
35:
28:
27:August Borsig
23:
19:
2863:
2854:
2847:
2840:
2830:
2820:
2802:
2798:
2791:
2787:
2780:
2776:
2758:
2748:
2741:
2726:
2722:
2707:
2703:
2685:
2667:
2660:. Bonn 1990.
2657:
2654:Jürgen Kocka
2647:
2632:
2618:
2603:
2593:
2575:
2571:
2553:
2538:
2519:
2509:
2502:
2495:
2488:
2481:
2459:
2445:
2434:
2427:
2417:
2410:
2401:
2394:
2387:
2380:
2369:
2365:(2 vol 1998)
2362:
2351:
2344:
2318:
2310:
2306:
2301:
2293:
2289:
2284:
2275:
2266:
2257:
2240:
2231:
2219:
2214:
2205:
2193:. Retrieved
2188:
2178:
2158:
2151:
2142:
2133:
2124:
2115:
2106:
2097:
2089:
2081:
2073:
2065:
2060:
2051:
2042:
2033:
2013:
2006:
1997:
1988:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1967:
1958:
1949:
1940:
1932:
1927:
1919:
1914:
1877:
1869:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1845:Stephen Born
1841:
1825:
1821:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1781:
1777:
1767:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1727:
1723:
1716:
1695:
1353:
1180:(1830–1938)
1178:Paul Bairoch
1163:Gründerkrise
1148:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1103:
1095:
1083:
1015:
962:
958:
940:
924:
904:
873:
830:
826:
822:
793:Frederick II
782:
748:
740:
716:
707:
703:
680:
655:
638:West Prussia
602:Hesse-Nassau
582:
563:
511:
510:
485:
481:
445:
441:
433:
413:
409:
400:Wilhelm Abel
393:
355:
339:steam engine
328:
312:
301:
276:
181:
149:
139:Werner Conze
136:
132:corporations
124:mercantilism
92:
59:
33:
32:
18:
2292:, Eintrag:
2209:Tilly, p 29
2191:(in German)
2146:Tilly, p 29
2014:Die Metalle
1772:Karl Hübner
1701:Bourgeoisie
1607:Switzerland
1438:Netherlands
1159:War of 1870
1143:Scandinavia
1064:, in which
955:Gründerzeit
844:Hibernia AG
809:Lüdenscheid
789:Saar region
646:Mecklenburg
598:Württemberg
420:locomotives
371:St. Blasien
161:Middle Ages
2874:Categories
2189:www.dhm.de
1906:References
1870:Historian
1787:Emigration
1091:real wages
996:headed by
888:Oberhausen
805:Ibbenbüren
614:Thuringian
570:Siegerland
552:Düsseldorf
435:made with
260:Manchester
216:Eschweiler
200:Siegerland
169:Westphalia
116:East Elbia
100:currencies
2801:. Bd. 2:
2790:. Bd. 3:
2779:. Bd. 2:
2716:631629843
2574:. Bd. 1:
1874:remarks:
1759:Pauperism
1753:Pauperism
1713:from 1850
1697:mingled.
884:Sterkrade
787:. In the
785:Bergregal
683:Nuremberg
492:Wuppertal
488:Bielefeld
472:Elberfeld
416:hard coal
347:coke oven
343:Hettstedt
250:. In the
204:Sauerland
188:Rhineland
63:pauperism
2735:16399750
2458:(1996).
1884:See also
928:pig iron
842:created
837:Irishman
797:Emmerich
752:Mannheim
701:(1837).
518:Chemnitz
455:(1830).
437:charcoal
388:Gladbach
351:Gleiwitz
335:Ratingen
256:Chemnitz
220:Stolberg
198:and the
184:Prussian
2397:(1958)
2383:(2006).
