206:
440:, named for the fact they have a "apical complex", used for gaining entry into the cell. The apicomplexan first moves on the cell looking for an ideal receptor. When the receptor is found, it re-orients itself so the apical complex points at the cell. It then secretes a number of proteins to form a
498:
Other intracellular parasites have developed different ways to enter a host cell that do not require a specific component or action from within the host cell. An example is intracellular parasites using a method called gliding motility. This is the use of an actin-myosin motor that is connected to
507:
The majority of intracellular parasites must keep host cells alive as long as possible while they are reproducing and growing. In order to grow, they need nutrients that might be scarce in their free form in the cell. To study the mechanism that intracellular parasites use to obtain nutrients,
48:
Facultative intracellular parasites are capable of living and reproducing in or outside of host cells. Obligate intracellular parasites, on the other hand, need a host cell to live and reproduce. Many of these types of cells require specialized host types, and invasion of host cells occurs in
466:
attaches to the target cell then increases the calcium concentration inside, disrupting the actin network and triggering the repair mechanism. Lysosomes are recruited to this disruption and release their contents to the extracellular side, as a way to replenish the plasma membrane.
422:
Bacteria are also generally small enough to be engulfed by endocytosis, which they trigger with adhesins. Unlike viruses, they can and often do manipulate the cell's behavior beforehand, by injecting effector proteins into the
407:
When an intracellular parasite goes to enter a host cell, it is particular about the type of host cell. This is because most intracellular parasites are able to infect only a few different cell types.
399:
is a rare metazoan (animal) intracellular parasite, distinct from most if not all other intracellular parasites for this reason. It lives inside the unfertilized egg cells (oocytes) of fish.
1680:
Price, C. T. D; Al-Quadan, T; Santic, M; Rosenshine, I; Abu Kwaik, Y (2011). "Host
Proteasomal Degradation Generates Amino Acids Essential for Intracellular Bacterial Growth".
205:
372:
Study of obligate pathogens is difficult because they cannot usually be reproduced outside the host. However, in 2009 scientists reported a technique allowing the
471:
take advantage of the excess membrane to form a vacuole in the host cell, gaining entry. Because this repair mechanism is universal to all cells with a nucleus,
746:
1276:"Antigen diversity in the parasitic bacterium Anaplasma phagocytophilum arises from selectively-represented, spatially clustered functional pseudogenes"
1062:
Sebghati TS, Engle JT, Goldman WE (November 2000). "Intracellular parasitism by
Histoplasma capsulatum: fungal virulence and calcium dependence".
646:
Leon-Sicairos, Nidia; Reyes-Cortes, Ruth; Guadrón-Llanos, Alma M.; Madueña-Molina, Jesús; Leon-Sicairos, Claudia; Canizalez-Román, Adrian (2015).
1385:
1740:
1341:
Deng, M.; Lancto, C. A.; Abrahamsen, M. S. (2004). "Cryptosporidium parvum regulation of human epithelial cell gene expression".
492:
Microsporidians, which are tiny protozoans related to fungi, seems to form "polar tubes" that poke into the target cell.
1639:
Horta, Maria Fátima; Andrade, Luciana
Oliveira; Martins-Duarte, Érica Santos; Castro-Gomes, Thiago (15 February 2020).
600:
Horta, Maria Fátima; Andrade, Luciana
Oliveira; Martins-Duarte, Érica Santos; Castro-Gomes, Thiago (15 February 2020).
834:
Jantsch, J.; Chikkaballi, D.; Hensel, M. (2011). "Cellular aspects of immunity to intracellular
Salmonella enterica".
162:
1446:
Omsland A, Cockrell DC, Howe D, Fischer ER, Virtaneva K, Sturdevant DE, Porcella SF, Heinzen RA (March 17, 2009).
753:
285:
1515:
192:
185:
1766:
510:
350:
316:
177:
83:
76:
1761:
244:
155:
1689:
1524:
1459:
1412:
1287:
1230:
1071:
366:
274:
260:
974:"Intracellular Staphylococcus aureus Modulates Host Central Carbon Metabolism To Activate Autophagy"
1376:
David
Anthony Burns; Stephen M. Breathnach; Neil H. Cox; Christopher E. M. Griffiths, eds. (2010).
