1177:
391:
382:. These councils were to have 12 members for Jewish communities of 10,000 or fewer, and up to 24 members for larger Jewish communities. Jewish communities were to elect their own councils, and by the end of 1939 were to have selected an executive and assistant executive as well. Results were to be presented to the German city or county controlling officer for recognition. While theoretically democratic, in reality the councils were often determined by the occupiers. While the German occupiers only minimally involved themselves in the voting, those whom the Germans first chose often refused participation to avoid becoming exploited by the occupiers. As a rule, therefore, the traditional speaker of the community was named and elected, preserving the community continuity.
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measures and to win time. One way was to delay transfer and implementation of orders and to try playing conflicting demands of competing German interests against each other. They presented their efforts as indispensable for the
Germans in managing the Jewish community, in order to improve the resources of the Jews and to move the Germans to repeal collective punishments.
444:
cites Jewish survivor Baruch Milch stating "Judenrat became an instrument in the hand of the
Gestapo for extermination of the Jews... I do not know of a single instance when the Judenrat would help some Jew in a disinterested manner," though Piotrowski cautions that "Milch's is a particular account
413:
were foremost to report numbers of their Jewish populations, clear residences and turn them over, present workers for forced labour, confiscate valuables, and collect tribute and turn these over. Failure to comply would incur the risk of collective punishments or other measures. Later tasks of the
426:
attempted to establish replacement service institutions of their own. They tried to organize food distribution, aid stations, old age homes, orphanages and schools. At the same time, given their restricted circumstances and remaining options, they attempted to work against the occupier's forced
418:
included turning over community members for deportation. Ultimately, these policies and the cooperation of Jewish authorities led to massive Jewish deaths with few German casualties because of the minimal resistance. Once under Nazi control and checked for weapons, large numbers of Jews could
509:(German: Jüdische Ghetto-Polizei or Jüdischer Ordnungsdienst). They also attempted to manage the government services normally found in a city, such as those named above. However, the Germans requiring them to deliver community members for forced labor or deportation to
278:
In the beginning of April 1933, shortly after the
National Socialist government took power, a report by a German governmental commission on fighting the Jews was presented. This report recommended the creation of a recognized 'Association of Jews in Germany'
364:
and other influential people of their local Jewish community. Thus, enforcement of laws could be better facilitated by the German authorities by using established Jewish authority figures and personages, while undermining external influences.
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287:, a German People's Ward was then to assume responsibility of this group. As the leading Jewish organization, it was envisioned that this association would have a 25-member council called the
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were to serve as a means to enforce the occupation force's anti-Jewish regulations and laws in the western and central areas of Poland, and had no authority of their own. Ideally, a local
1138:
Dan
Michmann: 'On the Historical Interpretation of the Judenräte Issue: Between Intentionalism, Functionalism and the Integrationist Approach of the 1990s', in: Moshe Zimmermann (ed.),
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ultimately be easily murdered or enslaved. The sadness of the catastrophically large number of deaths because of this lack of resistance led to the saying "never again".
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This had, however, very limited positive results. The generally difficult situations presented often led to perceived unfair actions, such as personality preferences,
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781:
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Through these occupation measures, and the simultaneous prevention of government services, the Jewish communities suffered serious shortages. For this reason, early
306:. This illuminates the apparent intent to make the Jewish emancipation and assimilation invalid, and so return Jews to the status they held during the Medieval Era.
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135:
434:, and protectionism of a few over the rest of the community. Thus, the members of the community quickly became highly critical of, or even outright opposed their
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remains a controversial issue to this day. The view that Jewish councils collaborated in the
Holocaust has been challenged by Holocaust historians including
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Poland's
Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947 Tadeusz Piotrowski - 2007
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were responsible for the internal administration of ghettos, standing between the Nazi occupiers and their Jewish communities. In general, the
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Dan
Michman: 'Jewish "Headships" under Nazi Rule: The Evolution and Implementation of an Administrative Concept', in: Dan Michman:
468:; the Nazi extermination machine was alone responsible for the tragedy, and the Jews in the occupied territories, most especially
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On
Germans and Jews under the Nazi Regime. Essays by Three Generations of Historians. A Festschrift in Honor of Otto Dov Kulka
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found it likely that the commission, which considered the legal status and interactions of Jews and non-Jews before their
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Head of the Jewish
Community in Vienna Informs About the Intended Evacuation of Jews to Theresienstadt Concentration Camp
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Holocaust
Historiography, a Jewish Perspective. Conceptualizations, Terminology, Approaches and Fundamental Issues
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cooperated with the Germans (although, as discussed above, the extent of this collaboration remains debated).
