1565:
to allow free rotation of the cylinder even when it becomes fouled with powder residue, but not so large that excessive gas is released. The forcing cone - where the bullet is guided from the cylinder into the bore of the barrel - should be deep enough to force the bullet into the bore without significant deformation. Unlike rifles, where the threaded portion of the barrel is in the chamber, revolver barrels threads surround the breech end of the bore. It is possible that the bore is compressed when the barrel is screwed into the frame. Cutting a longer forcing cone can relieve this "choke" point, as can lapping of the barrel after it is fitted to the frame.
205:
470:
balls or rods burn smaller; thin flakes are "neutral-burning," since they burn on their flat surfaces until the flake is completely consumed. The longitudally perforated or multi-perforated cylinders used in large, long-barreled rifles or cannon are "progressive-burning;" the burning surface increases as the inside diameter of the holes enlarges, giving sustained burning and a long, continuous push on the projectile to produce higher velocity without increasing the peak pressure unduly. Progressive-burning powder compensates somewhat for the pressure drop as the projectile accelerates down the bore and increases the volume behind it.)
613:), the case is much larger than is needed to hold the maximum charge of high-density smokeless powder. This extra room allows the powder to shift in the case, piling up near the front or back of the case and potentially causing significant variations in burning rate, as powder near the rear of the case will ignite rapidly but powder near the front of the case will ignite later. This change has less impact with fast powders. Such high-capacity, low-density cartridges generally deliver best accuracy with the fastest appropriate powder, although this keeps the total energy low due to the sharp high-pressure peak.
258:
peak pressure, known as "Copper Units of
Pressure", or "CUP" for high pressure firearms. Similar standards were applied to firearms with lower peak pressures, typically common handguns, with test cylinder pellets made of more easily deformed lead cylinders, hence "Lead Units of Pressure", or "LUP". The measurement only indicated the maximum pressure that was reached at that point in the barrel. Piezoelectric strain gauges were introduced in the 1960's, allowing instantaneous pressures to be measured without destructive pressure ports. Instrumented projectiles were developed by the
501:), that use caseless rounds, they have met with little success. One other commercial rifle was the Daisy VL rifle made by the Daisy Air Rifle Co. and chambered for .22 caliber caseless ammunition that was ignited by a hot blast of compressed air from the lever used to compress a strong spring like for an air rifle. The caseless ammunition is of course not reloadable, since there is no casing left after firing the bullet, and the exposed propellant makes the rounds less durable. Also, the case in a standard cartridge serves as a seal, keeping gas from escaping the
1520:" the surface of the bullet. If the rifling is a constant twist, then the rifling rides in the grooves engraved in the bullet, and everything is secure and sealed. If the rifling has a decreasing twist, then the changing angle of the rifling in the engraved grooves of the bullet causes the rifling to become narrower than the grooves. This allows gas to blow by, and loosens the hold of the bullet on the barrel. An increasing twist, however, will make the rifling become wider than the grooves in the bullet, maintaining the seal. When a rifled-barrel
1544:. In some firearms, the freebore is zero as the act of chambering the cartridge forces the bullet into the rifling. This is common in low-powered rimfire target rifles. The placement of the bullet in the rifling ensures that the transition between cartridge and rifling is quick and stable. The downside is that the cartridge is firmly held in place, and attempting to extract the unfired round can be difficult, to the point of even pulling the bullet from the cartridge in extreme cases.
482:" incorporates propellant cast as a single solid grain with the priming compound placed in a hollow at the base and the bullet attached to the front. Since the single propellant grain is so large (most smokeless powders have grain sizes around 1 mm, but a caseless grain will be perhaps 7 mm diameter and 15 mm long), the relative burn rate must be much higher. To reach this rate of burning, caseless propellants often use moderated explosives, such as
1264:
1159:
986:
798:
640:
531:
25:
752:, sharp shoulders that do not feed as easily out of a magazine, and less reliable extraction of the spent round. For these reasons, when reliable feeding is more important than accuracy, such as with military rifles, longer cases with shallower shoulder angles are favored. There has been a long-term trend however, even among military weapons, towards shorter, fatter cases. The current
1391:
The disadvantage of the muzzle brake is a longer, heavier barrel, and a large increase in sound levels and flash behind the muzzle of the rifle. Shooting firearms without muzzle brakes and without hearing protection can eventually damage the operator's hearing; however, shooting rifles with muzzle brakes - with or without hearing protection - causes permanent ear damage. (See
1349:, and so they lose energy more quickly after exiting the barrel. In general, most handguns use bullets between .355 (9 mm) and .45 (11.5 mm) caliber, while most rifles generally range from .223 (5.56 mm) to .32 (8 mm) caliber. There are many exceptions, of course, but bullets in the given ranges provide the best general-purpose performance.
1047:
972:. Changes in bullet mass, therefore, have a huge impact on the pressure curves of smokeless powder cartridges, unlike black-powder cartridges. The loading or reloading of smokeless cartridges thus requires high-precision equipment, and carefully measured tables of load data for given cartridges, powders, and bullet weights.