1106:
535:
394:
362:
69:
1713:
1024:
859:
1573:
Leirião, Patrícia; Rodrigues, Cristina D; Albuquerque, Sónia S; Mota, Maria M (December 2004).
1736:
1705:
1662:
1612:
1594:
1552:
1487:
1428:
1381:
1358:
1323:
1305:
1256:
1199:
1181:
1142:
1087:
1044:
1005:
954:
913:
851:
816:
798:
728:
687:
669:
623:
489:. It is able to withstand the degradation process the cell carries out following phagocytosis.
448:
378:
334:
310:
211:
514:, a bacterial facultative intracellular parasite, has been used as a model. It is known that
1697:
1652:
1602:
1586:
1542:
1532:
1477:
1467:
1420:
1350:
1313:
1295:
1246:
1238:
1217:
Amann R, Springer N, Schönhuber W, Ludwig W, Schmid EN, Müller KD, Michel R (January 1997).
1189:
1173:
1132:
1122:
1079:
1036:
995:
985:
944:
903:
895:
843:
806:
790:
718:
677:
659:
613:
141:
105:
89:
459:
361:
in eukaryotic cells may also have originally been such parasites, but ended up forming a
1693:
1528:
1463:
1416:
1291:
1234:
1075:
1607:
1574:
1547:
1506:
1482:
1447:
1318:
1275:
1194:
1161:
1137:
1110:
1000:
973:
908:
883:
811:
778:
682:
647:
462:
repair. All nucleated cells use calcium concentration as a signal for membrane damage.
323:
27:
1251:
1219:"Obligate intracellular bacterial parasites of acanthamoebae related to Chlamydia spp"
1218:
1160:
Sterkel, Alana K.; Mettelman, Robert; Wüthrich, Marcel; Klein, Bruce S. (2015-02-15).
1111:"The outcome of Cryptococcus neoformans intracellular pathogenesis in human monocytes"
426:
Protists are generally too big to enter through endocytosis; they use alternate ways.
1755:
1717:
1424:
847:
437:
411:
Viruses use a number of host receptors to gain entry to the cell, usually by causing
268:
227:
120:
23:
863:
1403:
486:
358:
299:
223:
1242:
1083:
1025:"The capsule of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and its implications for pathogenicity"
1354:
1300:
1274:
Foley, Janet E.; Nieto, Nathan C.; Barbet, Anthony; Foley, Patrick (2009-12-15).
1731:
Bannister, Barbara A.; Gillespie, Stephen H.; Jones, Jane (2006). "Chapter 22".
899:
547:
523:
416:
412:
386:
culture and suggested the technique may be useful for study of other pathogens.
949:
932:
648:"Strategies of Intracellular Pathogens for Obtaining Iron from the Environment"
45:
There are two main types of intracellular parasites: Facultative and
Obligate.
519:
454:
328:
304:
253:
113:
1598:
1590:
1505:
Evans N. M.; Lindner A.; Raikova E. V.; Collins A. G.; Cartwright P. (2008).
1309:
1185:
1177:
990:
933:"Isocitrate lyase of the facultative intracellular pathogen Rhodococcus equi"
802:
707:"Intracellular Pathogens: Host Immunity and Microbial Persistence Strategies"
673:
1701:
1537:
1472:
552:
279:
134:
1709:
1666:
1616:
1556:
1491:
1432:
1362:
1327:
1203:
1146:
1127:
1091:
1048:
1040:
1009:
958:
917:
855:
820:
732:
723:
706:
691:
627:
1260:
794:
664:
292:
148:
127:
98:
34:
1641:"Cell invasion by intracellular parasites – the many roads to infection"
602:"Cell invasion by intracellular parasites – the many roads to infection"
1657:
1640:
1162:"The unappreciated intracellular lifestyle of Blastomyces dermatitidis"
618:
601:
373:
222:
cannot reproduce outside their host cell, meaning that the parasite's
60:
are capable of living and reproducing either inside or outside cells.