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In any case, the Judenrat became an instrument in the hands of the Gestapo for the extermination of the Jews
2005:
950:
GLASS, JAMES M. (1 October 1999). "Two Models of Political Organization: Collaboration Versus Resistance".
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513:, placed them in the position of cooperating with the German occupiers. To resist such orders was to risk
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1970:
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472:, were far too powerless to prevent it." This remains a topic of considerable scholarly disagreement.
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1995:
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1914:
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Correspondence between JDC and representatives of Jewish community organizations located inside the
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The Nazis systematically sought to weaken the resistance potential and opportunities of the Jews of
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writes: "In the final analysis, the Judenräte had no influence on the frightful outcome of the
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771:
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233:). Jewish communities themselves had established councils for self-government as early as the
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Collection: Records of the American Joint Distribution Committee: Warsaw office, 1939–1941
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804:"The crime: Collaborating with the Nazis. The punishment: Excommunication from Judaism"
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682:. Yad Vashem The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. Archived from
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of a particular place and time... the behavior of Judenrat members was not uniform."
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283:), to which all Jews in Germany would be forced to associate. Appointed by the
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under the Nazi regime varied widely, often depending upon whether meant for
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275:(Reich's Association of the Jews in Germany) established on 4 July 1939.
17:
716:. Yad Vashem, The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority.
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across the occupied territories at local and sometimes national levels.
1025:
Judenrat. The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe under Nazi Occupation,
2696:
1128:, London/Portland, Or.: Vallentine Mitchell, 2003, pp. 159–175.
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Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation
658:
Judenrat: the Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe under Nazi Occupation
570:
458:
Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation
319:
265:, a city or a whole region. Jurisdiction over a whole country, as in
1157:
Documents about the Judenrat in the Ghetto Terezín (Theresienstadt)
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with an introduction by Jacob Robinson. New York: Macmillan, 1972.
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An Exploration of the Dynamics of Collaboration and Non-resistance
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The question of whether participation in the Judenrat constituted
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245:(קהילה), whereas the German authorities generally used the term
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1084:"Unser Einziger Weg ist Arbeit." Das Ghetto in Lodz 1940–1944.
608:, existed in 1944–1945, during the German occupation of Hungary
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Das Problemm der Judenraete und Adam Czerniaks Anstaendigkeit.
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represented the elite from their Jewish communities. Often, a
196:
31:
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Instanzen der Ohnmacht. Wien 1938–1945. Der Weg zum Judenrat.
1050:
Jewish Leadership in Occupied Poland. Postures and Attitudes
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Gedaechtniszeiten. Ueber Juedische und Andere Geschichten.
836:
Survivors and Exiles: Yiddish Culture after the Holocaust
372:
were established on 18 November 1939, upon the orders of
149:, where the Jewish population was in the majority before
1080:
Jenseits der Vorstellbaren- Der "Judenrat" als Situation
591:, a resistance organisation formed by members of the
291:. However, the report was not officially acted upon.
225:, they were known as the "Jewish Council of Elders" (
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217:in Eastern Europe where in some cases, such as the
62:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
460:. Summarizing Trunk's research, Holocaust scholar
394:Applying for identification and work permits from
1039:Select Bibliography on Judenraete under Nazi Rule
505:had a group for internal security and control, a
302:, reached back to the Medieval Era for the term
2354:Civilians targeted during anti-partisan warfare
345:, and later in the occupied territories of the
27:"Jewish councils" in Nazi-occupied territories
2714:Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law
1202:
839:. Wayne State University Press. p. 119.