1141:
bullet movement increases reaction volume. Conversely, propellants designed for a minimum heat transfer pressure may cease decomposition into gaseous reactants if bullet movement decreases pressure before a slow burning propellant has been consumed. Unburned propellant grains may remain in the barrel if the energy-releasing
1337:
diameter will increase the swept volume as the square of the diameter. Since barrel length is limited by practical concerns to about arm's length for a rifle and much shorter for a handgun, increasing bore diameter is the normal way to increase the efficiency of a cartridge. The limit to bore diameter is generally the
350:, and change the burning rate significantly. The burning rate of black powder is relatively insensitive to pressure, meaning it will burn quickly and predictably even without confinement, making it also suitable for use as a low explosive. It has a very slow decomposition rate, and therefore a very low
1423:
manufacturers as well as the
American gun manufacturer Kahr Arms. The companies that use polygonal rifling claim greater accuracy, lower friction, and less lead and/or copper buildup in the barrel. Traditional land and groove rifling is used in most competition firearms, however, so the advantages of
1328:
on the power stroke. There is a certain amount of high-pressure gas available, and energy is extracted from it by making the gas move a piston — in this case, the projectile is the piston. The swept volume of the piston determines how much energy can be extracted from the given gas. The more
469:
has been used in the form of rods, tubes, slotted-tube, perforated-cylinder or multi-tubular; the geometry being chosen to provide the required burning characteristics. (Round balls or rods, for example, are "degressive-burning" because their production of gas decreases with their surface area as the
224:
The breech and the barrel must resist the high-pressure gases without damage. Although the pressure initially rises to a high value, the pressure starts dropping when the projectile has traveled some distance down the barrel. Consequently, the muzzle end of the barrel does not need to be as strong as
1564:
The throat in a revolver is composed of two separate parts, the cylinder throat and the barrel throat. part of the cylinder and sized so that it is concentric to the chamber and very slightly over the bullet diameter. The cylinder gap - the space between the cylinder and barrel - must be wide enough
1390:
The high-powered firearms use the muzzle brake mainly for recoil reduction, which reduces the battering of the shooter by the severe recoil. The action-shooting handguns redirect all the energy up to counteract the rotation of the recoil, and make following shots faster by leaving the gun on target.
1228:
Since smokeless powders burn, not detonate, the reaction can only take place on the surface of the powder. Smokeless powders come in a variety of shapes, which serve to determine how fast they burn, and also how the burn rate changes as the powder burns. The simplest shape is a ball powder, which is
1219:
Another issue to consider, when choosing a powder burn rate, is the time the powder takes to completely burn vs. the time the bullet spends in the barrel. Looking carefully at the left graph, there is a change in the curve, at about 0.8 ms. This is the point at which the powder is completely burned,
216:
produces energy in the form of hot gases that raise the chamber pressure which applies a force on the base of the projectile, causing it to accelerate. The chamber pressure depends on the amount of propellant that has burned, the temperature of the gases, and the volume of the chamber. The burn rate
1560:
is the revolving cylinder, separate from the barrel, that contains the chambers. Revolvers typically have 5 to 10 chambers, and the first issue is ensuring consistency among the chambers, because if they aren't consistent then the point of impact will vary from chamber to chamber. The chambers must
1547:
With high-powered cartridges, a significant amount of force is required to engrave the bullet which can raise the pressure in the chamber above the maximum design pressure. Higher-powered rifles usually have a longer freebore so that the bullet is allowed to gain some momentum, allowing the and the
1512:
to cut out the constrictions. The slug is passed from breech to muzzle to remove obstructions. Many passes are made, and as the bore becomes more uniform, finer grades of abrasive compound are used. The final result is a barrel that is mirror-smooth, and with a consistent or slightly tapering bore.
1489:
To maintain a good pressure seal, the bore must be a precise constant diameter, or have a slight decrease in diameter from breech to muzzle. Any increase in bore diameter will allow the bullet to shift, allowing gas to leak past the bullet, decreasing velocity, or cause the bullet to tip so that it
1398:
Powder-to-projectile-weight ratio also touches on the subject of efficiency. In the case of the .22-250 Remington, more energy goes into propelling the powder gas than goes into propelling the bullet. The .22-250 pays for this by requiring a large case, with much powder, all for a fairly small gain
1070:
Energy is imparted to the bullet in a firearm by the pressure of gases produced by burning propellant. While higher pressures produce higher velocities, pressure duration is also important. Peak pressure may represent only a small fraction of the time the bullet is accelerating. The entire duration
257:
In the 1800s test barrels began to be instrumented. Holes were drilled in the barrel and fitted with standardized steel pistons which exerted pressure which compressed standardized copper cylinders when the firearm discharged. The reduction in the copper cylinder length is used as an indication of
1244:
powders. The last common shape is an extruded powder, which is in the form of a cylinder, sometimes hollow. Extruded powders generally have a lower ratio of nitroglycerin to nitrocellulose, and are often progressive burning — that is, they burn at a faster rate as they burn. Extruded powders
1224:
occurs earlier, and with the slower powder, it occurs later. Propellant that is unburned when the bullet reaches the muzzle is wasted — it adds no energy to the bullet, but it does add to the recoil and muzzle blast. For maximum power, the powder should burn until the bullet is just short of
908:
The bullet must tightly fit the bore to seal the high pressure of the burning gunpowder. This tight fit results in a large frictional force. The friction of the bullet in the bore does have a slight impact on the final velocity, but that is generally not much of a concern. Of greater concern is
604:
of the space in the cartridge case that is filled with powder. In general, loads close to 100% density (or even loads where seating the bullet in the case compresses the powder) ignite and burn more consistently than lower-density loads. In cartridges surviving from the black-powder era (examples
1378:
or recoil compensator is a device which redirects the powder gas at the muzzle, usually up and back. This acts like a rocket, pushing the muzzle down and forward. The forward push helps negate the feel of the projectile recoil by pulling the firearm forwards. The downward push, on the other hand,
620:
Most rifle cartridges have a high load density with the appropriate powders. Rifle cartridges tend to be bottlenecked, with a wide base narrowing down to a smaller diameter, to hold a light, high-velocity bullet. These cases are designed to hold a large charge of low-density powder, for an even
1362:
Another issue, when choosing or developing a cartridge, is the issue of recoil. The recoil is not just the reaction from the projectile being launched, but also from the powder gas, which will exit the barrel with a velocity even higher than that of the bullet. For handgun cartridges, with heavy
747:
hunting rounds require the greatest accuracy, so their cases tend to be short, fat, and nearly untapered with sharp shoulders on the case. Short, fat cases also allow short-action weapons to be made lighter and stronger for the same level of performance. The trade-off for this performance is fat
516:
To minimize the risk of cartridge cook-off, machineguns can be designed to fire from an open bolt, with the round not chambered until the trigger is pulled, and so there is no chance for the round to cook off before the operator is ready. Such weapons could use caseless ammunition effectively.