383:
342:
1448:"Host cell-free growth of the Q fever bacterium Coxiella burnetii"
234:
204:
26:
that are capable of growing and reproducing inside the cells of a
526:
provides the parasite with its primary carbon and energy source.
931:
Kelly, B. G.; Wall, D. M.; Boland, C. A.; Meijer, W. G. (2002).
1575:"Survival of protozoan intracellular parasites in host cells"
215:, within their host cell. Transmission electron microscopy
1380:(8th ed.). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 28.
538:
are particularly susceptible to intracellular pathogens.
16:
Microparasite that can grow and reproduce in a host cell
1401:
Lynn Sagan (1967). "On the origin of mitosing cells".
571:
Only in animal study at initial stages of infection.
522:
degradation. Self-degradation of host proteins into
1507:"Phylogenetic placement of the enigmatic parasite,
1452:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences USA
580:Some sources say that it's parasite, but some not.
777:Dramsi, Shaynoor; Cossart, Pascale (2002-03-18).
240:Bacterial examples (that affect humans) include:
705:Thakur, A; Mikkelsen, H; Jungersen, G (2019).
8:
1735:. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 432.
882:Cossart, P.; Helenius, A. (1 August 2014).
499:the intracellular parasites' cytoskeleton.
888:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
1656:
1606:
1546:
1536:
1481:
1471:
1317:
1299:
1250:
1193:
1136:
1126:
999:
989:
948:
907:
877:
875:
873:
810:
722:
681:
663:
617:
475:is not picky about the target cell type.
1634:
1632:
1630:
1628:
1626:
592:
564:
345:examples (that affect humans) include:
295:examples (that affect humans) include:
1733:Infection: Microbiology and Management
1378:Rook's Textbook of Dermatology. Vol. 4
1343:International Journal for Parasitology
1223:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
237:are obligate intracellular parasites.
1568:
1566:
884:"Endocytosis of Viruses and Bacteria"
458:enter by subverting the pathways for
7:
1023:Daffé, M.; Etienne, G. (June 1999).
641:
639:
637:
518:obtains nutrients by promoting host
419:for more on this well-studied topic.
972:Bravo-Santano; et al. (2018).
58:Facultative intracellular parasites
14:
1105:Alvarez, M.; Burns, T.; Luo, Y.;
978:American Society for Microbiology
109:, specifically uropathogenic ones
848:10.1111/j.1600-065X.2010.00981.x
220:Obligate intracellular parasites
553:Pathogen evasion and resistance
444:, through which it gains entry.
711:Journal of Immunology Research
249:, and closely related species.
1:
1511:, within the Phylum Cnidaria"
1243:10.1128/AEM.63.1.115-121.1997
1084:10.1126/science.290.5495.1368
652:BioMed Research International
1425:10.1016/0022-5193(67)90079-3
1355:10.1016/j.ijpara.2003.10.001
1301:10.1371/journal.pone.0008265
63:Bacterial examples include:
900:10.1101/cshperspect.a016972
783:The Journal of Cell Biology
1785:
950:10.1099/00221287-148-3-793
163:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
1109:; Casadevall, A. (2009).
1029:Tubercle and Lung Disease
479:also uses this mechanism.