8:
237:. The Jewish community used the Hebrew term
187:) was an administrative body established in
2413:List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust
741:Gilbert, A History of the Holocaust, (2000)
649:
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341:'s orders on 21 September 1939, during the
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272:Reichsvereinigung der Juden in Deutschland
253:Nazi considerations of Jewish legal status
1082:. In: Hanno Loewy, Gerhard Schoenberner:
917:. Harvard University Press. p. 135.
122:Learn how and when to remove this message
313:
705:Josef Israel Loewenherz (1 June 1942).
643:
624:
582:, head of the Council of Elders in the
1114:Juedischer Verlag bei Suhrkamp, 2000,
318:The building of the Jewish Council in
931:from the original on 24 November 2023
892:from the original on 24 November 2023
853:from the original on 24 November 2023
784:from the original on 24 November 2023
166:
7:
2001:Reich Association of Jews in Germany
770:. U of Nebraska Press. p. 572.
203:. The Germans required Jews to form
60:adding citations to reliable sources
2806:Armenian genocide and the Holocaust
1001:from the original on 2 October 2013
878:. E. Mellen Press. p. 95, 99.
1144:The Hebrew University Magnes Press
520:In a number of cases, such as the
257:The structure and missions of the
25:
814:from the original on 29 June 2020
723:from the original on 18 July 2013
2369:Polish leaders and intellectuals
1859:Concentration Camps Inspectorate
914:The Holocaust and the historians
281:Verband der Juden in Deutschland
36:
764:Isaiah Trunk (1 January 1996).
199:community in dealings with the
195:which purported to represent a
47:needs additional citations for
2297:Attack on the twentieth convoy
2110:1941 pogroms in eastern Poland
450:collaboration with the Germans
1:
952:American Behavioral Scientist
2634:Jewish war conspiracy theory
1825:Extermination through labour
997:. jewishvirtuallibrary.org.
680:"The Ghettos Theresienstadt"
396:Kraków Ghetto Jewish Council
213:were particularly common in
2816:Righteous Among the Nations
1502:Righteous Among the Nations
911:Lucy S. Dawidowicz (1981).
833:Jan Schwarz (15 May 2015).
2890:
2553:Ukrainian Auxiliary Police
2523:Lithuanian Security Police
2442:Reich Security Main Office
1409:Evidence and documentation
1146:, 2006), pp. 385–397.
606:Jewish councils in Hungary
569:, head of the Judenrat in
2769:Books and other resources
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2408:
2395:
2039:
2026:
1533:
1516:
1301:Bulgarian-occupied Greece
1224:
1159:in the collection of the
1067:Colloquium, Berlin, 1987
964:10.1177/00027649921955263
872:Stephen Gilliatt (2000).
580:Mordechai Chaim Rumkowski
2359:People with disabilities
2292:Aid and Rescue Committee
1065:Deutsche - Polen - Juden
589:Bratislava Working Group
343:German assault on Poland
2500:Order Police battalions
1027:Stein & Day, 1977,
2349:Soviet urban residents
1440:International response
1414:Contemporary knowledge
1166:9 January 2019 at the
575:German-occupied Poland
491:
398:
326:
324:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
294:The Israeli historian
189:German-occupied Europe
168:[ˈjuːdn̩ˌʁaːt]
153:
2874:Holocaust terminology
2796:Memorials and museums
2734:Reparations Agreement
2729:Holocaust restitution
2307:Le Chambon-sur-Lignon
1830:Human experimentation
1669:Auschwitz II-Birkenau
1063:inSt. Jersch-Wenzel:
707:"Yad Vashem Archives"
612:Theresienstadt Ghetto
484:Jewish police in the
483:
393:
317:
231:Ältestenrat der Juden
227:Jüdischer Ältestenrat
137:
1996:Jewish Ghetto Police
1865:Politische Abteilung
1760:Risiera di San Sabba
1621:Natzweiler-Struthof
1161:Jewish Museum Prague
993:Berenbaum, Michael.