1140:
The heat transfer rate of smokeless propellants increases with pressure, resulting in the rate of gas generation from a given grain surface area increased at higher pressures. Accelerating gas generation from fast burning propellants may rapidly create a destructively high pressure spike before
1091:
is the ability to do work on an object. Work is force applied over a distance. The total energy imparted to a bullet is indicated by the area under a curve with the y-axis being force (i.e., the pressure exerted on the base of the bullet multiplied by the area of the base of the bullet) and the
1455:
that contains a negative image of the length of the rifled barrel. The barrel and mandrel are rotated and hammered by power hammers, which forms the inside of the barrel. This is the fastest and often cheapest method of making a barrel, but the equipment is expensive. Hammer-forged barrels are
1336:
To extract the maximum amount of energy, then, the swept volume is maximized. This can be done in one of two ways — increasing the length of the barrel or increasing the diameter of the projectile. Increasing the barrel length will increase the swept volume linearly, while increasing the
738:
When selecting a rifle cartridge for maximum accuracy, a short, fat cartridge with very little case taper may yield higher efficiency and more consistent velocity than a long, thin cartridge with a lot of case taper (part of the reason for a bottle-necked design). Given current trends towards
220:
As the projectile travels down the barrel, the volume the gas occupies behind the projectile increases. Some energy is lost in deforming the projectile and causing it to spin. There are also frictional losses between the projectile and the barrel. The projectile, as it travels down the barrel,
1092:
x-axis being distance. Increasing the energy of the bullet requires increasing the area under that curve, either by raising the pressure, or increasing the distance the bullet travels under pressure. Pressure is limited by the strength of the firearm, and duration is limited by barrel length.
940:. This reduces copper build-up in the bore, and results in better long-term accuracy. Large caliber projectiles also employ copper driving bands for rifled barrels for spin-stabilized projectiles; however, fin-stabilized projectiles fired from both rifle and smoothbore barrels, such as the
489:
The major advantages of a successful caseless round would be elimination of the need to extract and eject the spent cartridge case, permitting higher rates of fire and a simpler mechanism, and also reduced ammunition weight by eliminating the weight (and cost) of the brass or steel case.
621:
broader pressure curve than a magnum pistol cartridge. These cases require the use of a long rifle barrel to extract their full efficiency, although they are also chambered in rifle-like pistols (single-shot or bolt-action) with barrels of 10 to 15 inches (25 to 38 cm).
1353:
use the larger-diameter bullets for greater efficiency in short barrels, and tolerate the long-range velocity loss since handguns are seldom used for long-range shooting. Handguns designed for long-range shooting are generally closer to shortened rifles than to other handguns.
932:
that is soft enough not to wear on the barrel, but melts at a high enough temperature to reduce build-up in the bore. Copper build-up does begin to occur in rounds that exceed 760 m/s (2,500 ft/s), and a common solution is to impregnate the surface of the bullet with
1080:
730:, all of which were new designs built to use smokeless powder. All of these have a distinct shoulder that closely resembles modern cartridges, and with the exception of the Lebel they are still chambered in modern firearms even though the cartridges are over a century old.
709:
to extract the most energy possible in a given length barrel. There were a few cartridges that had long, shallow tapers, but these were generally an attempt to use an existing cartridge to fire a smaller bullet with a higher velocity and lower recoil. With the advent of
616:
Magnum pistol cartridges reverse this power/accuracy tradeoff by using lower-density, slower-burning powders that give high load density and a broad pressure curve. The downside is the increased recoil and muzzle blast from the high powder mass, and high muzzle pressure.
505:. Caseless arms must use a more complex self-sealing breech, which increases the design and manufacturing complexity. Another unpleasant problem, common to all rapid-firing arms but particularly problematic for those firing caseless rounds, is the problem of rounds "
1539:
Before the barrel can release the bullet in a consistent manner, it must grip the bullet in a consistent manner. The part of the barrel between where the bullet exits the cartridge, and engages the rifling, is called the "throat", and the length of the throat is the
1083:
This graph shows different pressure curves for powders with different burn rates. The leftmost graph is the same as the large graph above. The middle graph shows a powder with a 25% faster burn rate, and the rightmost graph shows a powder with a 20% slower burn
1229:
in the form of round or slightly flattened spheres. Ball powder has a comparatively small surface-area-to-volume ratio, so it burns comparatively slowly, and as it burns, its surface area decreases. This means as the powder burns, the burn rate slows down.
517:
Open-bolt designs are generally undesirable for anything but machine guns; the mass of the bolt moving forward causes the gun to lurch in reaction, which significantly reduces the accuracy of the gun, which is generally not an issue for machinegun fire.
917:. This lead build-up constricts the bore, increasing the pressure and decreasing the accuracy of subsequent rounds, and is difficult to scrub out without damaging the bore. Rounds, used at velocities up to 460 m/s (1,500 ft/s), can use
1513:
The hand-lapping technique uses a wooden or soft metal rod to pull or push the slug through the bore, while the newer fire-lapping technique uses specially loaded, low-power cartridges to push abrasive-covered soft-lead bullets down the barrel.