286:Anaplasma phagocytophilum
171:Fungal examples include:
1591:10.1038/sj.embor.7400299
1516:BMC Evolutionary Biology
1178:10.4049/jimmunol.1303089
991:10.1128/mSphere.00374-18
193:Blastomyces dermatitidis
166:(within the macrophages)
1702:10.1126/science.1212868
1645:Journal of Cell Science
1538:10.1186/1471-2148-8-139
1473:10.1073/pnas.0812074106
606:Journal of Cell Science
226:is entirely reliant on
186:Cryptococcus neoformans
30:. They are also called
20:Intracellular parasites
1128:10.1186/1471-2180-9-51
1041:10.1054/tuld.1998.0200
516:Legionella pneumophila
511:Legionella pneumophila
351:Pneumocystis jirovecii
317:Cryptosporidium parvum
216:
178:Histoplasma capsulatum
84:Listeria monocytogenes
77:Francisella tularensis
1509:Polypodium hydriforme
1166:Journal of Immunology
836:Immunological Reviews
795:10.1083/jcb.200202121
747:"Bartonella henselae"
208:
156:Staphylococcus aureus
724:10.1155/2019/1356540
367:endosymbiotic theory
275:Mycobacterium leprae
1694:2011Sci...334.1553P
1529:2008BMCEE...8..139E
1464:2009PNAS..106.4430O
1417:1967JThBi..14..225S
1292:2009PLoSO...4.8265F
1235:1997ApEnM..63..115A
1076:2000Sci...290.1368S
665:10.1155/2015/476534
536:T cell deficiencies
266:Certain species of
209:Two apicomplexans,
70:Bartonella henselae
1658:10.1242/jcs.232488
619:10.1242/jcs.232488
278:, that survive in
217:
1585:(12): 1142–1147.
1387:978-1-4051-6169-5
1070:(5495): 1368–72.
943:(Pt 3): 793–798.
779:"Listeriolysin O"
559:Explanatory notes
485:can also trigger
449:Trypanosoma cruzi
434:Toxoplasma gondii
379:Coxiella burnetii
335:Trypanosoma cruzi
311:Toxoplasma gondii
212:Toxoplasma gondii
1774:
1747:
1746:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1688:(6062): 1553–7.
1677:
1671:
1670:
1660:
1636:
1621:
1620:
1610:
1570:
1561:
1560:
1550:
1540:
1502:
1496:
1495:
1485:
1475:
1443:
1437:
1436:
1398:
1392:
1391:
1373:
1367:
1366:
1338:
1332:
1331:
1321:
1303:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1254:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1197:
1172:(4): 1796–1805.
1157:
1151:
1150:
1140:
1130:
1115:BMC Microbiology
1102:
1096:
1095:
1059:
1053:
1052:
1020:
1014:
1013:
1003:
993:
984:(4): e00374–18.
969:
963:
962:
952:
928:
922:
921:
911:
879:
868:
867:
831:
825:
824:
814:
774:
768:
767:
765:
764:
758:
752:. Archived from
751:
743:
737:
736:
726:
702:
696:
695:
685:
667:
643:
632:
631:
621:
597:
581:
578:
572:
569:
390:Unusual examples
142:Rhodococcus equi
106:Escherichia coli
49:different ways.
1784:
1783:
1777:
1776:
1775:
1773:
1772:
1771:
1752:
1751:
1750:
1743:
1730:
1729:
1725:
1679:
1678:
1674:
1638:
1637:
1624:
1572:
1571:
1564:
1504:
1503:
1499:
1445:
1444:
1440:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1388:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1340:
1339:
1335:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1159:
1158:
1154:
1107:Pirofski, L. A.
1104:
1103:
1099:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1022:
1021:
1017:
971:
970:
966:
930:
929:
925:
881:
880:
871:
833:
832:
828:
776:
775:
771:
762:
760:
756:
749:
745:
744:
740:
704:
703:
699:
645:
644:
635:
599:
598:
594:
590:
585:
584:
579:
575:
570:
566:
561:
544:
532:
505:
460:plasma membrane
442:moving junction
405:
392:
324:Trypanosomatids
203:
198:
169:
55:
43:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1782:
1781:
1778:
1770:
1769:
1764:
1754:
1753:
1749:
1748:
1741:
1723:
1672:
1622:
1562:
1497:
1458:(11): 4430–4.
1438:
1411:(3): 255–274.
1393:
1386:
1368:
1333:
1266:
1209:
1152:
1097:
1054:
1035:(3): 153–169.
1015:
964:
923:
894:(8): a016972.
869:
842:(1): 185–195.
826:
789:(6): 943–946.