532:cooperated with the
507:Jewish Ghetto Police
333:were established in
322:, burned during the
310:Occupied territories
269:, was maintained by
56:improve this article
2774:Days of remembrance
2687:Holocaust survivors
2682:Depopulated shtetls
2533:Rollkommando Hamann
2379:Jehovah's Witnesses
2197:Kamianets-Podilskyi
1259:Bohemia and Moravia
1180:4 June 2020 at the
1056:12/1977, s. 335-365
1045:10/1974, s. 277-294
686:on 25 December 2011
534:resistance movement
511:concentration camps
386:Missions and duties
2757:History and memory
2661:Forced euthanasia
2609:Nazi racial policy
2312:Danish underground
2159:Operation Reinhard
2154:Wannsee Conference
1110:Doron Rabinovici:
1054:Yad Vashem Studies
1043:Yad Vashem Studies
536:. In other cases,
492:
456:in his 1972 book,
442:Tadeusz Piotrowski
399:
379:Generalgouvernment
327:
154:
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2629:Hitler's prophecy
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924:978-0-674-40566-0
885:978-0-7734-7770-4
846:978-0-8143-3906-0
515:summary execution
462:Michael Berenbaum
339:Reinhard Heydrich
329:The first actual
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16:(Redirected from
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2869:Nazi terminology
2741:Holocaust denial
2719:Nuremberg trials
2709:Postwar violence
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2538:Special Brigades
2528:Nederlandsche SS
2495:Police Regiments
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1086:. Vienna 1990,
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1315:and colonies
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1218:The Holocaust
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1070:
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1059:Marian Fuks:
1058:
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1048:Aharon Weiss:
1047:
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1033:0-8128-2170-X
1030:
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1023:Isaiah Trunk:
1022:
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559:Warsaw Ghetto
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526:Łachwa ghetto
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151:the Holocaust
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126:
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73: –
72:
68:
67:Find sources:
61:
57:
51:
50:
45:This article
43:
39:
34:
33:
30:
19:
2851:
2826:Yizkor books
2487:
2434:
2179:
2127:in Lithuania
2087:
1986:
1985:
1870:
1863:
1852:
1786:
1764:
1745:
1726:
1709:
1492:by Catholics
1361:Soviet Union
1229:By territory
1142:(Jerusalem:
1139:
1125:
1111:
1097:
1083:
1079:
1075:, s. 229-239
1064:
1060:
1053:
1049:
1042:
1038:
1024:
1005:28 September
1003:. Retrieved
988:
955:
951:
945:
933:. Retrieved
913:
906:
894:. Retrieved
874:
867:
855:. Retrieved
835:
828:
816:. Retrieved
807:
798:
786:. Retrieved
766:
759:
751:
746:
737:
725:. Retrieved
713:
700:
688:. Retrieved
684:the original
674:
656:
632:
627:
592:
561:
537:
529:
522:Minsk ghetto
519:
502:
498:
494:
493:
457:
454:Isaiah Trunk
447:
440:
435:
429:
423:
421:
415:
410:
409:. The early
400:
377:
369:
367:
357:
353:
351:
347:Soviet Union
330:
328:
303:
300:emancipation
293:
288:
280:
277:
270:
267:Nazi Germany
258:
256:
246:
242:
238:
230:
226:
215:Nazi ghettos
210:
209:
204:
193:World War II
158:
157:
155:
138:
118:
112:January 2023
109:
99:
92:
85:
78:
66:
54:Please help
49:verification
46:
29:
2832:Never again
2663:(Action T4)
2589:Remembrance
2374:Homosexuals
2344:Soviet POWs
2272:Częstochowa