1105:. Smokeless propellant reactions occur in a series of zones or phases as the reaction proceeds from the surface into the solid. The deepest portion of the solid experiencing heat transfer melts and begins phase transition from solid to gas in a
1466:(ECM) processes use electricity to erode away material, a process which produces a highly consistent diameter and very smooth finish, with less stress than other rifling methods. EDM is very costly and primarily used in large bore, long barrel
1527:
The muzzle of the barrel is the last thing to touch the bullet before it goes into ballistic flight, and as such has the greatest potential to disrupt the bullet's flight. The muzzle must allow the gas to escape the barrel symmetrically; any
776:, reducing the amount of propellant that can be used, directly reducing the bullet weight and muzzle velocity combination that contributes to lethality, (as detailed in the published cartridge specifications linked herein for comparison). The
1100:
Propellants are matched to firearm strength, chamber volume and barrel length; and bullet material, weight and dimensions. The rate of gas generation is proportional to the surface area of burning propellant grains in accordance with
454:), and the nitroglycerin gelatinises the nitrocellulose and increases the energy. Double-base powders burn faster than single-base powders of the same shape, though not as cleanly, and burn rate increases with nitroglycerin content.
1407:
Nearly all small bore firearms, with the exception of shotguns, have rifled barrels. The rifling imparts a spin on the bullet, which keeps it from tumbling in flight. The rifling is usually in the form of sharp edged grooves cut as
1548:
chamber pressure to drop slightly before the bullet engages the rifling. However, any slight misalignment can cause the bullet to tip as it engages the rifling, resulting in the bullet does not entering the barrel coaxially.
700:
Straight walled cases were the standard from the beginnings of cartridge arms. With the low burning speed of black powder, the best efficiency was achieved with large, heavy bullets, so the bullet was the largest practical
1431:
A single point cutter is drawn down the bore by a machine that controls the rotation of the cutting head relative to the barrel. This is the slowest process, but requires the simplest equipment. It is often used by custom
879:
the bullet into the case. In straight-walled rimless cases, such as the .45 ACP, an aggressive crimp is not possible, since the case is held in the chamber by the mouth of the case, but sizing the case to allow a tight
1239:
Flake powders are in the form of flat, round flakes which have a relatively high surface-area-to-volume ratio. Flake powders have a nearly constant rate of burn, and are usually formulated as fast pistol or
1443:
with a negative image of the rifling cut on it which is drawn down the barrel while rotated, swaging the inside of the barrel. This creates all the grooves at once by deformation, and is faster than cut
409:, and change the burn rate significantly. Additives and coatings can be added to the propellant to further modify the burn rate. Normally, very fast powders are used for light-bullet or low-velocity
1236:
coating on the surface of the powder, which slows the initial burn rate and flattens out the rate of change. Ball powders are generally formulated as slow pistol powders, or fast rifle powders.
944:
anti-armor projectiles, employ nylon obturation rings that are sufficient to seal high pressure propellant gasses and also minimize in-bore friction, providing a small boost to muzzle velocity.
217:
of the propellant depends on the chemical make up and shape of the propellant grains. The temperature depends on the energy released and the heat loss to the sides of the barrel and chamber.
952:
In the first few centimeters of travel down the bore, the bullet reaches a significant percentage of its final velocity, even for high-capacity rifles, with slow burning powder. The
875:
of the bullet increases the volume and drops the pressure, a difference in friction can change the slope of the pressure curve. In general, a tight fit is desired, to the extent of
863:
Since the burning rate of smokeless powder varies directly with the pressure, the initial pressure buildup,(i.e. "the shot-start pressure"), has a significant effect on the final
884:
with the bullet, can give the desired result. In larger caliber firearms, the shot start pressure is often determined by the force required to initially engrave the projectile
896:
guns, which do not have rifling, achieve shot start pressure by initially driving the projectile into a "forcing cone" that provides resistance as it compresses the projectile
1888:
1066:
represents time, the vertical axis represents pressure (green line), bullet travel (red line), and bullet velocity (light blue line). The values shown at top are peak values
1367:, for example, might use 5 grains (320 mg) of powder, and a 115 grains (7.5 g) bullet), the powder recoil is not a significant force; for a rifle cartridge (a
1532:
will cause an uneven pressure on the base of the bullet, which will disrupt its flight. The muzzle end of the barrel is called the "crown", and it is usually either
714:, it was possible to generate far higher velocities by using a slow smokeless powder in a large volume case, pushing a small, light bullet. The odd, highly tapered
2090:
450:
can be added to nitrocellulose to form "double-base propellants". Nitrocellulose desensitizes nitroglycerin to prevent detonation in propellant-sized grains, (see
768:
family of rifles and carbines. Nevertheless, there is significantly more to accuracy and cartridge lethality than the length and diameter of the case, and the
1516:
Another issue that has an effect on the barrel's hold on the bullet is the rifling. When the bullet is fired, it is forced into the rifling, which cuts or "
1946:
1333:
pressure (in this case, the muzzle pressure). Any remaining pressure at the muzzle or at the end of the engine's power stroke represents lost energy.
250:
Internal ballistics was not scientifically based prior to the mid-1800s. Barrels and actions were built strong enough to survive a known overload (
1850:
1478:, allowing the bullet to accelerate to a consistent velocity. It must also impart the right spin, and release the bullet consistently, perfectly
784:
out of the AR-15 family of weapons, with only a slight decrease in muzzle velocity, perhaps providing a more advantageous performance tradeoff.
259:
238:
Burning rate - a function of the propellant surface area and an empirically derived burning rate coefficient which is unique to the propellant.
2119:
1987:
1871:
1818:
1685:
1600:
1285:
1180:
1007:
819:
661:
552:
42:
204:
2135:
228:
Mathematical models have been developed for these processes. The four general concepts which are calculated in interior ballistics are:
2012:
1633:, Engineering Design Handbook: Ballistics Series, United States Army Materiel Command, p. 1-2, AMCP 706-150, archived from
1311:
1206:
1033:
845:
687:
578:
108:
1833:
1371:, using 40 grains (2.6 g) of powder and a 40 grains (2.6 g) bullet), the powder can be the majority of the recoil force.