769:
738:
697:
633:
591:
589:
586:
583:
582:
573:
563:
562:
560:
557:
556:
555:
550:
543:
540:
531:
530:Susceptibility
528:
504:
501:
496:
495:
494:
493:
490:
480:
445:
424:
420:
404:
401:
391:
388:
382:to grow in an
365:relationship (
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340:
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321:
290:
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250:
202:
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159:
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138:
131:
124:
117:
110:
102:
95:
87:
80:
73:
65:
54:
51:
42:
39:
24:microparasites
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1780:
1779:
1768:
1767:Endoparasites
1765:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1757:
1744:
1742:1-4051-2665-5
1738:
1734:
1727:
1724:
1719:
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1703:
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1695:
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1563:
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1397:
1394:
1389:
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1372:
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1348:
1344:
1337:
1334:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1286:(12): e8265.
1285:
1281:
1277:
1270:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1229:(1): 115–21.
1228:
1224:
1220:
1213:
1210:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
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1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1019:
1016:
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1007:
1002:
997:
992:
987:
983:
979:
975:
968:
965:
960:
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942:
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919:
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905:
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870:
865:
861:
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837:
830:
827:
822:
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813:
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804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
773:
770:
759:on 2020-11-01
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484:
481:
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461:
457:
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451:
450:
446:
443:
439:
438:apicomplexans
435:
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307:
306:
301:
300:Apicomplexans
298:
297:
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294:
288:
287:
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281:
277:
276:
271:
270:
269:Mycobacterium
265:
263:
262:
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247:
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228:intracellular
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717:: 1356540.
548:Myzocytosis
524:amino acids
520:proteasomal
417:viral entry
413:endocytosis
363:mutualistic
230:resources.
53:Facultative
1756:Categories
1523:(1): 139.
763:2018-01-20
588:References
483:Leishmania
477:Leishmania
455:Leishmania
430:Plasmodium
396:Polypodium
329:Leishmania
305:Plasmodium
280:phagocytes
254:Rickettsia
114:Legionella
91:Salmonella
1718:206537041
1599:1469-221X
1310:1932-6203
1186:1550-6606
803:0021-9525
674:2314-6133
503:Nutrition
376:pathogen
332:spp. and
293:Protozoan
246:Chlamydia
135:Neisseria
35:pathogens
1710:22096100
1667:32079731
1617:15577928
1557:18471296
1492:19246385
1433:11541392
1363:14711592
1328:20016821
1280:PLOS ONE
1204:25589071
1147:19265539
1092:11082066
1049:10656114
1010:30089650
959:11882714
918:25085912
864:19344119
856:21349094
821:11901162
733:31111075
692:26120582
658:: 1–17.
628:32079731
542:See also
473:T. cruzi
469:T. cruzi
464:T. cruzi
423:cytosol.
403:Invasion
272:such as
261:Coxiella
201:Obligate
149:Yersinia
128:Nocardia
99:Brucella
1690:Bibcode
1682:Science
1608:1299194
1548:2396633
1525:Bibcode
1483:2657411
1460:Bibcode
1413:Bibcode
1319:2789410
1288:Bibcode
1261:8979345
1231:Bibcode
1195:4373353
1138:2670303
1072:Bibcode
1064:Science
1001:6083095
909:4107984
812:2173465
683:4450229
374:Q-fever
235:viruses
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384:axenic
343:Fungal
308:spp.,
1714:S2CID
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860:S2CID
757:(PDF)
750:(PDF)
612:(4).
93:Typhi
41:Types
22:are
1737:ISBN
1706:PMID
1663:PMID
1613:PMID
1595:ISSN
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1382:ISBN
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1006:PMID
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817:PMID
799:ISSN
729:PMID
715:2019
688:PMID
670:ISSN
656:2015
624:PMID
452:and
436:are
432:and
357:The
314:and
233:All
28:host
1698:doi
1686:334
1653:doi
1649:133
1603:PMC
1587:doi
1543:PMC
1533:doi
1478:PMC
1468:doi
1456:106
1421:doi
1351:doi
1314:PMC
1296:doi
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1190:PMC
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1170:194
1133:PMC
1123:doi
1080:doi
1068:290
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904:PMC
896:doi
844:doi
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807:PMC
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678:PMC
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