2372:(1921)
2338:English
1977:Gewerbe
1774:, 1846)
1565:Sweden
1480:Russia/
1354:Germany
1312:France
1270:Belgium
1139:America
1135:Hamburg
1030:in the
974:Thyssen
908:Neuwied
818:Holland
606:kingdom
566:Silesia
546:Cologne
540:Leipzig
528:Dresden
522:Zwickau
246:or the
67:Vormärz
65:of the
2809:
2765:
2733:
2714:
2692:
2674:
2639:
2610:
2582:
2560:
2545:
2529:German
2491:(2004)
2470:
2450:online
2439:online
2420:(1958)
2413:(1958)
2404:(1971)
2390:(2010)
2374:online
2356:online
2347:(1978)
2248:
2222:. In:
2195:28 May
2166:
2021:
1971:Hahn:
1524:Spain
1396:Italy
970:Hoesch
968:, the
900:Alfred
801:Minden
771:Mining
735:Wetter
588:, the
534:Berlin
497:Berlin
468:Barmen
384:Rheydt
282:or in
212:Aachen
194:, the
128:guilds
112:feudal
1685:1181
1644:1204
1641:1020
1601:1097
1391:1126
1307:1015
1221:1938
1218:1925
1215:1913
1212:1910
1209:1900
1206:1890
1203:1880
1200:1870
1197:1860
1194:1850
1191:1840
1188:1830
912:Düren
886:near
727:Essen
719:Franz
687:Fürth
642:Posen
626:Upper
448:craft
367:Baden
280:Hesse
228:brass
224:Düren
208:Eifel
177:linen
87:Lugau
2807:ISBN
2763:ISBN
2731:OCLC
2712:OCLC
2690:ISBN
2672:ISBN
2637:ISBN
2608:ISBN
2580:ISBN
2558:ISBN
2543:ISBN
2468:ISBN
2246:ISBN
2197:2021
2164:ISBN
2019:ISBN
1682:970
1679:965
1676:904
1673:881
1670:785
1667:680
1664:628
1661:558
1658:458
1655:394
1652:346
1638:964
1635:895
1632:785
1629:705
1626:676
1623:549
1620:480
1617:391
1614:315
1611:276
1598:765
1595:680
1592:593
1589:454
1586:356
1583:303
1580:246
1577:225
1574:211
1571:198
1568:194
1560:337
1557:426
1554:367
1551:370
1548:351
1545:321
1542:323
1539:329
1536:346
1533:313
1530:288
1527:263
1519:458
1516:232
1513:326
1510:287
1507:248
1504:182
1501:224
1498:250
1495:178
1492:175
1489:170
1486:170
1482:USSR
1475:920
1472:909
1469:754
1466:705
1463:614
1460:586
1457:542
1454:506
1451:452
1448:427
1445:382
1442:347
1432:551
1429:480
1426:441
1423:366
1420:335
1417:311
1414:311
1411:312
1408:301
1405:277
1402:270
1399:265
1388:712
1385:743
1382:705
1379:639
1376:537
1373:443
1370:426
1367:354
1364:308
1361:267
1358:245
1348:936
1345:893
1342:689
1339:680
1336:604
1333:515
1330:464
1327:437
1324:365
1321:333
1318:302
1315:264
1304:985
1301:894
1298:854
1295:721
1292:630
1289:589
1286:571
1283:490
1280:411
1277:345
1274:295
1258:498
1255:469
1252:414
1249:361
1246:315
1243:305
1240:288
1237:283
1234:266
1231:250
972:and
721:and
685:and
644:and
636:and
634:East
628:and
620:and
501:Ruhr
386:and
358:yarn
303:the
236:lead
234:and
232:zinc
222:and
130:and
98:and
2725:(=
2706:(=
1170:GNP
1113:).
608:or
402:).
278:of
2876::
2839::
2829::
2819::
2775::
2757::
2702::
2684::
2666::
2656::
2631::
2602::
2592::
2537::
2466:.
2462:.
2426:.
2187:.
2088::
2080:,
1264:–
1261:–
1042:,
1000:.
858:.
648:.
640:,
426:.
230:,
218:,
214:,
57:.
2769:.
2737:.
2718:.
2696:.
2643:.
2614:.
2586:.
2564:.
2549:.
2476:.
2441:;
2358:.
2199:.
2172:.
2027:.
1838:)
520:/
478:)
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