89:
867:, especially in large cartridges with very fast powders and relatively light weight projectiles. In small caliber firearms, the
1664:
1625:
61:
1701:
924:
on the bullet to reduce lead build-up. At velocities over 460 m/s (1,500 ft/s), nearly all bullets are jacketed in
1892:
1459:
1289:
1184:
1011:
823:
665:
556:
354:. It is not, in the strictest sense of the term, an explosive, but a "deflagrant", as it does not detonate but decomposes by
46:
718:, made by necking down an older 11 mm black-powder cartridge, was introduced in 1886, and it was soon followed by the
68:
740:
513:
heat from the chamber heating the round in the chamber to the point where it ignites, causing an unintentional discharge.
1774:
346:. It can be produced in a range of grain sizes. The size and shape of the grains can increase or decrease the relative
1387:
for rifle ammunition, and action-shooting handguns designed for accurate rapid fire, all benefit from muzzle brakes.
1274:
1169:
996:
808:
650:
541:
75:
280:) was drilled into the breech, into which a propellant was then poured, and an external flame or spark applied (see
1463:
1293:
1278:
1188:
1173:
1015:
1000:
827:
812:
669:
654:
560:
545:
35:
1917:
Interior
Ballistics of High Velocity Guns, Version 2, User's Guide, US Army Ballistics Research Laboratory, 1987
387:
rapidly when heat is applied. It also burns very cleanly, burning almost entirely to gaseous components at high
57:
1851:
Caseless
Ammunition Small Arms. The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly, (Schatz), NDIA Joint Armaments Conference 2012
1412:
along the axis of the bore, anywhere from 2 to 16 in number. The areas between the grooves are known as lands.
1809:
Kosanke, Bonnie J. (2002), "Selected
Pyrotechnic Publications of K. L. and B. J. Kosanke: 1998 Through 2000",
1953:
1590:
1561:
also align consistently with the barrel, so the bullet enters the barrel the same way from each chamber.
1379:
helps counteract the rotation imparted by the fact that most firearms have the barrel mounted above the
1221:
914:
502:
909:
the heat that is generated due to the friction. At velocities of about 300 m/s (980 ft/s),
705:. The large diameter allowed a short, stable bullet with high weight, and the maximum practical bore
2209:
2150:
1419:, gives the bore a polygonal cross section. Polygonal rifling is not very common, used by only a few
934:
293:
2204:
2199:
1706:, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD: Ballistic Research Laboratories, BRL Report No. 1183, archived from
1595:
1585:
1574:
1440:
1342:
1051:
871:
holding the bullet in the case, determines how soon after ignition the bullet moves, and since the
719:
479:
2166:
1722:
1384:
773:
757:
213:
82:
405:
propellants. The size and shape of the propellant grains can increase or decrease the relative
1730:, NATO Standardization Agreements (2 ed.), North Atlantic Treaty Organization, STANAG 7367
241:
Form function - a burning rate modifying coefficient that includes the shape of the propellant.
2115:
2008:
1983:
1867:
1814:
1681:
1521:
1509:
1475:
1470:
where traditional methods are very difficult, while ECM is used by some smaller barrel makers.
1416:
1380:
1368:
1338:
1125:
require energy initially provided by the primer and subsequently released in a luminous outer
769:
753:
727:
610:
339:
2174:
780:, on the other hand, is capable of firing a significantly heavier bullet (see link) than the
2158:
1798:
Development of a
Telemetry-Enabled High-G Projectile Carrier, Army Research Laboratory, 2012
1102:
881:
872:
723:
711:
438:
367:
297:
271:
1079:
197:
Ignition time - the time from when the primer is struck until the projectile starts to move
1134:
1063:
876:
743:
cartridges, it appears the ideal might be a case approaching spherical inside. Target and
442:
200:
Barrel time - the time from when the projectile starts to move until it exits the barrel.
2154:
1837:
1145:
cannot be sustained in the resultant absence of gaseous reactants from the inner zones.
2028:
1916:
1651:
1579:
1346:
1233:
372:
343:
289:
235:
Motion - the relation between the projectile acceleration and the pressure on its base.
1456:
generally not capable of the accuracy attainable with the first tow methods mentioned.
2193:
2162:
1634:
1325:
965:
961:
447:
2170:
1754:
1707:
1703:
The
Simulation of Interior Ballistic Performance of Guns by Digital Computer Program
1129:
where the simpler gas molecules react to form conventional combustion products like
1392:
1375:
953:
885:
498:
406:
384:
355:
347:
323:
179:
2105:, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD: United States Army Research Laboratory, ARL-TR-3671
960:, so even a projectile as light as 40 grains (2.6 g) can provide over 1,000
1483:
1330:
1263:
1158:
1114:
985:
797:
777:
761:
639:
530:
506:
388:
376:
327:
221:
compresses the air in front of it, which adds resistance to its forward motion.
24:
2081:
1797:
1536:
or recessed to protect it from bumps or scratches that might affect accuracy.
1505:" uses a lead "slug" that is slightly larger than the bore and covered in fine
1498:
to remove any constrictions in the bore which will cause a change in diameter.
1486:, so that no side of the bullet receives any more or less push than the rest.
1479:
1055:
897:
893:
715:
601:
494:
462:
430:
277:
251:
152:
148:
137:
133:
129:
178:-propelled projectiles, internal ballistics covers the period during which a
1529:
1517:
1451:
is a process in which a slightly oversized, bored barrel is placed around a
1109:. The gaseous propellant decomposes into simpler molecules in a surrounding
937:
921:
781:
510:
458:
380:
319:
314:
285:
281:
168:
1364:
1046:
262:
that measures the pressure at the base of the projectile and acceleration.
254:). Muzzle velocity was surmised from the distance the projectile traveled.