1820:Gas chamber
1631:Ravensbrück
1572:Gross-Rosen
1567:Flossenbürg
1450:Philippines
1382:Yugoslavia
1341:Netherlands
1269:Sudetenland
1100:Beck 2003,
1096:Dan Diner:
1078:Dan Diner:
690:12 December
584:Łódź Ghetto
567:Dov Lopatyn
296:Dan Michman
235:Middle Ages
219:Łódź Ghetto
2858:Categories
2821:Yad Vashem
2801:Uniqueness
2656:Nisko Plan
2429:Nazi Party
2237:Resistance
2207:Ninth Fort
2072:Vel' d'Hiv
1844:Nazi units
1782:Westerbork
1772:Amersfoort
1626:Neuengamme
1607:Mauthausen
1587:Kaiserwald
1557:Buchenwald
1336:Luxembourg
1037:V. Wahlen:
1018:Literature
995:"Judenrat"
754:page 73-74
667:080329428X
619:References
597:Bratislava
432:sycophancy
374:Hans Frank
143:Szydłowiec
82:newspapers
71:"Judenrat"
2779:Education
2674:Aftermath
2586:Aftermath
2548:Trawnikis
2472:Wehrmacht
2467:Waffen-SS
2267:Białystok
2095:Bucharest
2067:Marseille
1944:Elsewhere
1905:Białystok
1717:Breendonk
1694:Treblinka
1547:Auschwitz
1331:Lithuania
980:145068118
972:0002-7642
633:Judenräte
538:Judenräte
530:Judenräte
499:Judenräte
495:Judenräte
466:Holocaust
424:Judenräte
416:Judenräte
411:Judenräte
370:Judenräte
354:Judenräte
331:Judenräte
304:Judenräte
259:Judenräte
247:Judenräte
241:(קהל) or
221:, and in
211:Judenräte
205:Judenräte
18:Judenräte
2864:Judenrat
2764:Academia
2217:Piaśnica
2187:Babi Yar
2115:Jedwabne
2054:Roundups
1987:Judenrat
1951:Budapest
1722:Mechelen
1684:Majdanek
1641:Stutthof
1602:Majdanek
1497:by Poles
1455:Portugal
1433:Response
1424:Timeline
1402:Overview
1264:Slovakia
1251:Bulgaria
1178:Archived
1164:Archived
999:Archived
929:Archived
890:Archived
851:Archived
812:Archived
782:Archived
718:Archived
631:Plural:
601:Slovakia
593:Judenrat
562:Judenrat
544:See also
524:and the
503:Judenrat
436:Judenrat
368:Further
358:Judenrat
289:Judenrat
243:Kehillah
159:Judenrat
139:Judenrat
2791:Lessons
2227:Rumbula
2100:Dorohoi
2081:Pogroms
2033:Victims
1883:Ghettos
1815:Gas van
1803:Methods
1777:Schoorl
1755:Bolzano
1703:Transit
1689:Sobibor
1679:Chełmno
1646:Vaivara
1582:Hinzert
1527:ghettos
1480:Vatican
1386:Croatia
1376:Ukraine
1366:Belarus
1356:Romania
1308:Hungary
1291:Germany
1281:Estonia
1276:Denmark
1246:Belgium
1241:Austria
1236:Albania
935:28 June
896:28 June
857:28 June
818:28 June
808:Haaretz
788:28 June
727:1 April
476:Ghettos
403:Central
191:during
176:
164:German:
96:scholar
2697:Bricha
2463:(Orpo)
2336:Others
2322:Żegota
2284:Rescue
2262:Warsaw
2222:Ponary
2132:Kaunas
1935:Warsaw
1920:Lublin
1910:Kraków
1897:Poland
1741:Drancy
1674:Belzec
1651:Warsaw
1562:Dachau
1470:Turkey
1465:Sweden
1391:Serbia
1371:Russia
1351:Poland
1346:Norway
1326:Latvia
1296:Greece
1286:France
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2811:Humor
2784:Films
2481:Units
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1976:Vilna
1961:Minsk
1956:Kovno
1930:Radom
1794:Sereď
1611:Gusen
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1523:Camps
1460:Spain
1445:Japan
1319:Libya
1313:Italy
1052:, in
976:S2CID
721:(PDF)
710:(PDF)
239:Kahal
103:JSTOR
89:books
2702:List
2457:(SD)
2437:(SS)
2120:Lviv
2105:Iași
2045:Jews
1966:Riga
1925:Lwów
1915:Łódź
1887:list
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1130:ISBN
1116:ISBN
1102:ISBN
1088:ISBN
1069:ISBN
1029:ISBN
1007:2013
968:ISSN
937:2020
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898:2020
880:ISBN
859:2020
841:ISBN
820:2020
790:2020
772:ISBN
729:2015
692:2011
663:ISBN
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173:lit.
75:news
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960:doi
595:in
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