1665:
Elements of
Armament Engineering, Part Two, Ballistics, AMCP 706-107, 1963
1374:
There is a solution to the recoil issue, though it is not without cost. A
2127:
1557:
1541:
1506:
1433:
1383:. Overt combat guns, large-bore high-powered rifles, long-range handguns
868:
864:
749:
702:
606:
451:
351:
335:
156:
1502:
1495:
1491:
1452:
1409:
1350:
1241:
1062:
round, being fired from a 20-inch (510 mm) barrel. The horizontal
969:
957:
889:
597:
466:
434:
414:
401:, which can be formed into cylinders, tubes, balls, or flakes known as
398:
393:
1524:
is selected for a gun, the higher-twist end is located at the muzzle.
300:
that detonate after mechanical deformation, igniting the propellant.
276:
Methods of igniting the propellant evolved over time. A small hole (a
1862:
De Haas, Frank; Wayne Van Zwoll (2003). "Short
Stature, Long Range".
1467:
1420:
1088:
941:
925:
744:
706:
410:
331:
175:
164:
1932:. Grand Island, Nebraska: Hornady Manufacturing Company. p. 30.
1680:(Third ed.), Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Company, p. 396,
1533:
1448:
1130:
1078:
1045:
929:
765:
418:
203:
160:
194:
Lock time - the time from sear release until the primer is struck
1482:
to the bore. The residual pressure in the bore must be released
1059:
910:
1257:
1152:
1071:
of the bullet's travel through the barrel must be considered.
979:
918:
791:
633:
524:
483:
144:
18:
1724:
Thermodynamic
Interior Ballistic Model with Global Parameters
1345:). Larger-diameter bullets of the same weight have much more
493:
While there is at least one experimental military rifle (the
190:
Interior ballistics can be considered in three time periods:
1582:, for an early history of priming powder and percussion caps
421:
rounds, and slow powders for large-bore heavy rifle rounds.
2053:
1905:
1399:
in velocity and energy over other .22 caliber cartridges.
358:
due to its subsonic mechanism of flame-front propagation.
2184:
383:
fibers. It is a highly combustible fibrous material that
326:) is a finely ground, pressed and granulated mechanical
764:
cartridge designed to increase the performance of the
2103:
A Brief Journey Through the History of Gun Propulsion
2007:(First ed.). On Target Press. pp. 174–175.
1952:. Nevada Aerospace Science Associates. Archived from
1474:
The purpose of the barrel is to provide a consistent
1329:
volume that is swept by the piston, the lower is the
159:
and users of firearms of all types, from small-bore
1232:To some degree, this can be offset by the use of a
417:, medium-rate powders for magnum pistols and light
155:. The study of internal ballistics is important to
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2136:"Internal ballistics of a pneumatic potato cannon"
1395:for more on the disadvantages of muzzle brakes.)
1220:and no new gas is created. With a faster powder,
2112:Numerical Modeling of Explosives and Propellants
147:, internal ballistics covers the time from the
1775:Testing Firearms: Measuring Chamber Pressures
8:
2128:A (Very) Short Course in Internal Ballistics
1427:There are four methods of rifling a barrel:
1245:are generally medium to slow rifle powders.
2054:"FRAME SAVING RECOIL BUFFERS What they do."
1292:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1187:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1014:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
826:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
668:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
559:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
151:'s ignition until the projectile exits the
1982:. Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 45.
1436:as it can result in very accurate barrels.
739:shorter and fatter cases, such as the new
375:or "guncotton" is formed by the action of
1866:. Krause Publications. pp. 636–643.
1312:Learn how and when to remove this message
1207:Learn how and when to remove this message
1034:Learn how and when to remove this message
846:Learn how and when to remove this message
688:Learn how and when to remove this message
579:Learn how and when to remove this message
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
1700:Baer, Paul G.; Frankle (December 1962),
1494:with the bore. High quality barrels are
956:is on the order of tens of thousands of
362:Nitrocellulose (single-base propellants)
1930:Hornady Handbook of Cartridge Reloading
1611:
474:Solid propellants (caseless ammunition)
16:Study of the propulsion of a projectile
1941:
1939:
1755:"How Euler Did It, Cannon Ball Curves"
1619:
1617:
1615:
1358:Ratio of propellant to projectile mass
1601:Table of handgun and rifle cartridges
772:has a smaller case capacity than the
748:rounds which take up more space in a
7:
2096:from the original on October 7, 2012
1785:
1740:
1363:bullets and light powder charges (a
1290:adding citations to reliable sources
1185:adding citations to reliable sources
1012:adding citations to reliable sources
824:adding citations to reliable sources
726:military rounds, and the commercial
666:adding citations to reliable sources
557:adding citations to reliable sources
391:with little smoke or solid residue.
208:Diagram of internal ballistic phases
47:adding citations to reliable sources
1324:A firearm, in many ways, is like a
913:begins to melt, and deposit in the
232:Energy - released by the propellant
2101:Horst, Albert W. (November 2005),
14:
2134:Mungan, Carl E. (March 9, 2009),
2080:Gonzalez Jr., Joe Robert (1990),
1556:The defining characteristic of a
1501:A lapping process known as "fire
1403:Accuracy and bore characteristics
1254:Bore diameter and energy transfer
760:is a good example, as is the new
497:), and one commercial rifle (the
2083:Internal Ballistics Optimization
1864:Bolt Action Rifles - 4th Edition
1424:polygonal rifling are unproven.
1262:
1157:
984:
796:
638:
529:
23:
976:Pressure-velocity relationships
34:needs additional citations for
1460:Electrical discharge machining
509:". This problem is caused by
1:
2185:QuickLOAD Ballistics Software
1753:Ed Sandifer (December 2006).
888:into the start of the barrel
741:Winchester Super Short Magnum
1978:Russell, Michael S. (2009).
859:Static friction and ignition
734:Aspect ratio and consistency
592:Load density and consistency
2143:European Journal of Physics
2114:(3rd ed.), CRC Press,
1676:Hatcher, Julian S. (1962),
1627:Interior Ballistics of Guns
2228:
2163:10.1088/0143-0807/30/3/003
2110:Mader, Charles L. (2008),
2003:Alphin, Arthur B. (1996).
1980:The Chemistry of Fireworks
1889:"The Short Mag Revolution"
1652:"Definition of BALLISTICS"
1464:Electro chemical machining
756:case replacing the longer
428:
365:
312:
269:
1906:Cartridge Case Capacities
1552:Revolver-specific issues
292:were and self-contained
260:Army Research Laboratory
2089:, Thesis, AD-A225 791,
2029:"Making Airgun Barrels"
1947:"Propellant Properties"
1834:"Powder Burnrate Chart"
1811:Journal of Pyrotechnics
1591:Transitional ballistics
1490:is no longer perfectly
1341:of the projectile (see
1117:transformations in the
968:) of resistance due to
425:Double-base propellants
1928:Hornady, J.W. (1967).
1624:Army (February 1965),
1439:Button rifling uses a
1085:
1067:
630:Straight vs bottleneck
209:
132:, is the study of the
1721:NATO (May 22, 2000),
1082:
1049:
207:
182:is providing thrust.
58:"Internal ballistics"
2033:Quackenbush Air Guns
1286:improve this section
1181:improve this section
1008:improve this section
935:molybdenum disulfide
820:improve this section
788:Friction and inertia
662:improve this section
553:improve this section
397:nitrocellulose is a
43:improve this article
2155:2009EJPh...30..453M
1596:Physics of firearms
1586:Terminal ballistics
1575:External ballistics
1343:external ballistics
948:The role of inertia
480:Caseless ammunition
126:interior ballistics
122:Internal ballistics
1895:on March 16, 2010.
1887:Craig Boddington.
1678:Hatcher's Notebook
1640:on January 8, 2016
1149:Propellant burnout
1086:
1068:
774:.30-06 Springfield
758:.30-06 Springfield
214:firearm propellant
210:
2121:978-1-4200-5238-1
2005:Any Shot You Want
1989:978-0-85404-127-5
1873:978-0-87349-660-5
1820:978-1-889526-13-3
1743:, p. 2-3
1687:978-0-8117-0795-4
1417:polygonal rifling
1381:center of gravity
1369:.22-250 Remington
1339:sectional density
1322:
1321:
1314:
1217:
1216:
1209:
1096:Propellant design
1044:
1043:
1036:
856:
855:
848:
728:.30-30 Winchester
712:smokeless powders
698:
697:
690:
611:.45-70 Government
589:
588:
581:
521:Propellant charge
340:potassium nitrate
225:the chamber end.
128:), a subfield of
119:
118:
111:
93:
2217:
2181:
2179:
2173:, archived from
2140:
2124:
2106:
2097:
2095:
2088:
2068:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2050:
2044:
2043:
2041:
2039:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2000:
1994:
1993:
1975:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1964:
1958:
1951:
1943:
1934:
1933:
1925:
1919:
1914:
1908:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1891:. Archived from
1884:
1878:
1877:
1859:
1853:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1836:. Archived from
1830:
1824:
1823:
1806:
1800:
1795:
1789:
1783:
1777:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1759:
1750:
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1732:
1731:
1729:
1718:
1712:
1711:
1710:on April 8, 2013
1697:
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1673:
1667:
1662:
1656:
1655:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1639:
1632:
1621:
1415:Another system,
1317:
1310:
1306:
1303:
1297:
1266:
1258:
1249:General concerns
1212:
1205:
1201:
1198:
1192:
1161:
1153:
1039:
1032:
1028:
1025:
1019:
988:
980:
904:Kinetic friction
882:interference fit
851:
844:
840:
837:
831:
800:
792:
720:7.92×57mm Mauser
693:
686:
682:
679:
673:
642:
634:
584:
577:
573:
570:
564:
533:
525:
439:Smokeless powder
368:Smokeless powder
272:Primer (firearm)
186:General concepts
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
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2026:
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2015:
2002:
2001:
1997:
1990:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1962:
1960:
1959:on 26 July 2014
1956:
1949:
1945:
1944:
1937:
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1900:
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1298:
1283:
1267:
1256:
1251:
1213:
1202:
1196:
1193:
1178:
1162:
1151:
1135:carbon monoxide
1098:
1077:
1058:of the 5.56 mm
1040:
1029:
1023:
1020:
1005:
989:
978:
950:
928:, or a similar
906:
861:
852:
841:
835:
832:
817:
801:
790:
736:
694:
683:
677:
674:
659:
643:
632:
627:
594:
585:
574:
568:
565:
550:
534:
523:
476:
445:
443:Ball propellant
429:Main articles:
427:
370:
364:
317:
311:
306:
290:Percussion caps
274:
268:
266:Priming methods
248:
188:
167:, to high-tech
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2225:
2224:
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2212:
2207:
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2192:
2191:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2149:(3): 453–457,
2131:
2125:
2120:
2107:
2098:
2075:
2074:External links
2072:
2070:
2069:
2045:
2020:
2013:
1995:
1988:
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1854:
1843:
1840:on 2007-03-28.
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1580:Percussion cap
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770:7.62×51mm NATO
754:7.62×51mm NATO
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423:
373:Nitrocellulose
366:Main article:
363:
360:
344:sodium nitrate
313:Main article:
310:
307:
305:
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270:Main article:
267:
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2180:on 2013-03-16
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2014:0-9643683-1-5
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1487:
1485:
1484:symmetrically
1481:
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1327:
1326:piston engine
1316:
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1305:
1295:
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1287:
1281:
1280:
1276:
1271:This section
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1166:This section
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1108:
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1103:Piobert's Law
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1057:
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1038:
1035:
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993:This section
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805:This section
803:
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771:
767:
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759:
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751:
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724:7×57mm Mauser
721:
717:
713:
708:
704:
692:
689:
681:
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657:
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647:This section
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612:
608:
603:
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583:
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538:This section
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448:Nitroglycerin
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60: –
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54:Find sources:
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32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
2175:the original
2146:
2142:
2111:
2102:
2082:
2062:21 September
2060:. Retrieved
2057:NoRecoil.com
2056:
2048:
2038:21 September
2036:. Retrieved
2032:
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2004:
1998:
1979:
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1961:. Retrieved
1954:the original
1929:
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1893:the original
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1708:the original
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1635:the original
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1500:
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1397:
1393:muzzle brake
1389:
1376:muzzle brake
1373:
1361:
1335:
1323:
1308:
1299:
1284:Please help
1272:
1238:
1231:
1227:
1225:the muzzle.
1218:
1203:
1194:
1179:Please help
1167:
1142:
1139:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1110:
1106:
1099:
1087:
1075:Peak vs area
1069:
1030:
1021:
1006:Please help
994:
954:acceleration
951:
907:
886:driving band
862:
842:
833:
818:Please help
806:
737:
699:
684:
675:
660:Please help
648:
619:
615:
595:
575:
566:
551:Please help
539:
515:
499:Voere VEC-91
492:
488:
477:
456:
446:
407:surface area
402:
392:
389:temperatures
371:
356:deflagration
348:surface area
324:Black powder
318:
309:Black powder
275:
256:
249:
227:
223:
219:
212:The burning
211:
189:
180:rocket motor
173:
142:
125:
121:
120:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
2210:Handloading
1788:, chapter 4
1115:Endothermic
778:6.5 Grendel
762:6.5 Grendel
507:cooking off
495:H&K G11
403:single-base
394:Gelatinised
385:deflagrates
377:nitric acid
330:mixture of
328:pyrotechnic
304:Propellants
2205:Ammunition
2200:Ballistics
2194:Categories
2130:, Fr. Frog
1762:MAA Online
1607:References
1480:concentric
1143:flame zone
1127:flame zone
1056:simulation
1050:This is a
964:(220
922:lubricants
898:obturation
894:smoothbore
716:8 mm Lebel
602:percentage
463:Ballistite
431:Ballistite
294:cartridges
278:touch hole
252:Proof test
153:gun barrel
149:propellant
138:projectile
134:propulsion
130:ballistics
69:newspapers
1813:: 34–45,
1786:Army 1965
1741:Army 1965
1530:asymmetry
1462:(EDM) or
1434:gunsmiths
1385:chambered
1302:July 2014
1273:does not
1234:retardant
1197:July 2014
1168:does not
1123:fizz zone
1119:foam zone
1111:fizz zone
1107:foam zone
1024:July 2014
995:does not
958:gravities
938:lubricant
836:July 2014
807:does not
782:5.56 NATO
678:July 2014
649:does not
569:July 2014
540:does not
459:artillery
381:cellulose
320:Gunpowder
315:Gunpowder
286:flintlock
282:matchlock
169:artillery
157:designers
99:July 2014
2171:35147997
2091:archived
1569:See also
1558:revolver
1542:freebore
1518:engraves
1510:compound
1507:abrasive
1444:rifling.
1421:European
1351:Handguns
877:crimping
869:friction
865:velocity
750:magazine
703:diameter
607:.45 Colt
511:residual
452:dynamite
415:shotguns
352:brisance
336:charcoal
2151:Bibcode
1963:19 July
1534:beveled
1503:lapping
1492:coaxial
1453:mandrel
1449:forging
1447:Hammer
1410:helices
1331:exhaust
1294:removed
1279:sources
1242:shotgun
1222:burnout
1189:removed
1174:sources
1016:removed
1001:sources
970:inertia
962:newtons
890:rifling
828:removed
813:sources
670:removed
655:sources
625:Chamber
600:is the
598:density
561:removed
546:sources
467:Cordite
435:Cordite
411:pistols
399:plastic
298:primers
246:History
165:pistols
83:scholar
2169:
2118:
2011:
1986:
1870:
1817:
1684:
1496:lapped
1468:cannon
1365:9×19mm
1089:Energy
942:APFSDS
926:copper
900:ring.
873:motion
745:vermin
707:volume
605:being
503:breech
441:, and
338:, and
332:sulfur
176:rocket
161:rifles
124:(also
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
2178:(PDF)
2167:S2CID
2139:(PDF)
2094:(PDF)
2087:(PDF)
1957:(PDF)
1950:(PDF)
1758:(PDF)
1728:(PDF)
1638:(PDF)
1631:(PDF)
1522:blank
1131:steam
1084:rate.
1054:of a
1052:graph
930:alloy
766:AR-15
596:Load
419:rifle
296:have
136:of a
90:JSTOR
76:books
2116:ISBN
2064:2010
2040:2010
2009:ISBN
1984:ISBN
1965:2014
1868:ISBN
1815:ISBN
1682:ISBN
1476:seal
1347:drag
1277:any
1275:cite
1172:any
1170:cite
1133:and
1121:and
1064:axis
1060:NATO
999:any
997:cite
915:bore
911:lead
811:any
809:cite
722:and
653:any
651:cite
544:any
542:cite
486:.
413:and
284:and
174:For
163:and
145:guns
62:news
2159:doi
1441:die
1288:by
1183:by
1010:by
966:lbf
919:wax
822:by
664:by
555:by
484:RDX
465:or
457:In
379:on
342:or
288:).
143:In
45:by
2196::
2165:,
2157:,
2147:30
2145:,
2141:,
2031:.
1938:^
1760:.
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